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Chitin utilisation by broilers and its effect on body

composition and blood metabolites
a a
S.M. Hossain & R. Blair
a
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Avian Research Centre , The University of British
Columbia , Vancouver, BC, Canada
Published online: 15 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: S.M. Hossain & R. Blair (2007) Chitin utilisation by broilers and its effect on body composition and
blood metabolites, British Poultry Science, 48:1, 33-38, DOI: 10.1080/00071660601156529

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 British Poultry Science Volume 48, Number 1 (February 2007), pp. 33—38

Chitin utilisation by broilers and its effect on body composition and

blood metabolites
S.M. HOSSAIN AND R. BLAIR
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Avian Research Centre, The University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, BC, Canada

Abstract 1. Little is known about the ability of farmed poultry to digest chitin and derive nutrients
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 00:51 06 October 2014

from the ingestion of insects.

2. Commercial chitin derived from crustacean shell waste was found to contain 373 g crude protein,
265 g ash, 23
5 g ether extract, 130 g calcium and 16
4 g phosphorus per kg, on an air-dry basis.
3. It was included in diets at 0, 25, 50 and 75 g chitin per kg and fed to 320 1-d-old broiler males, over
a 21-d period. There were no statistically significant treatment effects on weight gain or feed efficiency.
Apparent digestibility of chitin protein was 0
48, 0
50 and 0
45, at the 25, 50 and 75 g per kg inclusions,
respectively. Mean AME and AMEN values of chitin were determined as 8
97 and 8
86 MJ/kg.
4. In a subsequent study, mean TME and TMEN values of chitin were determined to be 8
23 and 8
21 MJ
per kg, respectively. Addition of chitinase to the diet increased TME and TMEN of chitin to 8
81 and
8
79 MJ per kg, respectively (P < 0
05). True digestibility of chitin protein was determined to be 0
87.
5. Triglyceride concentrations in liver and breast meat were significantly reduced by chitin inclusion.
No significant differences in carcase yield at 21 d of age were found. Serum cholesterol and triglycerol
concentrations were reduced significantly by dietary chitin, the lowest levels being observed at the 50 g
per kg inclusion level.
6. These findings indicate the ability of modern poultry to digest chitin but suggest that the ingestion of
insects is not an important source of nutrients, at least from the exoskeleton.

INTRODUCTION composed of (1 ! 4)- -linked N-acetylglucosa-

A trend towards allowing poultry greater access
to pasture has raised questions as to whether
birds derive nutrients from the ingestion of
insects. Certain species of wild birds are insecti-
vorous and presumably derive nutrients from
this food source. However, little is known of the
ability of farmed species of poultry to do so.
Insects consist of a hard exoskeleton, enclosing
soft tissues. Therefore, the potential utilisation of
insect matter can be considered from two view-
points, first the utilisation of the exoskeleton and
second the utilisation of the contained soft tissue.
This paper deals with the first issue, namely,
potential utilisation of the exoskeleton.
The exoskeleton of insects and crustacea
is based on chitin, a linear polysaccharide
mine (N-acetyl D-glucosamine) units. Thus it can
be considered as a modified form of glucose.
The chitin monomer however differs in two
respects from glucose. It is a polymer composed
of a long chain of identical units, which confers
a tough building structure. Also, chitin has an
N-acetyl group, NCOCH3, attached to the C2
carbon instead of an OH group. The chitin
chains associate by forming very strong hydrogen
bonds between the N—H groups of one chain and
the C¼O groups of the adjacent chain (Minke
and Blackwell, 1978). Hence the extreme insolu-
bility of chitin in most solvents. Chitin and
its deacetylated form, chitosan, have attracted
interest in animal feeding but mainly for their
hypolipidaemic effects (Razdan and Pettersson,
1994).

Correspondence to: S.M. Hossain, Xenon Pharmaceutical Inc., 3650 Gilmore Way, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5G 4W8. Tel: þ1-604-484-3300 ext. 165.
Fax: þ1-604-484-3321. E-mail: shossain@xenon-pharma.com
Accepted for publication 18th September 2006.

ISSN 0007–1668(print)/ISSN 1466–1799 (online)/07/010033—6 ß 2007 British Poultry Science Ltd

DOI: 10.1080/00071660601156529
 34 S.M. HOSSAIN AND R. BLAIR
Chitin derived from crustacean shell waste is
available commercially and this product was used
in our study to determine its potential as a source
of nutrients for broilers, since adequate quanti-
ties of insect chitin were unavailable.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experiment 1: proximate analysis and
determination of apparent metabolisable
energy (AME) value of chitin
Birds and treatments
Triplicate pens of 10 broiler males (total 120
birds, obtained from a commercial hatchery at
one day old) were used to determine the AME
value of chitin, using the method of Sibbald and
Slinger (1963). A balance study was conducted
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when the birds were 17 d old and lasted 48 h.
Prior to the start of the balance period the food
was withheld for 2 h. During the balance period
food and water were offered ad libitum and the
droppings from each pen were collected quanti-
tatively. At the end of the balance period the
food intake per pen was determined and the
birds were weighed individually.
Analyses
The chitin used was derived from crustacean
shell waste and was obtained from a commercial
source (International Chitin Production Inc.,
Vancouver, BC, Canada). It was subjected to
proximate analysis in duplicate, using conven-
tional methods (AOAC, 1990) to determine dry
matter, nitrogen, ether extract, ash, calcium
and phosphorus contents. Gross energy of the
diets was determined in an adiabatic bomb
calorimeter. The droppings samples were dried
in a forced-air oven at 40 C for 48 h, weighed,
ground and assayed for gross energy, nitrogen
(N) and moisture contents. Samples of the diets
and chitin were analysed for the same compo-
nents. AME of the chitin was determined.
A correction of AME to zero nitrogen retention
(AMEN) was based on a factor of 34
4 MJ/kg
retained nitrogen ( Jonsson and McNab, 1983).
Carcase yield
At the end of the trial one bird from each pen
(10 birds/treatment) was killed by cervical
dislocation and 10 ml blood sample was collected
into a plastic centrifuge tube for total cholesterol
determination (AOAC, 1995). After blood
sample collection the birds were allowed to
bleed thoroughly and the carcases were then
de-feathered, cleaned, dissected and eviscerated
and chilled in cold water. The eviscerated
carcase, plus the viscera and abdominal fat
were weighed. The heart, liver and gizzard were
removed and weighed. The different parts and
organs were expressed as percentages of the
initial body weight of the birds. The whole livers
were used for total lipid analysis (AOAC, 1995).
Statistical analysis
Data were subjected to ANOVA using the
general linear models (GLM) procedure of
SAS (SAS Institute, 1988). When significant
differences among treatment means were
found, means were separated using repeated
t-test using probabilities generated by the
LSMEANS option of GLM procedure of SAS.
The effects of graded levels of chitin on AME,
AMEN and liver triglyceride concentrations were
examined by regression analysis using PROC
REC procedure (SAS Institute, 1988). Statements
of statistical probability are based on P  0
05.
Experiment 2: effect of graded levels of
dietary chitin on growth performance, food
utilisation, apparent protein digestibility
and carcase characteristics of broiler chicks
from 0 to 3 weeks of age
Birds and treatments
A 3-week trial involving 320 1-d-old broiler males
was conducted. The birds were obtained at one
day old from a commercial hatchery, weighed
individually, placed in battery brooder compart-
ments and allotted to one of the 4 diets (control,
25, 50 and 75 g chitin per kg diet) with
10 replications of 8 birds, according to a
randomised plan. The compositions of the diets
are presented in Table 3. The amino acid
contents of maize, soybean meal and chitin
were determined using an Applied Biosystems
420 A/H amino acid analyser in the
Biotechnology Laboratory at the University of
British Columbia. The diets were formulated to
contain 230 g crude protein and 13
0 MJ ME/kg,
dry matter (DM) basis. A balance study was
conducted when the birds were 17 d old and
lasted 24 h, as in experiment 1.
Analyses
Individual body weights and feed consumption
and feed to gain ratio per pen were determined
weekly and at 21 d of age. Any deaths were
recorded daily. At the end of the trial one bird
from each pen was killed by cervical dislocation
and a 10 ml blood sample was collected into
a plastic centrifuge tube for total cholesterol
determination (AOAC, 1995). Livers and abdom-
inal fat pads were weighed and the whole livers
 CHITIN UTILISATION BY BROILERS 35

were collected for total lipid analysis (AOAC,
1995).
Experiment 3: determination of the true
metabolisable energy (TME) value of chitin
and true protein digestibility, with and
without chitinase supplementation
Birds and treatments
The methodology outlined by Sibbald (1976) was
used. Twenty cockerels aged 14 weeks of age
and housed in metabolism cages during the
balance period were used. During an adaptation
period of one week all birds received the same
maintenance diet. The birds were then fasted for
24 h by removal of feeders but with ad libitum
access to water. During the fasting period each
bird received 50 g glucose per d in water. After
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per kg diet significantly (P < 0
03) reduced the
apparent protein digestibility when compared
with the control diet.
No significant differences were found for
carcase yield for any of the treatments at 21 d of
age, however, the absolute value of abdominal
fat was lower in birds receiving chitin in the
diets (Table 5). The effect of feeding chitin on
total cholesterol, triglycerides level in the blood
serum, liver and breast meat of broilers of 21 d
is presented in Table 6. The cholesterol and
triglycerol values (mg/dl) in serum were reduced
significantly by feeding chitin in the diets and
the lowest levels were observed at 5% inclusion
of chitin in the diets. No change in the liver
cholesterol level was observed, but triglyceride
levels in the liver and breast meat were depressed
by the inclusion of chitin in the diets, indicating

a possible production of leaner meat. The effects

24 h, 8 birds were given 25 g chitin directly into
the crop and another 8 birds were given the
same amount of chitin þ chitinase (18
64 IU). The
remaining 4 birds were fasted for another 24 h
during which they were provided with 50 g
glucose per d in water. Droppings were collected
4 times during the following 48 h.
Analyses
A sample of chitin was taken for dry matter
estimation and droppings from each bird were
collected and analysed for moisture, gross energy
and N contents as in experiment 1.
on carcase composition were cumulative, the
length of feeding period and market age being
important factors affecting the influence of
chitin.
Experiment 3
The mean TME and TMEN values of chitin were
determined to be 8
23 and 8
21 MJ per kg,
respectively (Table 7). Addition of chitinase
enzyme to the diet significantly increased the
TME and TMEn values of chitin to 8
81 and
8
79 MJ per kg, respectively. On average the

RESULTS Table 1. Experiment 1: proximate and amino acid analysis of

chitin and soybean meal (on an as fed basis, g/kg unless stated)
Experiment 1
Components Chitin Soybean meal
Proximate analysis and amino acid composition
of the chitin are shown in Table 1. The mean Dry matter 958
0 919
0
Crude protein 373
1 489
0
AME and AMEN values (DM basis) of chitin were Ether extract 23
5 19
0
determined as 8
97 and 8
86 MJ/kg, respectively Ash 265
2 60
0
(Table 2). Calcium 130
0 2
60
Total phosphorus 16
4 2
50
TMEN, MJ/kg 8
21 9
32
Experiment 2 Amino acids:
Methionine 3
10 7
50
There was no statistically significant treatment Lysine 19
40 29
00
effect of diet on weight gain or feed efficiency Arginine 18
40 27
10
(Table 4). These results suggest that the AME Threonine 20
80 18
90
Aspartic acid 35
10 54
80
determined for the chitin product was correct. Serine 27
00 20
70
They also suggest that the protein in the diets was Glutamic acid 43
10 83
60
balanced correctly for amino acids. The amino Proline 23
00 24
80
acid profile (Table 1) indicates that the chitin Glycine 41
10 21
10
used contained significant amounts of amino Alanine 36
80 21
60
Cystine 1
50 7
40
acids. The predominant amino acids were Valine 25
20 24
30
aspartic acid, serine and glycine, which may be Isoleucine 17
70 26
00
involved in the chitin—protein linkage of muco- Leucine 24
20 38
00
polysaccharides. The apparent digestibility of Tyrosine 11
20 17
50
protein was 0
48, 0
50 and 0
45 for 25, 50 and Phenylanine 16
50 27
20
Histidine 8
70 18
00
75 g of chitin per kg diet. Inclusion of 75 g chitin
 36 S.M. HOSSAIN AND R. BLAIR

Table 2. Experiment 1: apparent metabolisable energy (AME) and nitrogen corrected apparent metabolisable energy (AMEN) of chitin
Diet DM, g/kg Gross Nitrogen, AME,1 MJ/kg AMEN,2 MJ/kg Mean feed
energy, MJ/kg g/kg intake, g/72 h

Basal with 100% maize 985
0 17
42 37
96 12
62 12
32 111
66
Basal þ 2
5% chitin 986
2 17
65 39
68 12
23 11
93 117
00
Basal þ 5
0% chitin 978
4 16
83 37
68 11
57 11
32 113
66
Basal þ 7
5% chitin 984
8 17
22 39
43 11
13 10
89 109
00
SEM 0
23 0
22 2
27
Chitin 942
0 10
76 59
70 8
973 8
864
1 2
Y ¼ 12
660
0205X, r ¼ 0
755.
2
Y ¼ 12
350
0195X, r2 ¼ 0
757.
3,4
AME and AMEN values are calculated from the regression of dietary AME (Y, MJ/kg dry matter) on inclusion rate of chitin (X, g/kg) with standard error
calculated for X ¼ 1000.
AME of chitin¼8
97 MJ/kg.
AMEN of chitin¼8
86 MJ/kg.

Table 3. Experiment 2: experimental diets and calculated coefficient of crickets (MEC ¼ 1  energy
composition (g/kg) excreted/energy ingested) was 0
77 in bobwhites
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Ingredient Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4 acclimated to a cricket diet containing 66 to 75 g

chitin per kg (dry basis), significantly higher than
Maize 530
00 520
60 504
70 50
02 in robins (0
58). Their results suggested the
Soybean meal 383
00 365
00 350
00 33
00 existence of species differences among birds in
Limestone 10
00 10
00 10
00 1
00
Dicalcium phosphate 18
00 18
20 18
50 1
80
their ability to digest chitin and to improve
Vegetable oil 50
00 52
00 57
00 5
60 digestion following acclimation to chitin in the
DL-Methionine 1
30 1
40 1
70 0
19 diet. Higher apparent digestibility of chitin has
L-Lysine 0
00 0
00 0
40 0
12 been reported in other birds; 0
57 in Japanese
Premix1 5
00 5
00 5
00 0
50
Sodium chloride 2
70 2
80 2
70 0
27
nightingales given chitin from mealworms
Chitin 0
00 25
00 50
00 75
0 ( Jeuniaux and Cornelius, 1978) and 0
39 to
Total 1000
00 1000
00 1000
00 1000
00 0
85 in several species of seabirds consuming
Calculated analysis krill ( Jackson et al., 1992). Hirano et al. (1990)
AME, MJ/kg 13
00 13
00 13
00 13
00 reported that the digestibility of chitin was 0
92
Crude protein, g/kg 220
00 220
00 220
00 220
00 in adult hens fed on chitin isolated from crab
Lysine, g/kg 12
00 12
00 12
00 12
00
Met þ Cys, g/kg 8
20 8
20 8
20 8
20
shells.
Calcium, g/kg 9
50 9
50 9
50 9
50 Akaki and Duke (1999) measured the appar-
Total phosphorus, g/kg 6
70 6
70 6
70 6
70 ent digestibility of crab shell chitin in Eastern
Avail. phosphorus, g/kg 4
50 4
50 4
50 4
50 screech owls and American kestrels, both insecti-
1
The premix supplied per kg of diet: 3600 mg retinol, 50 mg cholecalciferol, vorous, and reported values of 0
11 to 0
30 for
26
8 mg tocopherol, 0
8 mg thiamine, 2
75 mg riboflavin, 8
0 mg pyridox- owls and 0
16 to 0
26 for kestrels. The diets
ine, 0
023 mg cyanocobalamin, 2
2 mg menadione, 55 mg niacin, 13 mg
panthothenic acid, 1
6 mg folic acid, 0
14 mg biotin, 90 mg manganese,
in question contained 20 to 50 g chitin per kg.
80 mg zinc, 80 mg iron, 125 mg copper, 0
4 mg iodine. No benefit of acclimation of dietary chitin was
recorded. Their findings confirmed the ability of
insectivorous birds to digest chitin, but suggested
starved birds excreted 28
6 kJ of energy and
that chitin is not an important energy source for
0
15 g nitrogen during the 24-h collection
birds. The higher ME values found in our study
period. True digestibility of chitin protein was
may be explained by the fact that the chitin used
determined to be 86
8%.
was in a purified form.
One conclusion from all of the above studies
DISCUSSION is that birds that possess the ability to digest
chitin, the chitinase enzyme being endogenous
Few studies of chitin digestibility in birds have ( Jeuniaux, 1961), or possibly from commensal
been reported and those have mainly involved micro-organisms in the gut or from prey.
wild, insectivorous species. Weiser et al. (1997) Another conclusion is that the role of chitinase
found that the apparent digestibility of insect may be related more to digestion of the soft
chitin was 0
07 to 0
14 (mean about 0
10) with tissue contained within the exoskeleton of
no significant difference between Northern insects, rather than to utilisation of chitin
bobwhite quail and American robins. This low per se. Prinz et al. (2003) punctured the
digestibility resulted in less than 1% release of exoskeleton of crickets and mealworms and
the metabolisable energy contained in crickets. reported an increase in released free fatty acids,
They reported that the metabolisable energy sugars and amino acids in an in vitro model of
 CHITIN UTILISATION BY BROILERS 37

Table 4. Experiment 2: effect of graded inclusions of dietary chitin on body weight (BW), feed consumption (FC) and feed/gain ratio
(FCR) of broilers between d 1 and d 21

Chitin, BW BW BW Gain FC FC FC FC FCR FCR FCR FCR

g/kg week 1 week 2 week 3 d 1 to d 21 week 1 week 2 week 3 d 1 to d 21 week 1 week 2 week 3 d 1 to d 21

0 154
7 377
3 743
9 704
5 133
5 192
2 517
4 877
9 1
16 2
12 1
45 1
25
25 149
9 356
8 731
5 691
9 127
9 199
5 469
4 797
8 1
15 1
82 1
57 1
16
50 147
2 382
5 746
2 706
9 129
1 217
5 485
3 860
9 1
16 1
84 1
58 1
21
75 145
5 369
7 719
9 681
3 128
6 194
5 487
0 839
3 1
14 1
93 1
48 1
24
SEM 2
92 8
49 13
2 13
3 3
92 14
0 19
4 24
9 0
02 0
14 0
06 0
04

Table 5. Experiment 2: effect of graded inclusions of chitin on liver and abdominal fat weight of broilers at
21 d of age
Dietary chitin, g/kg Body weight, g Liver weight Abdominal fat

Absolute, g % of BW Absolute, g % of BW

0 814
0 21
9 2
68 3
24 0
40

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25 813
1 22
6 2
79 3
57 0
44

50 811
3 23
2 2
88 2
84 0
34
75 781
6 22
3 2
83 2
97 0
39
SEM 20
4 0
76 0
91 0
40 0
05

Table 6. Experiment 2: effect of feeding of chitin on total cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations in the blood
serum, liver and breast muscle of broilers at 21 d of age

Dietary Serum Serum Liver Liver Breast muscle Breast muscle

chitin, cholesterol,1 mg/dl triglycerides,1 cholesterol, triglycerides,2 cholesterol, triglycerides,
g/kg mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl

0 132
9 12
3 35
7 21
9 148
6 95
9

25 120
8 12
4 38
2 15
3 176
4 74
9
50 109
7 10
4 42
2 12
4 183
9 67
0
75 120
2 13
7 38
0 13
2 169
4 70
1
SEM 4
7 0
60 4
5 2
3 19
3 9
3
1
Comparisons significant at the 0
05 level between 25 and 50 g/kg of dietary chitin.
2
Y ¼ 11
379 þ 1
75X.

Table 7. TME, TMEN and true protein digestibility values of chitin with or without chitinase and AME and
AMEN values of chitin for comparison ( from experiment 1)

TME TMEN Protein digestibility1 AME1 AME1N

Chitin 8
23 8
21 86
81 8
97 8
86

25 g chitin þ 18
64 IU 8
81 8
79
chitinase/bird
SEM 23
9 23
9 0
68 0
23 0
22
1
From experiment 1.

insectivorous mammal digestion, indicating
improved digestion.
Chitin is reported to be the second most
abundant carbon polymer on earth, and various
authors (e.g. Blair, 1996) have speculated that
chitin could become a potentially important
energy source for poultry if the technology
could be developed for its exploitation. Our
findings show that it has some nutritional value
as a feed ingredient and could be fed to poultry
with no adverse effects. The mineral content is,
however, quite high (260 g per kg). The AME and
AMEN values were determined to be 8
97 and
8
86 MJ/kg, respectively (DM basis) and the TME
and TMEN values were 8
23 and 8
21 MJ/kg,
respectively. These results indicate that the
energy value of isolated chitin is 25 to 30%
lower than the energy value of grains used
commonly in poultry feeds. The protein digest-
ibility and amino acid contents of chitin indicate
also that chitin has some value as a protein and
amino acid source for poultry.
 38 S.M. HOSSAIN AND R. BLAIR
Another possible use of chitin as a dietary
ingredient relates to its hypolipidaemic proper-
ties. Our findings on body composition suggest
that chitin may be used to reduce the body fat of
the broilers, though chitosan appears to be more
effective as a hypolipidaemic and hypocholester-
olaemic agent. Kobayashi et al. (1979) found
that chitosan depresses serum cholesterol level
without affecting the growth performance or
organ weights of rats. Razdan and Pettersson
(1994) also reported that feeding chitosan-
containing diets to growing broilers reduced
total plasma cholesterol and high-density lipo-
protein (HDL) cholesterol and reduced ileal
fat digestibility by 26% in comparison with
a maize—soybean control diet or chitin-fed birds.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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Financial assistance for this study was provided by
the Province of British Columbia through the
Technology BC Program of the Science Council
of British Columbia, and by International Chitin
Production Inc., Richmond, BC, Canada. The
authors are grateful to the staff of the Avian
Research Centre, University of British Columbia,
for technical assistance.
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