Emotional crisis – They will usually suffer from stress, depression and lack of acceptance

and support from families.

o e it fin n e – Teenagers do not have full-time job to raise a baby. They may
struggle to support the basic expenses of the baby. This may lead to abandonment of babies.

Therefore, teenage pregnancy can be avoided by practicing abstinence. The best way to
prevent pregnancy is not to have sex. Abstinence means abstaining from intercourse. Know
the consequences of having sex such as unplanned pregnancies and sexual transmitted
diseases. Remember, it is your choice how to use your body. Do not let someone pressure
you into having sex.

Q1. In 1987, the first so–called test tube baby’ was born. ive a brief
description of this form of fertilization.

Q2. Name a birth control method for each of the following categories:
(a) Method that prevents sperms from reaching the egg

2.7 (b) Method that prevents ovulation

(c) Method that prevents implantation of the embryo

Q3. State the negative effects of teenage pregnancy.

Sterility Birth control

Research in human reproduction

Human
Reproduction

Male reproductive Female reproductive

system system

Puberty
Fertilization
Menstrual Pre-natal
and
cycle care
pregnancy
Changes in Changes in
boys girls

46 Science
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 e use of
What is th g?
the tea ba

3
Chapter

Mixtures
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• explain separation of mixtures by applying methods of

dry evaporation, crystallization, simple distillation, paper
chromatography and solvent extraction using empirical evidence.
• separate substances by dry evaporation, crystallization, simple
distillation, paper chromatography and solvent extraction.
• apply methods of separating substances to solve the problems
in daily life by integrating science, mathematics, technology and
engineering.
• design and conduct experiment to explain the results of solute,
solvent, and temperature that affect to solubility of matters. n
addition, explain the impacts of pressure on solubility of matter.
• indicate the uantity of solvent in solution concentration unit
volume per volume, mass per mass and mass per volume.
• recognize the importance and apply the knowledge of the
concentration of substances by giving an example, using solutions
in daily life properly and safely.
 3.1 Separating Mixtures
A mixture is made up of two or more than two
components that are mixed physically either by
stirring, shaking or dissolving. Each component in a
mixture retains its own chemical properties. However,
the physical properties of the mixture may be different
from the physical properties of the components such
as the boiling point, melting point, color and physical
state.

Examples of mixtures are sugar solution, salt water, smoke and marbles in water. However,
mixing of vinegar and baking soda does not produce a mixture. They react and produce
carbon dioxide and water. Mixing an acid and a base also does not produce a mixture also.

The components in a mixture can be separated by physical means because they are not
united by a chemical bond. In order to separate the components of a mixture, we need to
know the differences in the properties of the components. Then, we can choose a suitable
separation method to separate them.

There are some separation methods such as:

(a) evaporation (b) crystallization
(c) simple distillation (d) paper chromatography
(e) solvent extraction (f) steam distillation

Evaporation

Evaporation is the process of a substance in a liquid

state changing to its gaseous state due to an increase
in temperature. Evaporation is a way to separate a
soluble solid from a liquid. For example, salt is soluble
in water to form salt water. During evaporation, the
water evaporates away leaving the solid salt behind.

Evaporating
Salt water
dish
becomes Salt
Salt water
concentrated

We can get clean water from muddy water Plastic sheet

Marble
using a simple water still. A simple water still
can collect the water evaporated from muddy Drop of clean water
water with the heat from the Sun. Cup
Muddy water

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Crystallization

Crystallization is a method to obtain a pure solid from an impure solid. An impure solid is
dissolved in a liquid (solvent) to produce a solution. The solution is then heated up.

When most of the solvent is evaporated, the hot solution is left to cool down. The dissolved
solid will appear as pure crystals.

The impurities remain in the solvent. Then, the cold solvent is poured off to obtain the crystals.

Evaporating
dish
+
++
+++
++
++
Solvent Crystal
Impure Crystal
solid

Filtration followed by crystallization is often used to obtain pure salts such as copper(
copper(II)
sulfate. Sugar is obtained by this way too.

Simple distillation

Simple distillation is used to purify liquids with very different boiling points. In this process,
the mixture of liquids is heated up and the liquid with the lower boiling point evaporates and
escapes as a vapor. Remember that different liquids have different boiling points. At this
moment, the temperature of the vapor is constant.

Thermometer

Water out

Liebig condenser

Distillation flask

Water in
Bunsen burner
Distillate

The vapor is then cooled and condensed into its pure liquid which is called distillate. In the
lab, usually a Liebig condenser is used to condense the vapor.

If more than one liquid in a mixture of liquids is needed to be separated, fractional distillation
is used. Fractional distillation uses a fractionating column to separate the different liquids
with different boiling points. Crude oil is separated by this way.

Chapter 3 51
Mixtures
 Paper chromatography

Paper chromatography is usually used to separate the different colored components in

dyes or inks. It is often used in forensic science and food industry.

Chromatography paper
Cover
Colored
Beaker Colored components
components of black ink
Baseline of blue ink

Solvent

A drop of ink is placed onto the chromatography paper. Then, the paper is dipped into a
suitable solvent. The solvent travels up the paper.

The ink dissolves in the solvent and moves up with it. Different colored components travel at
different rate and get separated.

Therefore, the colored components will appear at different locations on the paper.

The movement of a component of an ink or dye during chromatography, relative to the

movement of the solvent, is measured by calculating its retention factor (Rf).

The Rf value of a component can be calculated using this formula:

Distance travelled by a component

Rf value =
Distance travelled by the solvent

Solvent front
10
9
8

Distance travelled
7

by solvent
6
5
4

Distance travelled by
3

component
2
0 cm 1

Baseline

5 cm
The Rf value of the above component of the dye =
10 cm
= 0.5

Calculating the Rf value allows scientists to identify unknown substances because it can be
compared with the Rf values of known substances under the same conditions. The Rf values
are always between 0 and 1.

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Solvent extraction

Solvent extraction is also known as liquid-liquid extraction. It involves the separation of two
or more components due to their unequal solubilities in two immiscible (not mixed) liquid
phases.

A solvent dissolving only that particular component that needs to be separated from the
mixture is used. Therefore, choosing the right solvent is important in order to dissolve that
particular component and it must not be miscible (able to mix freely) with the other solvent.

For example, in order to extract iodine from the mixture of salt and iodine in water,
tetrachloromethane is added. Water is immiscible with tetrachloromethane.

Salt in water (clear solution)

Iodin in tetrachloromethane
(purple solution)
Brown mixture of
salt and iodine in water

Salt does not dissolve in tetrachloromethane but iodine does. Therefore, a purple solution of
iodine in tetrachloromethane is formed.

These two solutions do not mix. By using a separating funnel, these two solutions can be
separated. The solvents are then evaporated off to obtain the salt and iodine separately.

Steam distillation

Steam distillation is used mainly to separate out components that are sensitive to high
temperatures and immiscible with water such as essential oils. These components decompose
at high temperatures. Steam distillation works similar to simple distillation. Simple distillation
requires direct heat to evaporate the contents. However, in steam distillation, steam is used
instead of direct heat.

Steam
Safety tube

Water outlet

Water
Mixture

Water
inlet

Distillate

The volatile component together with water is distilled out as the distillate. Upon settling, the
extracted component will float on the water and later is separated by filtering out the water
from below.

Chapter 3 53
Mixtures
 Q1. State six physical methods which can separate the components in a
mixture.

Q2. What separation method would you use to separate

(a) salt from salt solution,

3.1 (b) water from seawater,

(c) copper(II) sulfate crystals from copper(II) sulfate solution,
(d) blue dye from food dye,
(e) soy bean oil from a mixture, and
(f) caffeine from coffee drink.

3.2 Solutions
Solutions exist all around us. Oceans, rivers and even the mineral water that we drink are
solutions.

A solution is a homogeneous (uniform) mixture that is formed when a substance is dissolved

in another substance.

It does not settle upon standing and the substance particles are so small that they cannot be
filtered out. The substance that dissolves in another substance to form the solution is known
as the solute whereas the substance that dissolves the solute is known as the solvent.
Usually, the solvent is the substance that is present in the greatest amount.

Dissolves in a solvent
Solute Solution

For example, sugar water is a solution. It is prepared by dissolving sugar (solute) in water
(solvent).

Sugar
(solute)

Stir
Water Sugar water
(solvent) (solution)

Both the solute and solvent can exist in any of the three
states of matter, namely solid, liquid and gas. The common
solutions we encounter have solvents in liquid state and the
solutes either in solid, liquid or gaseous state. Some of the
examples are salt water, vinegar and carbonated drinks.

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Do you know that air is
a solution? It is a mixture
whereby both the solvent
and solutes are gases.
The air we breathe in is a good example of solution in which a gaseous
solvent (nitrogen) dissolves gaseous solutes such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Steel is a mixture of iron (solvent) and carbon
(solute). Brass is a mixture of copper (solvent) and zinc (solute). Steel
and brass are examples of solutions in which both the solvents and
solutes are solids.
Dilute, concentrated and saturated
solutions

Different proportions of solute to solvent give us solutions of different

concentrations.

(a) For example, a dilute salt solution can be prepared by stirring

We can dissolve more salt a spatula of salt in 100 cm3 of water. The solution tastes salty due
in a saturated salt solution to the dissolved salt in it.
by heating the mixture.
(b) If four spatulas of salt are used instead of one, a concentrated
solution would be produced. It would taste saltier than the dilute
solution. This shows that the concentrated solution has more
dissolved salt in it.

(c) To prepare a saturated salt solution

solution, more and more salt is
dissolved in the water until no salt can be dissolved any more.
The excess salt would settle at the bottom of the container. The
solution would taste very salty because it contains the maximum
amount of salt it can dissolve at that particular temperature.

The table below compares the dilute, concentrated and saturated solutions.

Dilute solution Concentrated solution Saturated solution

Excess
solute

• Has very little solute in it. • Has a lot of solute in it. • Has the maximum amount
of solute in it.
• Can dissolve a lot more • Can dissolve a little bit • Cannot dissolve any more
solute. more solute. solute.
• They are prepared by dissolving a solute in a solvent.
• They are homogeneous mixtures.

Chapter 3 55
Mixtures
 Solubility

A solvent can only dissolve a certain amount of solute. Solubility

gives us a measure of how much a solute can dissolve in a solvent.

Solubility is the maximum amount of solute in grams that will

dissolve in 100 g of solvent at a given temperature and pressure.

For example, the solubility of sodium chloride in water at a temperature of

20°C is 38 g per 100 g of water. This means that a maximum of
38 g of sodium chloride can dissolve in 100 g of water at 20°C. The
solution produced is a saturated solution.

The solubility of a solute depends on the

(a) nature of the solvent
(b) nature of the solute
(c) temperature
(d) pressure

Nature of the solvent

(a) Other than water, there are many more solvents such as
alcohol, ether and acetone.
(b) The solubility of a solute varies in different solvents. A solute
may be soluble in a particular solvent but insoluble in another
solvent. For examples,
(i) salt dissolves readily in water but not in solvents like
alcohol or ether,
(ii) iodine is almost insoluble in water but dissolves very well
in alcohol.

g of iodine g of iodine
+ +
water alcohol

Solvent extraction extracts a solute from the first solvent into a

The factors affecting
second solvent. For example in herbal extraction, leaves or roots solubility and rate of
are placed in a specific solvent. The substances that are soluble dissolution can be
found in this website.
in the solvent are dissolved. Later, the solution is evaporated to
obtain the substances.

56 Science
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 Nature of the solute
Different solutes have different solubilities in a given solvent. The table below shows the
solubility of a few solutes in water at 20°C.

Solute Solubility (grams per 100 g of water) at 20°C

Copper(II) sulfate 20

Potassium nitrate 30

Sodium chloride 38

Based on the above table, at 20°C, potassium nitrate is more soluble in water than copper
(II) sulfate. Among the three solutes, sodium chloride is most soluble in water.

Temperature of the solution or solvent

Generally, the solubility of solids in liquid solvent increases with temperature, but the
solubility of gases in liquid solvents decreases with temperature. For example, twice as
much sugar dissolves in hot water than in water at room temperature.

Pressure
For solid and liquid solutes, changes in pressure have no effect on the solubility. For
gaseous solutes, an increase in pressure increases the solubility and a decrease in
pressure decreases the solubility. Carbonated drinks are formed when carbon dioxide
is pressurized above the drinks in cans. When the pressure is released, the gas quickly
comes out of the drink.

Concentration of solutions

The concentration of a solution shows the quantity of a solute contained in a given amount
of a solvent. There are many ways to express the concentration of a solution. It is common
to do so in terms of percentages. There are three types of percentage concentrations used.

(a) Mass/mass percentage (m/m %)

The mass/mass percentage is calculated as the percentage of the mass of the solute
related to the total mass of the solution.

Mass of solute
Mass/mass percentage = × 100%
Total mass of solution

This type of concentration is commonly used in solutions with solid solutes.

Chapter 3 57
Mixtures
 Example 1
What is the mass/mass percentage of glucose in a solution made by dissolving 3.6 g
of glucose in 140.2 g of water?

Solution:
Mass of glucose = 3.6 g
Total mass of solution = 3.6 + 140.2
= 143.8 g
Mass of solute
Mass/mass percentage = × 100%
Total mass of solution
3.6
= × 100%
143.8
= 2.50%

(b) Volume/volume
olume/volume percentage (v/v %)
The volume/volume percentage is calculated as the percentage of the volume of the
solute related to the total volume of the solution.

Volume of solute
Volume/volume percentage = × 100%
Total volume of solution

This type of concentration is commonly used in solutions with liquid solutes especially
wines.
Example 2
How would you prepare 400 mll of a 50% (v/v) of rubbing ethanol?

Solution:
Total volume of solution = 400 ml
Total volume of solution
Volume of rubbing ethanol = Volume/volume percentage ×
100%
400
= 50 ×
100
= 200 ml
Dissolve 200 ml of rubbing ethanol in enough water to make a total of 400 ml of
solution.

(c) Mass/volume percentage (m/v %)

The mass/volume percentage is calculated as the percentage of the mass of the solute
related to the total volume of the solution.

Mass of solute
Mass/volume percentage = × 100%
Total volume of solution

This type of concentration is commonly used in solutions with solid solutes.

58 Science
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 Example 3

20 ml of a solution of sucrose contains 850 mg of sucrose. What is the weight/volume

percentage concentration of this solution in g/ml %?

Solution:
Mass of sucrose = 850 mg
= 0.85 g
Total volume of solution = 20 ml
Mass of solute
Mass/volume percentage = × 100%
Total volume of solution
0.85
= × 100%
20
= 4.25% (m/v)

Concentrations of solutions are important. For example, acids and alkalis have different
concentrations. Using the wrong concentration of acid or alkali in an experiment can cause a
rapid chemical reaction or even an explosion. The concentration of wine on its label gives us
an idea how strong the wine is. We may be arrested for drunk-driving if 100 mml of our blood
contains more than 50 mg of alcohol. By knowing the concentrations of solutions, we can
avoid wastage too.

Q1. Which are the solvent and solute when milk powder is added into a
glass of water to make a drink?

Q2. (a) State two differences between a dilute solution and a concentrated
solution.
(b) How do you make a dilute solution to become a concentrated
3.2 solution?

Q3. A solute has a solubility of 18 g per 100 ml of water at 25°C.

(a) What is the maximum mass of the solute that can dissolve in 50 ml
of water at 25°C? Is the solution prepared a dilute, concentrated or
saturated solution?
(b) How do you increase the solubility of the solute?

Q4. What is the concentration of sucrose in mass/mass percentage in a

solution made by dissolving 8.6 g of sucrose in 73.4 g of water?

Q5. How would you make 500ml of 40% (v/v) vinegar in water solution?

Chapter 3 59
Mixtures
 Different Solutes have
Crystals form Liquid with
Solvent in liquid components different Similar to simple
from the lower boiling
state turns into travel at solubilities distillation but
concentrated point
gaseous state different rates in in different using steam.
mixture evaporates first.
the solvent. solvents.

Simple Paper Solvent Steam

Evaporation Crystallization distillation chromatography extraction distillation

Separation methods

Mixtures

Solutions

Concentration
Types Solubility
units

factors
Volume/volume
percentage

Dilute Concentrated Saturated Nature of Temperature Mass/volume

solution solution solution solvent
percentage

Nature of Mass/mass
Pressure percentage
solute

60 Science
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 Fill in the blanks with the given words.

concentrated solution solubility solvent extraction

simple distillation mixture dilute steam distillation
percentages crystallization solvent paper chromatography
saturated evaporation Rf

1. A is made up of two or more components that are physically

mixed.

2. is the process of a substance in its liquid state changing into

its gaseous state below its boiling point.

3. Pure salts can usually be obtained from a mixture by .

4. is used to separate a liquid component from a liquid solution

due to their different boiling points.

5. The components in a dye are usually analyzed with .

6. The value is defined as the ratio of the distance moved by a

component and the distance moved by the solvent along the chromatography paper.

7. is a method for separating a component based on its relative

solubility in two immiscible liquids.
-
8. is generally used to separate - temperature-sensitive
components from a mixture due to their different boiling points.

9. is a homogeneous mixture that is formed when a solute

dissolves in a solvent.

10. A solution has very little solute in it.

11. A solution has more solute than a dilute solution.

12. A solution has the maximum amount of solute that dissolves in

the solvent.

13. is the maximum amount of solute in grams that can dissolve in

100 g of solvent at a given temperature and pressure.

14. The solubility of a solute is affected by temperature, nature of the

and solute, and pressure.

15. The concentration of a solution can be expressed in such as

volume/volume percentage, mass/mass percentage and mass/volume percentage.

Chapter 3 61
Mixtures
 A clean-up water project

Water is important because it is essential to living things on Earth. Humans can only live three
days without water, though it is possible to live weeks without food. However, sometimes our
water sources become polluted and require a clean-up. It is very important for us to have
clean water.
You and your team are required to design and construct a water filter that will remove
contaminants from dirty water using commonly available materials.

Guidelines:
1. Think about the contaminants you are trying to remove from the water. What materials
will work better? Is there a material that can remove all the contaminants together?
2. Why are you using certain materials in your filter? What contaminants will each of
them remove?
3. Why are you placing a particular material at the top, middle or bottom part of your
filter? Do you think the end result (how well the water is filtered) would change if the
order of the materials is switched?
4. How can we tell if the water has turned cleaner? What test should you use to find out
the successful rate of your filter?

What is your need?

Define/describe the problem to be solved and set your goal.

What do you have to know?

Research and cite sources of information your group used to gather.

What are your possible solutions?

Brainstorm for various solutions and choose the best one.

62 Science
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What is your plan?
Draw a detailed sketch of the prototype to be used including materials.

Build your prototype.

Follow your plan and build a prototype to make your ideas real!

How does it work?

Record observations related to the testing and evaluation.

Prepare your presentation.

Reflect on your design solutions.

Chapter 3 63
Mixtures
 1. Figure 1 shows a method to separate alcohol from the alcohol and water mixture.

Thermometer

Round
bottom
flask Liebig
condenser

Conical
flask
Alcohol

(a) What is this method known as?

(b) What is the process that takes place in the round bottom flask?

(c) What is the process that takes place in the Liebig condenser?

(d) Explain why the alcohol can be separated from the solution using this method.

(e) How does this method different from steam distillation?

2. (a) Define solubility of a substance.

(b) State the factors that affect the solubility of a substance.

(c) What will happen if a saturated solution of copper(II) sulfate at 50°C is cooled to
30°C?

3. The normal saline solution that is used to dissolve drugs for intravenous use is 0.92%
(m/v) salt in water. How many grams of salt are required to prepare 50.0 ml of normal
saline solution?

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