LAB REPORT 01

Objective:
To study different elements and components of power distribution and
transmission.

Apparatus:
 Different types of meter
 Voltmeter
 DMM
 Megger
 Ammeter
 Cos ø Meter.
 Automatic power factor meter
 Capacitor Bank
 Over and under voltage relay.
 Over and under current relay.
 Resistive Load
 Capacitive Load.
 Inductive Load
 Circuit Breaker
 Generator
 Current Transformer
 Potential Transformer
 Lightning Arrest
Theory:
Voltmeter:
It is a voltage meter. Which measures the voltage between the two nodes. We
know the unit of potential difference is volts. So it is a measuring instrument which
measures the potential difference between the two points.
Working Principle of Voltmeter:
The main principle of voltmeter is that it must be connected in parallel in which we want to
measure the voltage. Parallel connection is used because a voltmeter is constructed in such
a way that it has a very high value of resistance. So if that high resistance is connected in
series than the current flow will be almost zero which means the circuit has become open.
If it is connected in parallel, than the load impedance comes parallel with the high
resistance of the voltmeter and hence the combination will give almost the same the
impedance that the load had. Also in parallel circuit we know that the voltage is same so
the voltage between the voltmeter and the load is almost same and hence voltmeter
measures the voltage.
For an ideal voltmeter, we have the resistance is to be infinity and hence the current drawn
to be zero so there will be no power loss in the instrument. But this is not achievable
practically as we cannot have a material which has infinite resistance.

DMM:
A digital multimeter or DMM is one of the most widely used pieces of test equipment
today. DMMs are available very cheaply and these digital multimeters can provide very
high degrees of accuracy when measuring the parameters within an electronics or
electrical circuit. As a result, DMMs are one of the most indispensable pieces of test
equipment available today.
Digital multimeters or DMMs can measure a variety of different parameters within an
electrical circuit. The basic DMMs can measure amps, volts and ohms, as the older
analogue meters did, but with the ease of incorporating further functionality into an
integrated circuit, many digital multimeters are able to make a number of other
measurements as well. Many of them include functions such as frequency, continuity
(with a buzzer to facilitate easy measurements when looking at the circuit board),
capacitance, temperature and often a number of other measurements as well.
MEGGER:
Insulation resistance quality of an electrical system degrades with time, environment
condition i.e. temperature, humidity, moisture and dust particles. It also get impacted
negatively due to the presence of electrical and mechanical stress, so it’s become very
necessary to check the IR (Insulation resistance) of equipment at a constant regular
interval to avoid any measure fatal or electrical shock.
Types of Megger
This can be separated into mainly two categories:-
 Electronic Type (Battery Operated)
 Manual Type (Hand Operated)
But there are another types of megger which is motor operated type which does not
use battery to produce voltage it requires external source to rotate a electrical
motor which in turn rotates the generator of the megger.

Power factor meter:

Power factor is the ratio between the KW and the KVA drawn by an electrical load
where the KW is the actual load power and the KVA is the apparent load power. It is a
measure of how effectively the current is being converted into useful work output and
more particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of
the supply system.
In power transmission system and distribution system we measure power factor at
every station and electrical substation using these power factor meters. Power factor
measurement provides us the knowledge of type of loads that we are using, helps in
calculation of losses happening during the power transmission system and distribution.
General construction of any power factor meter circuit include two coils pressure coil
and current coil. Pressure coil is connected across the circuit while current coil is
 connected such it can carry circuit current or a definite
fraction of current, by measuring the phase difference
between the voltage and current the electrical power
factor can be calculated on suitable calibrated scale.
Usually the pressure coil is splits into two parts namely
inductive and non-inductive part or pure resistive part.
There is no requirement of controlling system because
at equilibrium there exist two opposite forces which
balance the movement of pointer without any
requirement of controlling force.

Ammeter:
An ammeter (from Ampere Meter) is a measuring
instrument used to measure the current in a circuit.
Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence
the name. Instruments used to measure smaller
currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are
designated as milliammeters or microammeters.

Capacitor Bank:
A Capacitor Bank is a group of several capacitors of the same rating that are connected
in series or parallel with each other to store electrical energy. The resulting bank is then
used to counteract or correct a power factor lag or phase shift in an alternating current
(AC) power supply. They can also be used in a direct current (DC) power supply to
increase the ripple current capacity of the power supply or to increase the overall
amount of stored energy.
The most common use of a capacitor bank for AC power supply error correction is in
industrial environments which use a large number of transformers and electric motors
Over and under voltage relay:
Provides protection to equipment that is required to operate above a certain minimum
voltage. Uses a normally open contact. As long as the monitored voltage is above the
minimum value required, the relay will energize and the N.O. contact closes, turning on
the load. If the voltage drops below the Drop-out Setting (the minimum voltage
required minus the hysteresis), the relay will de-energize and the N.O. contact will re-
open, turning off the load.
Provides protection to equipment that cannot handle excess voltages. Uses a normally
closed contact. As long as the monitored voltage remains below the maximum voltage
the equipment can with stand the relay remains de-energized and the. contact remains
closed, keeping the load energized. If the operating voltage increases beyond the
maximum rating of the equipment, the relay
energizes and the. contact opens, turning off
the load. When the voltage falls below the
Drop-Out Setting hysteresis, the relay de-
energizes and the N.C. contact re-closes,
turning on the load
Over & Under Voltage Relay (Voltage Band)
Voltage Band Relays provide protection to
equipment that is required to operate within
an upper and lower voltage limit. As long as
the operating voltage remains within an
OVER & UNDER voltage range, the internal
relay stays energized. If the operating
voltage falls outside this range, the relay will
drop-out.

Over and under current relay:

This relay is referred as instantaneous over current relay, as ideally, the relay operates as
soon as the current in the coil gets higher than pick up setting current. There is no
intentional time delay applied. But there is always an inherent time delay which can not
be avoided
The relay referred as under current relay, the relay operates as soon as the current in the
coil remains lower than pick up setting current.
Over and under current relay operates until the current remains high than a set point
and remains low than the other set point it operates in between two points.
Resistive load:
A resistor is a device that resists the flow of electricity. In doing so, some of the electrical
energy is dissipated as heat. Two common resistive loads are incandescent light bulbs
and electric heaters. Resistance (R) is measured in ohms.
The electrical current and the voltage in a resistive load are said to be "in phase" with
each other. As voltage rises or falls, the current also rises and falls with it.
Resistive loads are typically used to convert current into forms of energy such as heat.
Unlike inductive loads, resistive loads generate no magnetic fields. Common examples
include most electrical heaters, and traditional incandescent lighting loads.

Capacitive Load:
A capacitor stores electrical energy. Two conductive surfaces are separated by a non-
conductive insulator. When an electrical current is applied to a capacitor, electrons from
the current gather on the plate attached to the terminal to which the electric current is
applied. When the current is removed, the electrons will to flow back through the circuit
to reach the other terminal of the capacitor.
The current leads the voltage of a capacitor. The voltage across the terminals starts out
at zero volts while the current is at its maximum. As the charge builds on the capacitors
plate, the voltage rises and the current falls. As a capacitor discharges
Inductive Load:
An inductor may be any conductive material. When a changing current passes through
an inductor, it induces a magnetic field around itself. Turning the inductor into a coil
increases the magnetic field. A similar principal occurs when a conductor is placed within
a changing magnetic field. The magnetic field induces an electrical current within the
conductor. Resist changes in current and as such, when you measure the current, it lags
(is behind) the voltage. Electromagnetic fields are the key to inductive loads, and as such
all motors (fans, pumps, etc), solenoids, and relays are inductive in nature. Inductance is
measured in Henrys. The important
thing to remember about inductive
loads is that they have two types of
power, real power and reactive
power.

Potential Transformer:
Voltage transformer which is also called as a potential transformer. It employed in
electrical energy power system for stepping down the voltage of the system to some
protected value which is often provided to low rating meters and relays. Commercially
accessible relays and meters utilized for coverage and metering are prepared for low
voltage, so the potential transformer is normally
used for stepping down the voltage in
distribution systems. But it can be used to step
up the voltage as well.
In transmission lines where the sole aim is to
minimize the line losses, potential transformer
serves the purpose, it steps up the voltage so
that line losses can be avoided as much as can.
Therefore, usually in transmission lines, voltages
are very high. These transformers have large
number of primary turns and smaller number of
secondary turns.
Current transformer:
The Current Transformer , is a type of “instrument transformer” that is designed to
produce an alternating current in its secondary winding which is proportional to the
current being measured in its primary. Current transformers reduce high voltage
currents to a much lower value and provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the
actual electrical current flowing in an AC transmission line using a standard ammeter.
The principal of operation of a basic current transformer is slightly different from that of
an ordinary voltage transformer.
There are three basic types of current transformers:
Wound Current Transformer – The transformers primary winding is physically connected
in series with the conductor that carries the measured current flowing in the circuit. The
magnitude of the secondary current is dependent on the turns ratio of the transformer.
Toroidal Current Transformer – These do not
contain a primary winding. Instead, the line that
carries the current flowing in the network is
threaded through a window or hole in the
toroidal transformer. Some current
transformers have a “split core” which allows it
to be opened, installed, and closed, without
disconnecting the circuit to which they are
attached.
Bar-type Current Transformer – This type of
current transformer uses the actual cable or
bus-bar of the main circuit as the primary winding, which is equivalent to a single turn.
They are fully insulated from the high operating voltage of the system and are usually
bolted to the current carrying device.

Lightning Arrestor:
A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical
power systems and telecommunications systems to
protect the insulation and conductors of the system
from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical
lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a
ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching
surge, which is very similar) travels along the power
line to the arrester, the current from the surge is
diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.