𝐃𝐄𝐏𝐀𝐑𝐓𝐌𝐄𝐍𝐓 𝐎𝐅 𝐌𝐄𝐂𝐇𝐀𝐍𝐈𝐂𝐀𝐋 𝐄𝐍𝐆𝐈𝐍𝐄𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐍𝐆

𝐓𝐑𝐈𝐃𝐄𝐍𝐓 𝐀𝐂𝐀𝐃𝐄𝐌𝐘 𝐎𝐅 𝐓𝐄𝐂𝐇𝐍𝐎𝐋𝐎𝐆𝐘

𝐁𝐇𝐔𝐁𝐀𝐍𝐄𝐒𝐖𝐀𝐑, 𝐎𝐃𝐈𝐒𝐇𝐀
NAME :
BRANCH :
REGD. NO. :
SEMESTER :
 CONTENTS

SL DATE NAME OF THE PAGE SIGNATURE REMARKS

NO. EXPERIMENTS NO
1. Fitting Section
Name of the Job:

2. Welding Section
Arc welding
Name of the Job:

Gas welding
Name of the Job:

3. Machining Section
Lathe
Name of the Job:

Milling
Name of the Job:

Shaper
Name of the Job:
FITTING SECTION
 FITTING SECTION
INTRODUCTION
Fitting is a very important work in engineering. The term bench work, refers to
the production of components by hand on the bench, where fitting deals with
the assembly of mating parts through removal of metal, to obtain the required
fit. The operation in the above work consists of marking & measuring, cutting,
filing, drilling, reaming, tapping, external threading, chamfering etc.
SAFETY IN FITTING SECTION
Keep the hand tools clean and free of dirty, oil and grease. Dry tools are safer
to use than slippery tools. Hold the pointed tools away from your body to
avoid injury in case the tool slips. Do not keep working tools at the edge of the
table. Put the sharp tools in its proper place, immediately after completion of
work with it. Position the work piece such that the cut to be made is close to
the vice. When sawing in a vice, make sure that the work is held tight. A loose
vice is dangerous. Do not hold the work piece in hand while cutting. Use the
file with a properly fitted tight handle. Do not strike with more force than
necessary.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
Lustre, colour, density, melting point, plasticity, elasticity, stiffness,
malleability, toughness, ductility.
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS
It is of two categories-ferrous metal and non-ferrous metal.
1. Ferrous metal: steel alloy steel, cast iron, wrought iron, high speed steel,
spring steel.
2. Non-ferrous metal: copper, brass, bronze, gun metal, aluminium.
Steel : Steel is a mixture of iron and carbon. It is very widely used in
engineering for different purposes.
Steel carbon content Uses
Low carbon steel 0.15-0.3% forging, casting, angels, channels.
Medium carbon steel 0.3-0.8% spindles, shafts, pin etc.
High carbon steel 0.8-1.5% chisels, dies, punches etc.
Tool steel 1.5-2% drills, reamers, taps etc.
TOOLS USED IN FITTING SHOP
As per use tools are defined as –
1. CLAMPING TOOLS:
This is used for holding the jobs firmly during various operations. Vice is used
for clamping purpose. Different types of vice are:-
a) Bench vice b) Leg vice c)Hand vice d)Pin vice e)Pipe vice
2. MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS:
Try square, Bevel protractor, Combination set, Centre square, Scriber and
surface gauge, Universal marking surface gauge, Dot punch, Centre punch,
Surface plate, Angle plate, V-block, Steel rule, Vernier calliper, Micrometer,
Dial indicator, Dividers, Callipers, Depth Gauge, Feeler Gauge , Radius Gauge ,
Vernier Height Gauge , Thread Gauge , Wire Gauge.
03. CUTTING TOOLS:
The tools, which are used to remove the materials, are known as cutting tools.
a) HACKSAW: The Hacksaw is used for cutting metal by hand.
Depending upon the direction of cut: Forward cut, Backward cut
Depending upon the pitch of the teeth: Coarse (8-14teeth per inch), Medium
(16-20 teeth per inch), Fine (24-32 teeth per inch)
TYPES OF HACKSAW FRAME: Fixed frame, Adjustable frame
Pitch of hacksaw: The number of teeth on blade in one centimetre. Hacksaw
blades with small pitch are used for thin sections and large pitch is used for
thick sections.
b) FILES: File is also a multi tooth tool. It is used to remove material by robbing
it on the metal. It is available in a number of sizes, shapes and degree of
coarseness. Classification on the basis of grade:
i) Rough................................... (20 teeth per inch )
ii) Bastard................................. (30 teeth per inch)
iii) Second cut............................ (40 teeth per inch)
iv) Smooth file............................ (50-60teeth per inch )
v) Dead smooth......................... (100 teeth per inch)
Classification on the basis of shape and size: Files are available in a number of
shapes and sizes. The length of file varies from 4” to 14”. The shapes available
are square, triangular, round, half round, flat, hand file, knife-edge, and
diamond file.
Classification on the basis of number of cuts: Files are classified into two
categories i.e single cut and double cut files. In single cut teeth are cut in
parallel rows at an angel of 600 to the face. Another row of teeth is added in
opposite direction having 800 in case of double cut files. Material removing
rate is more in double cut file.
Pitch: The number of teeth in one centimetre is called the pitch of the file.
The number of teeth varies from 10 to 40 in centimetre.
b) CHISELS: These are used for chipping away the material from the work
piece. These are made up of high carbon steel generally 6” to 8” long. Chisels
are classified on the basis of their shape and width of the cutting edge.
Commonly used forms of chisels are flat, cross cut, half round, and diamond
point chisels.
04. STRIKING TOOLS:
Hammers are the only tools generally used for striking in fitting shop.
These are used for chipping, fitting, and punching etc. A hammer consists of a
heavy iron body with a wooden handle. The weight ranges from 0.25 kg to 2kg.
05. MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS:
a) Drill: The tool used for making round holes is called drill. It is made up of
high-speed steel.
b) Reamer: It is used to finish the drilled hole. It has many cutting edges.
c) Counter sink: Counter sink are taper cutters used to make the hole cone
shaped from the upper end. It is made for fitting screws and nails.
d) Counter Bore: It is used to enlarge a portion of hole. It is also made for
fitting the heads of bolts and screws.
e) Taps: Taps are used for making internal threads.
f) Die & Die Stock: Die and stock are used for cutting external threads. Dies are
made from tool steel and have internal threads.
06. BENCH WORKING PROCESSES
The number of operations that are performed manually some important
operations are Marking, Chipping, Sawing, Filing, Scraping, Drilling, Tapping,
Threading etc.
Marking: It is the first operation that is performed in bench working. Since the
accuracy of the product depends upon this. The measurement is performed on
the job by appropriate measuring instrument, then marking is done by scriber,
surface gauge and identification is done by punches.
Sawing: It is an operation, which is required to cut the metal in different sizes
and shapes. Cutting takes place in forward stroke of hacksaw backstroke is
ideal. During operation full length of the blade should be used. Coolant must
be used during sawing.
Filing: It is an operation which is performed by the hold of files. The pressure of
cutting should be exerted in the forward stroke and back ward stroke is ideal. If
the file is moved diagonally on the flat surface then it gives the best results.
Initially a rough file is used to remove the rough metal followed by a smooth
file for better finish filing is done by three ways, first cross filing for more metal
removal them followed by straight filing and draw filing for final finish.
Drilling: It is an operation done to produce holes either blinds or through in a
metal piece by the help of drills. It is done on the drilling machine.
Internal threading or Tapping: It is an operation of cutting the internal threads
by the help of tap.
External threading or dieing: It is the process of cutting external threads by the
help of die and die holder.
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS REQUIRED:

PROCEDURE:

CONCLUSION:
WELDING SECTION
 WELDING SECTION
ARC WELDING
INTRODUCTION:
Welding is a process of joining two similar or dissimilar materials with the help
of heat or pressure. The cost of welding is very less as compared to other
process and forms a strong joint that’s why it is largely used in the field of
engineering.
ADVANTAGE:
It has permanent pressure tight joint. Occupies less space. Has less weight.
Gives more economy of metal. With stand high temperature and pressure
equal to permanent metal. Can be done quickly.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF JOINTS
Welding, soldering, brazing, riveting, screw fastening, sintering, pressing,
adhesive joining. Among these processes welding is used for making
permanent type of joint. Welding joints are steam or water tight.
WELDING PROCESS
Welding process are two types:
Pressure or Non-fusion welding, Fusion or Non-pressure welding.

WELDING PROCESS

Pressure Welding Fusion Welding

Heat Obtained from Heat Obtained from

Smith’s Hearth Electric Current GAS Chemical

Electric
reaction
SOURCES OF HEAT
Gas flame, electric arc, blacksmith forge, friction, radiant energy
ARC WELDING AND ITS PRINCIPLE
The welding in which the electric arc is produced to give heat for the purpose
of joining two surfaces is called electric arc welding. The electric energy is
converted to heat energy, producing a temperature of 3600⁰c to 4000⁰c. This
heat melts the edges to be weld and molten pool is formed.
ELECTRIC POWER FOR WELDING
AC current and DC current can be used for arc welding. For most cases DC
current is preferred. In DC welding a DC generator or solid state rectifier is
used. DC machines are made up to capacity range 600amp. The voltage in
open circuit is kept 45 to 95 volts and in closed circuit is kept 17 to 25 volts. DC
current can be given in two ways: straight polarity and reverse polarity.
ARC LENGTH
Arc length is the distance from the tip of the electrode to job. There are three
types of arc length- short, medium and long.
WELDING POSITION
Some times it is impossible to weld for a particular position. That’s why some
other positions are required like– horizontal, flat, vertical and overhead
position.
AC WELDING MACHINE
AC welding machine which converts AC main supply to AC welding supply. It is
a step down transformer. Main supply voltage range 220 to 440 volts. Open
circuit voltage between 40 to 100 volts. Two types of welding machines are
available: air cool and oil cool.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The ac main supply (220-440 volts) is connected to primary welding. Which
produces a magnetic flux in the iron core. The magnetic flux effects the
secondary winding and induces high ampere- low voltage welding supply in it.
Current range 25 to 350 amp.
ADVANTAGE
Less initial cost, less maintenance cost, freedom for arc blow, no noise, no fear
to arc blow.
DISADVANTAGE
Not suitable for welding of non-ferrous metal. Not suitable for bare wire
electrode. Not suitable for fine current setting in welding special job.
CARE AND MAINTENANCE
Transformer body may be properly earthed. Transformer oil must be changed
after recommended period. Switch off the main supply of the machine while
clearing internally or externally. Give proper protection of the machine while
working outside in rain or dust.
ARC WELDING ACCESSORIES
The outer part attachment of welding machine is called welding accessories.
1. Electrode holder 2. Earth clamp 3. Cables
WELDING CABLE OR LEADS
Cables are specified by their current carrying. Say 300A, 400A etc. loose joint
or bad connection causes over- heating of the cables.
HAND TOOLS:
Chipping Hammer, Wire Brush, Hand Screen, Steel Rule Try Square, Centre
Punch, Scriber, Tong, Divider, Hammer, Chisel, Clamps, Hacksaw, File and
Goggles.
SAFETY IN ARC WELDING:
Apron Gloves Jacket Sheaves
Shoes Cap Cleaning of edge before welding
DC WELDING EQUIPMENT
1. Motor generator 2.Rectifier
AC WELDING EQUIMENT
1. Welding transformer 2. Rectifier
MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING ELECTRODE:
An electrode is a magnetic wire of standard size and length generally coated
with flux used to complete the welding circuit and provide filler material to the
joint by an arc, maintaining between its tip and the work.
TYPES OF ELECTRODE:
1. Coated electrode 2. Bare electrode.
ELECTRODE SIZE
Commonly used in length is :250mm, 300mm, 350mm and 450mm.
Diameter is:1.6mm, 2mm, 2.5mm, 3.15mm, 4mm, 8mm and 10.0mm.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRODE
Types of flux coating, purpose of flux coating, Method of coating, Core wire
material, Coating factor.
MILD STEELS ELECTRODES:
Mild steel characterized by carbon content not exceeding 0.3% mild steel
electrode core wire contains various alloying elements.
Carbon.................................0.1 to 0.5% silicon..........................0.5%
Manganese.............................1.65% nickel..........................0.5%
Chromium..............................0.5% molybdenum..................0.5%
FLUX:
Flux is fusible chemical compound to be applied before and during welding to
prevent unwanted chemical action during process.
TYPES OF WELDING JOINT:
Butt joint tee joint lap joint
Corner joint edge joint plug joint
COMMON WELDING DEFECTS:
i) External defects ii) internal defects
EXTERNAL DEFECTS:
UNDER CUT OVERLAP POROSITY
SPATTER EDGE OF PLATE MELTED OFF CRACK

INTERNAL DEFECTS:
1. Incomplete Penetration 2. Slag Inclusion
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS REQUIRED:

PROCEDURE:

CONCLUSION:
 GAS WELDING
INTRODUCTION
The process of oxy–acetylene welding can be used for almost all metals and
alloys for engineering purposes. A high temperature flame(3200) for
engineering purpose by this method. These are two systems of oxy-acetylene
welding.
i) High-pressure system ii) Low-pressure system.
HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM
In this process the oxygen and acetylene are taken for use from high–pressure
cylinders.
LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM
In this system oxygen is taken high pressure cylinder and the acetylene is
produced by the action of calcium carbide and water.
CaC 2+ 2H2 O = Ca(OH )2+C 2 H2
OXY-ACETYLENE METHOD
Oxy-acetylene welding is a method of joining metals by heating them to the
melting point using a mixture of oxygen and acetylene gases.
Oxygen cylinder
The oxygen gas is required for gas welding. It is stored in bottle shaped
cylinders, these cylinders are painted in black colour. Oxygen cylinder can store
gas to the capacity of 7 m3 with the pressure ranging between 120 to 150
kg/cm2 oxygen gas cylinder valves are right hand thread.
Acetylene cylinder
The acetylene gas used in gas welding is stored in steel cylinders painted in
maroon colour. The normal storing capacity in dissolved state is 6m3 with the
pressure ranging between 15 to 16 kg\cm2 acetylene gas cylinder valve left
hand thread.
APPARATUS OF HIGH PRESSURE WELDING
(i)Oxygen Cylinder, (ii)Acetylene Cylinder, (iii)Pressure Gauges, (iv)Valves,
(v)Hose Pipe, (vi)Torch, (vii)Welding Tip, (viii)Pressure Regulators, (x)Spark
Lighter, (xi)Chipping Hammer, (xii)Spanner Set, (xiii)Spindle Key, (xiv)Wire
Brush, (xvi)Trolley.
GAS WELDING PROCESS
To start welding the acetylene control valve is turned first when acetylene
comes out of the nozzles, it should be lighted with spark lighter. It will be given
a yellow coloured smoke flame. After it, oxygen cylinder valve is opened and
supply is increased until a best suitable flame is obtained. Then the flame is
focused on the edges to be welded. Flux and filler metal are also added with
the heat of flame. The edges and filler metal melt and a joint is formed after
cooling of the molten metal.
 ADVANTAGE OF OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
Equipment is cheap
It can be used for welding all metal
Maintenance of equipment is very less.
It is a portable process
It can be used for cutting of metals.
It is specially used for sheet metal work
DISADVANTAGE
• It takes long time for heating the job as compared to the arc welding.
• Heat affected area is more.
• Gases are expensive and difficult to store.
SAFETY PRECAUTION FOR OXYGEN CYLINDERS
• Do not use oil or grease on any part as oil and grease catch fire when
pure oxygen under pressure comes in contact with it.
• Leakages should be checked with shop solution.
• Oxygen cylinder should not be stored in an acetylene generator room or
near the consumable gases.
• Cylinder stored in open should have their valves and safety devices well
protected.
• Empty cylinders valve should be closed and cap on.
SAFETY PRECAUTION FOR ACETYLENE CYLINDERS
• Cylinder should be used and stored with valve end up words.
• Acetylene being highly inflamable do not bring naked flames near the
cylinder valve regulator or hose pipe.
• Leakage is checked by smelling or shop water.
• When opening an acetylene valve, turn not more than one and a half
turns.
• Never use acetylene from cylinder without a suitable pressure reducing
regulator attached to the cylinder valve.
• Acetylene should never be used at pressure move then 1kg/cm2
• Never attempt to transfer acetylene from one cylinder to another.
• When returning empty cylinder, make sure that the valves are closed to
avoid evaporation of acetone.
TYPES OF GAS FLAME
Three types of gas flames are-
(i) Oxidizing flame (ii) Carbursing flame (iii) Neutral flame
GAS WELDING TECHINQUE
There are three types of gas welding techniques.
(i) Left ward welding ii) Right ward welding iii) Vertical welding
TYPES OF GAS WELD
Bead Weld Groove or Butt Weld
Fillet Weld Plug or Slot Weld
WELDING FLUXES
The chemicals, which deoxidize the metal surface and provide inert
atmosphere around and molten metal, are known as fluxes.
FILLER ROD
The rod, which provides additional metal in completing welding, is known as
filler rod. The composition of filler metal should be the same as that of the
metals to be welded.
Size: 1.00, 1.20, 1.60, 2.00, 2.50, 3.15, 4.00, 5.00, 6.30
BACK FIRE &FLASH BACK
BACK FIRE: At certain times during flame ignition in gas welding, a small
explosion of the flame occurs at the torch tip. The flame may or may not go
off. This is backfire.
Causes
The gas pressure setting is low. The nozzle is over heated. The nozzle orifice is
blocked by carbon or spark deposits. The nozzle touches the molten pool there
is leakage near the nozzle.
FLASH BACK: Some times during back fire, the flame goes off and the burning
acetylene gas travels backward in the blowpipe towards the regulator of
cylinders. This is known as flash back.
INDICATION OF FLASH BACK
A sharp squealing sound inside the blowpipe may be head. Heavy black smoke
and sparks come out of the nozzle.
Immediate step
Close the blowpipe valves first. Immerse the blowpipe in water close the
cylinder valve.
Combustion ratio of oxygen and acetylene flame
Acetylene 1:2.5oxygen
One volume of acetylene requires two and half volume of oxygen.
DEFECT IN GAS WELDING
1. UNDER CUT 2. EXCESSIVE REINFORCEMENT
3. OVER LAP 4. EXCESSIVE PENETRATION
5. INCOMPLETE PENETRATION 6. LACK OF FUSION
7. POROSITY 8. BLOW HOLES
9. CRACKS 10. CRATER
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS REQUIRED:

PROCEDURE:

CONCLUSION:
MACHINING SECTION
 MACHINING SECTION
LATHE
INTRODUCTION :
In the year 1797 HENY MAUDSLAY an English man designed the first screw-
cutting lathe, which is the forerunner of the present day High-speed heavy
duty production lathe.
FUNCTION OF THE LATHE :
The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it
the required shape and size by holding the work rigidly on the machine and
then turning it against cutting tool which will remove metal from the work in
the form of chips. The tool should be harder than the material.
TYPES OF LATHE :
The types generally used are: SPEED LATHE, ENGINE LATHE, BENCH LATHE,
TOOL ROOM LATHE, CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE, SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHE
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A LATHE :
In a lathe the work piece is held in a chuck or between centers and rotated
about its axis at a uniform speed. The cutting tool held in a tool post is fed in to
the work piece for a desired depth and in the desire direction. Since there is a
relative motion between the work piece and the cutting tool, therefore the
metal is removed in the form of chips and the desired shape is obtained.
SIZE OF A LATHE IS SPECIFIED BY :
Spindle hole diameter, Swing diameter over bed, Length of the bed, Swing
diameter over carriage, Lead screw diameter, Maximum length between
centres, Width of bed, Motor capacity, Spindle speed, Weight of lathe.
PARTS OF LATHE :
BED,HEADSTOCK,TAIL STOCK,CARRIAGE,SADDLE,CROSS SLIDE,COMPOUND
SLIDE,TOOL POST,APRON,LEAD SCREW,FEED SHAFT.
LATHE ACCESSORIES AND ATTACHMENTS ;
Lathe accessories include centres, catch plate and carriers, chuck, collets, face
plate, angle plate, mandrel, and rests. They are used either for holding and
supporting the work or for holding the tool. Attachments are additional
equipment used for specific purposes. They include stops, ball turning rests,
thread chasing dials, and taper turning, milling, grinding, gear cutting, turret,
cutter, and crank pin attachment.
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS :
In lathe machine several measuring instruments are used to check the
dimensions like Outside and In side calliper, Micrometer, Vernier Caliper,
Surface Gauge.
FEED MECHANISM :
The movement of the tool relative to the work is termed as FEED.A lathe tool
may have three types of feed-longitudinal,cross,and angular.When the tool
moves parallel to the lathe axis, the movement is termed as LONGITUDINAL
FEED and effected by the movement of the carriage. 2When the tool moves at
right angle to the lathe axis with the help of the cross slide the movement is
termed as CROSS FEED, while the movement of the tool by compound slide
when it is swivelled at an angle to the lathe axis is termed as ANGULAR FEED.
CUTTING PARAMETERS:
CUTTING SPEED: The speed at which the material is removed and specified in
meters per minute.
FEED: It is defined as the distance which the tool advances for each revolution
of the work. it is usually expressed in millimetre.
DEPTH OF CUT: It is defined as the depth of the tool into the work piece
during cutting. It is usually expressed in millimetre.
TOOL MATERIAL:
Cutting tool is made of carbon steel or tool steel. The single point cutting tools
for lathe are made of high speed steel (HSS). The main alloying elements for
HSS are 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium. 5% to 10% cobalt is also
added to improve the heat resisting properties of the tool.
TOOL GEOMETRY:
A single point cutting tool is used in lathe. The material used should have too
hardness, toughness, heat resistance and low wear. Common used materials
are high carbon steel, high speed steel, cemented carbides, diamond tips.
TOOL SIGNATURE:
Tool shape can be conveniently defined by six angles and a nose radius is called
Tool Signature-Back rake angle, side rake angle, end relief angle, side relief
angle, end cutting edge angle, side cutting edge angle.
SAFETY:
1. Clamp work properly and used correct speed, feed and depth of cut.
2. Stop the machine before making measurement or adjustments.
3. Never change the speeds while the machine is running.
4. Use a brush to clean chips from work.
5. Avoid watching too close to the cutting place.
OPERATION PERFORMED:
1. Centering 6. Grooving
2. Facing 7. Thread cutting
3. Plane turning 8. Chamfering
4. Step turning 9. Finishing
5. Taper turning
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS REQUIRED:

PROCEDURE:

CONCLUSION:
 MILLING
INTRODUCTION:
A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is feed
against a rotating multipoint cutter. The cutter rotates at a high speed and
because of the multiple cutting edges it removes metal at a very fast rate. The
machine can also hold one or more number of cutters at a time. This is
superior to other machines as regards accuracy and better surface finish, and is
designed for machining a variety of tool room work.
TYPES OF MILLING MACHINE:
The milling machine may be classified in several form covering a wide range of
work and capacities, but the choice of any particular machine is determined
primarily by the nature of the work to be undertaken both in relation to the
size and operation to be performed. The usual classification according to
general design of the milling machine are:-
Column and knee type: Hand milling machine, Plain milling machine, Universal
milling machine, Omniversal milling machine, Vertical milling machine.
Manufacturing of fixed bed type: Simplex milling machine, Duplex milling
machine, Triplex milling machine.
Planer type.
Special type: Rotary table milling machine, Drum milling machine, Planetary
milling machine, Pantograph, profiling & tracer controlled milling machine.
PRINCIPAL PARTS
The principal parts of a column and knee type milling machine are:
BASE COLUMN KNEE TABLE
OVERHANGING ARM FRONT BRACE SPINDLE ARBOR
SIZE AND SPECIFICATION:
The size of the column and knee type milling machine is designed by the
dimensions of the working surface of the table and its maximum length of
longitudinal, cross and vertical travel of the table, number of spindle speed,
number of feed, spindle nose taper, power available and the floor space
required etc.
WORK HOLDING DEVICES:
The following are the usual method of holding work on the table.
T-bolts and clamps, Angle plates, V-blocks, Plain vice, Swivel vice, Tool maker
universal vice, Special fixtures
CUTTER HOLDING DEVICE:
The following are the different devices for holding and rotating cutters.
Arbors, Collects, Adapter, Spring collects, Bolted cutters, Screwed on cutters.
MILLING CUTTERS:
The milling cutters are revolving tools having one or several cutting edges. The
cutting elements are called teeth which intermittently engages the workpiece
and cutter. There are different types of standard milling cutters are classified
below : Plain milling cutter, side milling cutter, metal slitting saw, angle milling
cutter, end mill, T-slot milling cutter etc.
MILLING CUTTER MATERIAL:
The milling cutter may be made of high speed steel, super high speed steel,
non ferrous-cast alloys or cemented tipped. The high speed steel cutters are
the most widely used cutters in general shop work.
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE MILLING PROCESSES:
The various milling processes performed by the different milling cutters may
be grouped under two separate headings: peripheral milling and face milling.
The cutting actions of milling cutters to perform are: Peripheral milling, Up
milling, Down milling, Face milling, End milling.
MILLING MACHINE OPERATIONS:
Plain milling, Face milling, Side milling, Straddle milling, Angular milling, Gang
milling, Form milling, Profile milling, End milling, Saw milling, Milling key ways,
grooves and slots, Gear cutting etc.
CUTTING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT:
Cutting speed –The speed of milling cutter is its peripheral linear speed
resulting from rotation. It is expressed in meters per minute. The cutting speed
can be derived from the formula:
𝜋𝑑𝑛
V= meters per min
1000
Where,
v = the cutting speed in m per min
d = the diameter of the cutter in mm
n = the cutter speed in r. p. m .
Feed : The feed in a milling machine is defined as the rate with which the
workpiece advances under the cutter.
Depth of cut : The depth of cut in milling is the thickness of the material
removed in one pass of the work under the cutter. It is expressed in mm.
SAFETY MEASURES IN MILLING :
Learn to operate controls before operating the machine. Work piece must be
rigidly held on the worktable. Do not change spindle speed when the machine
is running. Keep hands and body away from the revolving cutter. Do not
measure work while the cutter is cutting or revolving near the work piece.
Wear snugly fitting clothing. Do not lean on the machine when it is running.
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS REQUIRED:

PROCEDURE:

CONCLUSION :
 SHAPER
The shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool intended primarily to
produce flat surfaces. These surface may be horizontal, vertical, or inclined.
TYPES OF SHAPERS
Shapers are classified under the following headings.
According to the type of mechanism used for giving reciprocating motion to
the ram: Crank type, Geared type, Hydraulic type
According to the position and travel of ram: Horizontal type, Vertical type,
Travelling head type
According to the type of design of the table: Standard shaper,Universal shaper
According to the type of cutting stroke: Push type, Draw type
PRINCIPAL PARTS:
BASE, COLUMN, CROSSRAIL, SADDLE, TABLE, RAM, TOOL HEAD
SHAPER SIZE:
The size of a shaper is determined by the maximum length of stroke or cut it
can make, the type of drive, power input, floor space required, weight of the
machine, cutting to return stroke ratio, number and amount of feed, etc.
SHAPER MECHANISM:
In a shaper, rotary movement of the drive is converted into reciprocating
movement by the mechanism contained within the column of the machine. In
a standard shaper metal is removed in the forward cutting stroke, while the
return stroke goes idle and no metal is removed during this period .To reduce
the total machining time it is necessary to reduce the time taken by the return
stroke. Thus the shaper mechanism should be so designed that it can allow the
ram holding the tool to move at a comparatively slower speed during the
forward cutting stroke, the cutting speed depending upon the type of material
and machining condition, whereas during the return stroke it can allow the
ram to move at a faster rate to reduce the idle return time. This mechanism is
known as quick return mechanism.
WORK HOLDING DEVICES:
The top and sides of the table of a shaper have t-slots for clamping the work.
1-Clamped in a vice, 2-Clamped on the table, 3-Clamped to the angle plate,
4-Clamped on a V-block, 5-Held between shaper index center.
SHAPER OPERATIONS:
A shaper is a versatile machine tool primarily designed to generate a flat
surface by a single point cutting tool. The different operations which a shaper
can perform are as follows:
Machining horizontal surface, Machining vertical surface, Machining angular
surface, Cutting slots, grooves, and keyways, Machining irregular surface, etc.
SHAPER TOOLS:
The cutting tool used in a shaper is a single point cutting tool having rake,
clearance other tool angles similar to a lathe tool. It differs from a lathe tool in
tool angles. Shaper tools are much more rigid and heaver to withstand shock
experienced by the cutting tool at the commencement of is cutting stroke. In a
shaper the tool angle cannot be changed as the tool is always clamped
perpendicular to the surface of the work. As the tool removes metal mostly
from its side cutting age, side rake of 100 is usually provided with little or no
front rake. The side rake to be provided is dependent upon the kind of metal
being cut, the hardness of the tool material, type of cut, and other factors
which influence the rake angle. High speed steel is the most common material
for a shaper tool.
CUTTING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT:
Cutting speed: In a shaper the cutting speed is the rate at which the metal is
removed by the cutting tool. This is expressed in metre per minute.
Cutting speed calculation: The cutting speed in a shaper is expressed by the
formula:
length of the cutting stroke
Cutting speed =
time required by the cutting stroke
Feed: Feed(s) is the relative movement of the tool or work in a direction
perpendicular to the axis of reciprocation of the ram per double stroke and is
expressed in mm. The selection of feed is depend upon the kind of the metal,
type of job, etc.
Depth of cut: Depth of cut (t) is the thickness of metal that is removed in one
cut. It is the perpendicular distance measured between machined surface and
non-machined surface of the workpiece.
MACHINING TIME
If the length of the cutting stroke, breadth of the job, feed and cutting speed
are known, the time required to complete the job may be calculated as :
Let,
L= the length of the stroke in mm.
B= the breadth of the work in mm.
S= the feed expressed in mm/ double stroke.
M= the ratio return time to cutting time.
V= the cutting speed in m/mm.
𝑙
Time taken to complete one double stroke = ( 1+ m )
1000× 𝑣
𝐵
Total number of double stroke required to complete the job =
𝑠
𝐿 ×𝐵 ( 1+𝑚)
So, total time taken to complete the cut =
1000 ×𝑣 ×𝑠
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS REQUIRED:

PROCEDURE:

CONCLUSION :