Lecture Slides

Chapter 7

Shafts and Shaft

Components

The McGraw-Hill Companies © 2012

Chapter Outline

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 Shaft Design

 Material Selection
 Geometric Layout
 Stress and strength
◦ Static strength
◦ Fatigue strength
 Deflection and rigidity
◦ Bending deflection
◦ Torsional deflection
◦ Slope at bearings and shaft-supported elements
◦ Shear deflection due to transverse loading of short shafts
 Vibration due to natural frequency

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 Shaft Materials

 Deflection primarily controlled by geometry, not material

 Stress controlled by geometry, not material
 Strength controlled by material property

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 Shaft Materials

 Shafts are commonly made from low carbon, CD or HR steel,

such as ANSI 1020–1050 steels.
 Fatigue properties don’t usually benefit much from high alloy
content and heat treatment.
 Surface hardening usually only used when the shaft is being
used as a bearing surface.

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 Shaft Materials

 Cold drawn steel typical for d < 3 in.

 HR steel common for larger sizes. Should be machined all over.
 Low production quantities
◦ Lathe machining is typical
◦ Minimum material removal may be design goal
 High production quantities
◦ Forming or casting is common
◦ Minimum material may be design goal

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 Shaft Layout

 Issues to consider for

shaft layout
◦ Axial layout of
components
◦ Supporting axial
loads
◦ Providing for torque
transmission
◦ Assembly and
Disassembly

Fig. 7-1

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Axial Layout of Components

Fig. 7-2
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 Supporting Axial Loads
 Axial loads must be supported through a bearing to the frame.
 Generally best for only one bearing to carry axial load to
shoulder
 Allows greater tolerances and prevents binding

Fig. 7-3
Fig. 7-4 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Providing for Torque Transmission

 Common means of transferring torque to shaft

◦ Keys
◦ Splines
◦ Setscrews
◦ Pins
◦ Press or shrink fits
◦ Tapered fits
 Keys are one of the most effective
◦ Slip fit of component onto shaft for easy assembly
◦ Positive angular orientation of component
◦ Can design key to be weakest link to fail in case of overload

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Assembly and Disassembly

Fig. 7-5

Fig. 7-6
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Assembly and Disassembly

Fig. 7-7

Fig. 7-8
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 Shaft Design for Stress
 Stresses are only evaluated at critical locations
 Critical locations are usually
◦ On the outer surface
◦ Where the bending moment is large
◦ Where the torque is present
◦ Where stress concentrations exist

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 Shaft Stresses

 Standard stress equations can be customized for shafts for

convenience
 Axial loads are generally small and constant, so will be ignored
in this section
 Standard alternating and midrange stresses

 Customized for round shafts

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 Shaft Stresses

 Combine stresses into von Mises stresses

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 Shaft Stresses

 Substitute von Mises stresses into failure criteria equation. For

example, using modified Goodman line,

 Solving for d is convenient for design purposes

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 Shaft Stresses

 Similar approach can be taken with any of the fatigue failure

criteria
 Equations are referred to by referencing both the Distortion
Energy method of combining stresses and the fatigue failure
locus name. For example, DE-Goodman, DE-Gerber, etc.
 In analysis situation, can either use these customized equations
for factor of safety, or can use standard approach from Ch. 6.
 In design situation, customized equations for d are much more
convenient.

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 Shaft Stresses

 DE-Gerber

where

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 Shaft Stresses
 DE-ASME Elliptic

 DE-Soderberg

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 Shaft Stresses for Rotating Shaft

 For rotating shaft with steady bending and torsion

◦ Bending stress is completely reversed, since a stress element
on the surface cycles from equal tension to compression
during each rotation
◦ Torsional stress is steady
◦ Previous equations simplify with Mm and Ta equal to 0

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 Checking for Yielding in Shafts
 Always necessary to consider static failure, even in fatigue
situation
 Soderberg criteria inherently guards against yielding
 ASME-Elliptic criteria takes yielding into account, but is not
entirely conservative
 Gerber and modified Goodman criteria require specific check for
yielding

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 Checking for Yielding in Shafts
 Use von Mises maximum stress to check for yielding,

 Alternate simple check is to obtain conservative estimate of s'max

by summing s'a and s'm
s max
 s a  s m

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Example 7-1

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Example 7-1

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Example 7-1

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Example 7-1

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Example 7-1

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 Estimating Stress Concentrations

 Stress analysis for shafts is highly dependent on stress

concentrations.
 Stress concentrations depend on size specifications, which are
not known the first time through a design process.
 Standard shaft elements such as shoulders and keys have
standard proportions, making it possible to estimate stress
concentrations factors before determining actual sizes.

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Estimating Stress Concentrations

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 Reducing Stress Concentration at Shoulder Fillet

 Bearings often require relatively sharp fillet radius at shoulder

 If such a shoulder is the location of the critical stress, some
manufacturing techniques are available to reduce the stress
concentration
(a) Large radius undercut into shoulder
(b) Large radius relief groove into back of shoulder
(c) Large radius relief groove into small diameter of shaft

Fig. 7-9
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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

Fig. 7-10

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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Example 7-2

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 Deflection Considerations

 Deflection analysis at a single point of interest requires complete

geometry information for the entire shaft.
 For this reason, a common approach is to size critical locations
for stress, then fill in reasonable size estimates for other
locations, then perform deflection analysis.
 Deflection of the shaft, both linear and angular, should be
checked at gears and bearings.

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 Deflection Considerations

 Allowable deflections at components will depend on the

component manufacturer’s specifications.
 Typical ranges are given in Table 7–2

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 Deflection Considerations

 Deflection analysis is straightforward, but lengthy and tedious to

carry out manually.
 Each point of interest requires entirely new deflection analysis.
 Consequently, shaft deflection analysis is almost always done
with the assistance of software.
 Options include specialized shaft software, general beam
deflection software, and finite element analysis software.

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Example 7-3

Fig. 7-10
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Example 7-3

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Example 7-3
Fig. 7-11

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Example 7-3

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Example 7-3

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 Adjusting Diameters for Allowable Deflections

 If any deflection is larger than allowed, since I is proportional to

d4, a new diameter can be found from

 Similarly, for slopes,

 Determine the largest dnew/dold ratio, then multiply all diameters

by this ratio.
 The tight constraint will be just right, and the others will be
loose.

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Example 7-4

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 Angular Deflection of Shafts

 For stepped shaft with individual cylinder length li and torque Ti,
the angular deflection can be estimated from

 For constant torque throughout homogeneous material

 Experimental evidence shows that these equations slightly

underestimate the angular deflection.
 Torsional stiffness of a stepped shaft is

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 Critical Speeds for Shafts
 A shaft with mass has a critical speed at which its deflections
become unstable.
 Components attached to the shaft have an even lower critical
speed than the shaft.
 Designers should ensure that the lowest critical speed is at least
twice the operating speed.

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 Critical Speeds for Shafts
 For a simply supported shaft of uniform diameter, the first
critical speed is

 For an ensemble of attachments, Rayleigh’s method for lumped

masses gives

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 Critical Speeds for Shafts
 Eq. (7–23) can be applied to the shaft itself by partitioning the
shaft into segments.

Fig. 7–12
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 Critical Speeds for Shafts
 An influence coefficient is the transverse deflection at location I
due to a unit load at location j.
 From Table A–9–6 for a simply supported beam with a single
unit load

Fig. 7–13 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Critical Speeds for Shafts
 Taking for example a simply supported shaft with three loads, the
deflections corresponding to the location of each load is

 If the forces are due only to centrifugal force due to the shaft mass,

 Rearranging,

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 Critical Speeds for Shafts
 Non-trivial solutions to this set of simultaneous equations will
exist when its determinant equals zero.

 Expanding the determinant,

 Eq. (7–27) can be written in terms of its three roots as

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 Critical Speeds for Shafts
 Comparing Eqs. (7–27) and (7–28),

 Define wii as the critical speed if mi is acting alone.

From Eq. (7–29),
1
 mi ii
wii
2

 Thus, Eq. (7–29) can be rewritten as

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 Critical Speeds for Shafts
 Note that
 The first critical speed can be approximated from Eq. (7–30) as

 Extending this idea to an n-body shaft, we obtain Dunkerley’s

equation,

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 Critical Speeds for Shafts
 Since Dunkerley’s equation has loads appearing in the equation, it
follows that if each load could be placed at some convenient
location transformed into an equivalent load, then the critical speed
of an array of loads could be found by summing the equivalent
loads, all placed at a single convenient location.
 For the load at station 1, placed at the center of the span, the
equivalent load is found from

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 Example 7-5

Fig. 7–14 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 7-5

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Example 7-5

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Example 7-5

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 Example 7-5

Fig. 7–14 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 7-5

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Example 7-5

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 Setscrews
 Setscrews resist axial and rotational motion
 They apply a compressive force to create friction
 The tip of the set screw may also provide a slight penetration
 Various tips are available

Fig. 7–15
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 Setscrews
 Resistance to axial
motion of collar or
hub relative to shaft
is called holding
power
 Typical values listed
in Table 7–4 apply to
axial and torsional
resistance
 Typical factors of
safety are 1.5 to 2.0
for static, and 4 to 8
for dynamic loads
 Length should be
about half the shaft
diameter
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 Keys and Pins

 Used to secure
rotating elements and
to transmit torque

Fig. 7–16

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 Tapered Pins

 Taper pins are sized by diameter at large end

 Small end diameter is

 Table 7–5 shows some standard sizes in inches

Table 7–5 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Keys

 Keys come in
standard square
and rectangular
sizes
 Shaft diameter
determines key
size

Table 7–6 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Keys
 Failure of keys is by either direct shear or bearing stress
 Key length is designed to provide desired factor of safety
 Factor of safety should not be excessive, so the inexpensive key
is the weak link
 Key length is limited to hub length
 Key length should not exceed 1.5 times shaft diameter to avoid
problems from twisting
 Multiple keys may be used to carry greater torque, typically
oriented 90º from one another
 Stock key material is typically low carbon cold-rolled steel,
with dimensions slightly under the nominal dimensions to
easily fit end-milled keyway
 A setscrew is sometimes used with a key for axial positioning,
and to minimize rotational backlash
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 Gib-head Key

 Gib-head key is tapered so that when firmly driven it prevents

axial motion
 Head makes removal easy
 Projection of head may be hazardous

Fig. 7–17

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 Woodruff Key

 Woodruff keys have deeper penetration

 Useful for smaller shafts to prevent key from rolling
 When used near a shoulder, the keyway stress concentration
interferes less with shoulder than square keyway

Fig. 7–17

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Woodruff Key

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Woodruff Key

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 Stress Concentration Factors for Keys

 For keyseats cut by standard end-mill cutters, with a ratio of

r/d = 0.02, Peterson’s charts give
◦ Kt = 2.14 for bending
◦ Kt = 2.62 for torsion without the key in place
◦ Kt = 3.0 for torsion with the key in place
 Keeping the end of the keyseat at least a distance of d/10 from
the shoulder fillet will prevent the two stress concentrations
from combining.

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Example 7-6

Fig. 7–19

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Example 7-6

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Example 7-6

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 Retaining Rings
 Retaining rings are often used instead of a shoulder to provide
axial positioning

Fig. 7–18

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 Retaining Rings
 Retaining ring must seat well in bottom of groove to support
axial loads against the sides of the groove.
 This requires sharp radius in bottom of groove.
 Stress concentrations for flat-bottomed grooves are available in
Table A–15–16 and A–15–17.
 Typical stress concentration factors are high, around 5 for
bending and axial, and 3 for torsion

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 Limits and Fits

 Shaft diameters need to be sized to “fit” the shaft components

(e.g. gears, bearings, etc.)
 Need ease of assembly
 Need minimum slop
 May need to transmit torque through press fit
 Shaft design requires only nominal shaft diameters
 Precise dimensions, including tolerances, are necessary to
finalize design

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 Tolerances

 Close tolerances generally Fig. 1–2

increase cost
◦ Require additional
processing steps
◦ Require additional
inspection
◦ Require machines with
lower production rates

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 Standards for Limits and Fits

 Two standards for limits and fits in use in United States

◦ U.S. Customary (1967)
 Metric (1978)
 Metric version will be presented, with a set of inch conversions

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 Nomenclature for Cylindrical Fit
 Upper case letters
refer to hole
 Lower case letters
refer to shaft
 Basic size is the
nominal diameter and
is same for both parts,
D=d
 Tolerance is the
difference between
maximum and
minimum size
 Deviation is the
difference between a
size and the basic size Fig. 7–20
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 Tolerance Grade Number
 Tolerance is the difference between maximum and minimum size
 International tolerance grade numbers designate groups of
tolerances such that the tolerances for a particular IT number
have the same relative level of accuracy but vary depending on
the basic size
 IT grades range from IT0 to IT16, but only IT6 to IT11 are
generally needed
 Specifications for IT grades are listed in Table A–11 for metric
series and A–13 for inch series

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Tolerance Grades – Metric Series

Table A–11

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Tolerance Grades – Inch Series

Table A–13

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 Deviations

 Deviation is the algebraic difference between a size and the basic

size
 Upper deviation is the algebraic difference between the maximum
limit and the basic size
 Lower deviation is the algebraic difference between the minimum
limit and the basic size
 Fundamental deviation is either the upper or lower deviation that
is closer to the basic size
 Letter codes are used to designate a similar level of clearance or
interference for different basic sizes

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 Fundamental Deviation Letter Codes
 Shafts with clearance fits
◦ Letter codes c, d, f, g, and h
◦ Upper deviation = fundamental deviation
◦ Lower deviation = upper deviation – tolerance grade
 Shafts with transition or interference fits
◦ Letter codes k, n, p, s, and u
◦ Lower deviation = fundamental deviation
◦ Upper deviation = lower deviation + tolerance grade
 Hole
◦ The standard is a hole based standard, so letter code H is
always used for the hole
◦ Lower deviation = 0 (Therefore Dmin = 0)
◦ Upper deviation = tolerance grade
 Fundamental deviations for letter codes are shown in Table A–12
for metric series and A–14 for inch series
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Fundamental Deviations – Metric series

Table A–12 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Fundamental Deviations – Inch series

Table A–14
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 Specification of Fit

 A particular fit is specified by giving the basic size followed by

letter code and IT grades for hole and shaft.
 For example, a sliding fit of a nominally 32 mm diameter shaft
and hub would be specified as 32H7/g6
 This indicates
◦ 32 mm basic size
◦ hole with IT grade of 7 (look up tolerance DD in Table A–11)
◦ shaft with fundamental deviation specified by letter code g
(look up fundamental deviation F in Table A–12)
◦ shaft with IT grade of 6 (look up tolerance Dd in Table A–11)
 Appropriate letter codes and IT grades for common fits are given
in Table 7–9

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Description of Preferred Fits (Clearance)

Table 7–9

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Description of Preferred Fits (Transition & Interference)

Table 7–9

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 Procedure to Size for Specified Fit

 Select description of desired fit from Table 7–9.

 Obtain letter codes and IT grades from symbol for desired fit
from Table 7–9
 Use Table A–11 (metric) or A–13 (inch) with IT grade numbers
to obtain DD for hole and Dd for shaft
 Use Table A–12 (metric) or A–14 (inch) with shaft letter code to
obtain F for shaft
 For hole

 For shafts with clearance fits c, d, f, g, and h

 For shafts with interference fits k, n, p, s, and u

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Example 7-7

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Example 7-8

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 Stress in Interference Fits

 Interference fit generates pressure at interface

 Need to ensure stresses are acceptable
 Treat shaft as cylinder with uniform external pressure
 Treat hub as hollow cylinder with uniform internal pressure
 These situations were developed in Ch. 3 and will be adapted
here

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 Stress in Interference Fits

 The pressure at the interface, from Eq. (3–56) converted into

terms of diameters,

 If both members are of the same material,

  is diametral interference

 Taking into account the tolerances,

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 Stress in Interference Fits

 From Eqs. (3–58) and (3–59), with radii converted to diameters,

the tangential stresses at the interface are

 The radial stresses at the interface are simply

 The tangential and radial stresses are orthogonal and can be

combined using a failure theory

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 Torque Transmission from Interference Fit

 Estimate the torque that can be transmitted through interference

fit by friction analysis at interface

 Use the minimum interference to determine the minimum

pressure to find the maximum torque that the joint should be
expected to transmit.

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