Other important considerations include:

Long life and reliability. Is the wireless device being deployed in an inaccessible
location where battery replacement is difficult or impossible, and loss of data is
unacceptable? Is the self-discharge rate of the battery approaching or greater than the
energy being consumed?

Miniaturization. Batteries with high capacity and high energy density enable a smaller
footprint. Use of higher-voltage batteries may enable the use of fewer cells.

Extended temperatures . Certain chemistries can withstand extreme environments.

Lifetime costs. To properly calculate cost of ownership you must factor in future battery
replacements, including the risk of battery failure.
Basic Design
In a supercapacitor, there is no dielectric between
plates; rather, there is an electrolyte and a thin
insulator such as cardboard or paper. When a
current is introduced to the supercapacitor, ions
build on either side of the insulator to generate a
double layer of charge. Supercapacitors are limited
to low voltages, but very high capacitance, as a
high voltage would break down the electrolyte.
 Difference between supercapacitor and batteries

Batteries and capacitors seem similar as they both store and release electrical energy. However,
there are crucial differences between them that impact their potential applications due to how
they function differently.

A capacitor (top) aligns the molecules of a dielectric

across an electric field to store energy. A supercapacitor
(bottom) aligns the charges of an electrolyte on either
side of an insulator to store a double-layer charge.
A capacitor consists of two or more conductive plates
separated by a dielectric. When an electric current enters
the capacitor, the dielectric stops the flow and a charge
builds up and is stored in an electric field between the
plates. Each capacitor is designed to have a particular
capacitance (energy storage). When a capacitor is
connected to an external circuit, a current will rapidly
discharge.
Components of supercapacitor
While batteries and capacitors have similarities, there are several key
differences.

The potential energy in a capacitor is stored in an electric field, where a battery stores its
potential energy in a chemical form.

The technology for chemical storage currently yields greater energy densities (capable of
storing more energy per weight) than capacitors.

However, when a battery is discharging it can be slower than a capacitor ability to discharge
because there is a potential associated with the chemical reaction to transfer the chemical
energy into electrical energy.

A capacitor is storing the electrical energy directly on the plates so discharging rate for
capacitors are directly related to the conduction capabilities of the capacitors plates. A
capacitor is able to discharge and charge faster than a battery because of this energy
 How to Choose an Industrial-Grade Battery

Batteries involve trade-offs, so it is important to prioritize. Common considerations include:

• The amount of current consumed in active mode (including the size, duration, and frequency
of pulses)

• Energy consumed in “stand-by” or “sleep” mode (the base current);

• Storage time (as normal self-discharge during storage diminishes capacity);

• Thermal environments (including storage and in-field operation);

• Equipment cut-off voltage (as battery capacity is exhausted, or in extreme temperatures,

voltage can drop too low for the sensor to operate);

• The annual self-discharge rate of the battery (which can approach the amount of current
drawn from actual use).
Characteristics features of a supercapacitor
•Stores high amount of energy.
•Have high capacitance.
•High rates of charge and discharge.
•Low toxicity.
•High cycle efficiency (95%)
DISADVANTAGES
•Low energy density.
•The voltage varies with the energy stored.
•Have high self-discharge rate.
•Requires expert electronic control.
•Cannot be used in AC and high frequency circuits.
•High cost.
Working of a battery
 LEAD ACID BATTERY
Definition: The battery which uses sponge lead and lead
peroxide for the conversion of the chemical energy into electrical
power, such type of battery is called a lead acid battery.
The lead acid battery is most commonly used in power stations
and substations because it has higher cell voltage and lower cost.
 Working Principle of Lead Acid
Battery
When the sulfuric acid dissolves, its molecules break up into
positive hydrogen ions (2H+) and sulfate negative ions (SO4—)
and move freely.
If the two electrodes are immersed in solutions and connected to
the DC supply then the hydrogen ions are positively charged and
moved towards the electrodes and connected to the negative
terminal of the supply.
The SO4— ions being negatively charged moved towards the
electrodes connected to the positive terminal of the supply main
(i.e., anode).
Each hydrogen ion takes one electron from the cathode, and each
sulfates ions takes the two negative ions from the anodes and
react with water and form sulphate and hydrogen ions.
If the DC source of supply is
disconnected and if the voltmeter
connects between the electrodes, it
will show the potential difference
between them. If wire connects the
electrodes, then current will flow from
the positive plate to the negative plate
through an external circuit i.e. the cell
is capable of supplying electrical
energy.
CONSTRUCTION OF LEAD ACID BATTERY
The various parts of the lead acid battery are shown below. The container
and the plates are the main part of the lead acid battery. The container
stores chemical energy which is converted into electrical energy by the
help of the plates.
1. Container – The container of the lead acid battery is made of glass, lead-
lined wood, ebonite, the hard rubber of bituminous compound, ceramic
materials, or molded plastics and is seated at the top to avoid the discharge
of electrolyte. At the bottom of the container, there are four ribs, on two of
them rest the positive plate and the others support the negative plates.
The material of which the battery containers are made should be resistant
to sulfuric acid, should not deform or porous, or contain impurities that
damage the electrolyte.
2. Plate – The plate of the lead-acid cell is of diverse design and they all
consist of some form of a grid which is made up of lead and the active
material. The grid is essential for conducting the electric current and for
distributing the current equally on the active material. If the current is not
uniformly distributed, then the active material will loosen and fall out.

The grids are made up of an alloy of lead and antimony. These are usually
made with the transverse rib that crosses the places at a right angle or
diagonally. The grid for the positive and negative plates are of the same
design, but the grids for the negative plates are made lighter because
they are not as essential for the uniform conduction of the current.
The plates of the battery are of two types. They are the formed plates or plate
plates and pasted or Faure plates.

Plante’s plates are used largely for stationary batteries as these are heavier in
weight and more costly than the pasted plates. But the plates are more durable
and less liable to losing active material by rapid charging and discharging. The
plate has a low capacity weight ratio.

The Faure process is much more suitable for manufacturing negative plates rather
than positive plates. The negative active material is quite tough, and it undergoes a
comparatively low change from charging and discharging.

3. Active Material – The material in a cell that takes active participation in a

chemical reaction (absorption or evolution of electrical energy) during charging or
discharging is called the active material of the cell. The active elements of the lead
acid are,
a)Lead oxide (PbO2) – It forms the positive active material. The PbO2 are dark in
color.
b)Sponge lead – Its forms the negative active material. It is grey in color.
c)Dilute Sulfuric Acid (H2SO 4) – It is used as an electrolyte. It contains 31% of
sulfuric acid.
The lead oxide and sponge lead, which form the negative and positive active
materials have little mechanical strength and therefore can be used alone.

4. Separators – The separators are thin sheets of non-conducting material

made up of chemically treated leadwood, porous rubbers, or mats of glass
fiber and are placed between the positive and negative to insulate them
from each other. Separators are grooved vertically on one side and are
smooth on the other side.

5. Battery Terminals – A battery has two terminals the positive and the
negative. The positive terminal with a diameter of 17.5 mm at the top is
slightly larger than the negative terminal which is 16 mm in diameter.
 Chemical Action During Discharging
When the cell is full discharge, then the anode is of
lead oxide (PbO2) and a cathode is of metallic
sponge lead (Pb). When the electrodes are
connected through a resistance, the cell discharge
and electrons flow in a direction opposite to that
during charging.
The hydrogen ions move to the anode and reach the
anodes receive one electron from the anode and
become hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen atom comes
in contact with a PbO2, so it attacks and forms lead
sulfate (PbSO4), whitish in color and water according
to the chemical equation.
Each sulfate ion (SO4—) moves towards the cathode
and reaching there gives up two electrons becomes
radical SO4, attack the metallic lead cathode and
form lead sulfate whitish in color according to the
chemical equation.
 Chemical Action During Recharging
For recharging, the anode and cathode are connected to the positive and the
negative terminal of the DC supply mains. The molecules of the sulfuric acid
break up into ions of 2H+ and SO4—. The hydrogen ions being positively charged
moved towards the cathodes and receive two electrons from there and form a
hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom reacts with lead sulphate cathode forming
lead and sulfuric acid according to the chemical equation.
SO4— ion moves to the anode, gives up its two additional electrons becomes
radical SO4, react with the lead sulfate anode and form leads peroxide and
lead sulphuric acid according to the chemical equation.

The charging and discharging are represented by a single reversible

equation given below.

The equation should read downward for discharge and upward for recharge.
 Advantages of lead acid battery
Inexpensive and simple to manufacture.

Mature, reliable and well-understood technology - when used correctly,

lead-acid is durable and provides dependable service.

The self-discharge is among the lowest of rechargeable battery systems.

Capable of high discharge rates.
 Disadvantages of lead acid battery
Dangers from Chemical Burns
The electrolyte in a typical lead-acid battery is made up of approximately 36 percent sulfuric
acid and 64 percent water. This acid solution can cause chemical burns to the skin; therefore,
you should use extreme caution when working around a lead-acid battery.
Flammable Gases While Charging
When a lead-acid battery is recharged, some of the electrolytes may evaporate and hydrogen
gas will escape from the battery cell vents. Hydrogen gas is flammable, so lead-acid batteries
should be stored and recharged away from any sources of fire or flame.
Batteries Can Be Heavy
A lead-acid battery is made up of several leads and lead oxide electrode plates immersed in an
acidic electrolyte. An automotive battery can weigh between 30 and 60 pounds. Lifting a lead-
acid battery improperly can cause injury.
Electrolyte Can Evaporate
Conventional lead-acid batteries contain at least one battery vent per cell. As mentioned earlier,
electrolytes may evaporate through this vent while the battery is being recharged. If the
electrolyte level in any of the battery cells falls below the minimum required level, the battery
may cease to function correctly. When this happens, you must add distilled water to the
affected battery cell to bring the electrolyte level to normal.
 Applications of lead acid battery
Car batteries (starting, lighting, and ignition).
Golf carts.
Powered wheelchairs.
Solar power.
Batteries for camping, caravanning, and recreational vehicles.
Marine batteries.
Back up batteries for UPS systems and emergency lighting.
Fire and security alarm backup batteries.
Portable target mechanisms for firing ranges.
Temporary traffic signals.
Motorcycle batteries.
Starter batteries for emergency on’-line generator systems.
Backup batteries for cellular telephone masts.
Backup batteries for telephone exchanges.
The list above is certainly not exhaustive but is a good start.