Definition of theory of mind:

Theory of mind is the cognitive ability to understand that others have different mental
states, thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and desires, allowing us to infer and predict their behavior
and empathize with their perspectives.

The "mechanism of mind" refers to the cognitive processes and functions that
underlie human thinking and problem-solving. Creative thinking involves the generation of novel
and valuable ideas or solutions. Here's a breakdown of the elements you mentioned:

1. Heuristics:
○ Definition: Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that people use to
make decisions and solve problems more quickly and efficiently. They are often
based on past experiences and can be both helpful and prone to biases.

○ Theory: The use of heuristics in creative thinking can be explained through

concepts like divergent thinking, where individuals generate multiple ideas or
solutions quickly by using mental shortcuts like brainstorming or analogy-based
thinking.

2. Models:
○ Definition: Models are simplified representations of complex systems or ideas
that help individuals understand and manipulate those systems or ideas. In the
context of creative thinking, models can provide structure and guidance for
generating innovative solutions.

○ Theory: Creative thinking models can include the Osborn-Parnes Creative

Problem-Solving Process, the Design Thinking process, or other frameworks that
provide a structured approach to creative problem-solving.
 3. Attitude:
○ Definition: Attitude in creative thinking refers to one's mindset and approach to
problems. A positive and open-minded attitude is often conducive to generating
creative ideas.

○ Theory: The attitude that supports creative thinking includes a willingness to take
risks, embrace ambiguity, and think outside the box. This attitude can be fostered
through techniques like encouraging curiosity and a growth mindset.

4. Approach:
○ Definition: The creative approach involves the strategies and methods individuals
use to tackle problems from different angles and perspectives.

○ Theory: Creative approaches can include techniques such as reframing problems,

using analogies, mind mapping, or even adopting a collaborative approach by
working with diverse teams to bring together different viewpoints and ideas.

5. Action:
○ Definition: Creative action refers to the practical steps taken to implement and
test creative ideas or solutions.

○ Theory: Taking action is a crucial part of creative thinking. It involves

prototyping, experimenting, and refining ideas. Action can be guided by feedback
and iteration, allowing for continuous improvement and innovation.

In summary, creative thinking involves leveraging heuristics, models, maintaining a positive

attitude, adopting creative approaches, and taking action to generate novel and valuable solutions
to problems. These elements work together to facilitate the creative process in the "mechanism of
mind."
Theory of Mind refers to the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others, understanding
that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one’s own.
After its first identification in 1978, a large body of research in this field has accumulated,
studying the developmental pathway, neural basis, and deficits of the theory of mind.

Key Takeaways

● Theory of mind (ToM) is the ability to attribute mental states to ourselves and others,
serving as foundational elements for social interaction.
● Having a theory of mind is important as it provides the ability to predict and interpret
the behavior of others.
● During infancy and early childhood, children learn the early skills that they’ll need to
develop their theory of mind later on, such as paying attention to people and copying
them.
● The traditional test for theory of mind is a false-belief task used to assess a child’s
understanding that other people can have beliefs about the world that contrast with
reality.
● Countless empirical studies reveal that this ability develops in toddlers as young as 15
months old and deteriorates with age. Research also demonstrates this ability in some
of our closest relatives: apes.
● Some individuals with autism, Asperger’s, schizophrenia, depression, or social anxiety
disorder exhibit a deficit in theory of mind and perform poorly on related tasks.

Examples Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states — beliefs, intents, desires,
emotions, and knowledge — to ourselves and others. “As humans we assume that others want,
think, believe and the like, and thereby infer states that are not directly observable, using these
states anticipatorily, to predict the behavior of others as well as our own. These inferences, which
amount to a theory of mind, are to our knowledge, universal in human adults” (Premack &
Woodruff, 1978).
 Having a theory of mind allows us to understand that others have unique beliefs and
desires that are different from our own, enabling us to engage in daily social interaction as we
interpret the mental states and infer the behaviors of those around us (Premack & Woodruff,
1978).

Here are some examples:

1. Perspective-taking: A child understands that just because they know a toy is hidden in
a box doesn’t mean another person who wasn’t present during the hiding will know
it’s there.
2. Understanding false beliefs: If a friend watches you place a candy in your pocket but
you secretly move it to your bag when they’re not looking, a child with Theory of
Mind understands the friend will mistakenly believe the candy is still in your pocket.
3. Empathy: If a sibling is crying because they dropped their ice cream, a child with
Theory of Mind will understand the sibling is upset, even if the child still has their own
ice cream.
4. Deception: A child decides to trick their friend by pointing in the wrong direction
when asked about the location of a hidden object, understanding the friend does not
know the actual location.
5. Understanding others’ ignorance: A child knows they learned something new at
school and also understands that their parent doesn’t know this information yet
because they weren’t at school with them.
6. Predicting behavior: A child expects a friend to look for a missing toy in the last
place they left it, showing an understanding of the friend’s beliefs and intentions.

How Does ToM Develop?

We aren’t born immediately knowing that others have unique beliefs and desires that
are unique from our own. It turns out that there are several developmental precursors (or skills)
that infants need to develop their theory of mind later on Westby & Robinson, 2014).
 These skills include the ability to comprehend the concept of attention, understand the
intentions of others, and the ability to imitate others are all rungs on the ladder you must climb
before reaching the platform of theory of mind.

Other developmental precursors necessary for theory of mind to develop include (i)
pretending to be someone else (like a doctor or a cashier); (ii) understanding the causes and
consequences of emotions; and (iii) understanding the people who have different likes/dislikes.

Paying Attention to Other People

According to psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen, attention is one of the first underlying

precursors to the development of a fully-fledged theory of mind. This involves recognizing that
seeing is not merely looking; rather, we can selectively direct our attention to specific objects
and people (Baron-Cohen, 1991). A key example of this attention is joint attention.

Joint attention occurs when two people direct their attention towards the same thing of
interest – often done via pointing so as to direct another’s attention to the same source. When
infants understand this gesture, they are simultaneously processing another person’s mental state,
recognizing that this object is something that another person thinks is of interest (Baron-Cohen,
1991), thus illustrating the beginning phases of the theory of mind.

Intentionality (knowing that people act according to the things they want)

A second core component that contributes to the development of the theory of mind is
that of intentionality, or the understanding that others’ actions are goal-directed and arise out of
unique beliefs and desires, as defined by philosopher Daniel Dennett (1983). Toddlers as young
as 2 years old exhibit an understanding of intentionality (Luchkina et al., 2018) as do
chimpanzees and orangutans (Call & Tomasello, 1998).

To understand that people act in a way that is motivated by their desires (for example, I
am hungry so I will reach for that apple) is to understand that other people have their own desires
(she must be hungry), thus demonstrating a theory of mind, or attributing mental states to others.
Imitation (Copying Other People)

Imitating others is a third building block of theory of mind. The ability to imitate others is
to recognize recognizing that others have their own beliefs and desires. For example, bridging
attention and intentionality, imitation can result when a child realizes that others direct their
attention (to an object, etc.) and do so intentionally (motivated by goal-directed behavior).

Internalizing these two concepts, the child then engages in imitation and may direct his or
her eyes toward that specific object or scene. However, there is some pushback that imitation is
not as much of a crucial precursor for theory of mind. A 2000 longitudinal study found that the
infants’ imitation scores were not associated with later theory of mind ability (Charman, 2000).

Stages of Theory of Mind

Between ages 4-5, children really start to think about others’ thoughts and feelings, and
this is when true theory of mind emerges. The actual development of the theory of mind
generally follows an agreed-upon sequence of steps (Wellman, 2004; Wellman & Peterson,
2012):

Tasks Listed From Easiest to Most Difficult

● Understanding “wanting” : The first step is the realization that others have diverse
desires, and to get what they want, people act in different ways.
● Understanding “thinking”: The second step is the understanding that others also
have diverse beliefs about the same thing and that people’s actions are based on what
they think is going to happen.
● Understanding that “seeing leads to knowing”: The third stage is recognizing that
others have different knowledge access, and if someone hasn’t seen something, they
will need extra information to understand.
● Understanding “false beliefs”: The fourth stage is being aware of the fact that others
may have false beliefs that differ from reality.
 ● Understanding “hidden feelings”: The final stage is being aware that other people
can hide their emotions and can feel a different emotion from the one they display.

Cultural Differences

While these developmental stages seem universal across demographic groups in laying
the groundwork for the formation of theory of mind, different cultures place varying levels of
emphasis on each of the five skills, causing some to be developed later than others.

In other words, cultural importance plays a role in determining the specific order in
which these five milestones are cemented into the mind of a toddler. Those that are more valued
tend to be developed before those that are less so (and this makes sense from an evolutionary
perspective, too).

For example, in individualistic cultures, such as the U.S., a greater emphasis is placed
on the ability to recognize that others have different opinions and beliefs. However, in more
collectivistic cultures such as China, this skill is not as valued and, as a result, might not develop
until later (Shahaeian, 2011).

A study conducted by developmental psychologist Ameneh Shahaeian and colleagues

found that knowledge access was understood earlier than diverse beliefs for Iranian children,
aligning with this collectivist culture’s emphasis on filial respect and knowledge acquisition
(Shahaeian, 2011).

Whereas with Australian participants from a more individualist culture, knowledge

access was understood after comprehending that others have diverse beliefs.

Notably, the researchers found that there was no significant cross-cultural difference in
overall rates of theory of mind mastery (Shahaeian, 2011), indicating that individuals of all
cultures are able to master this skill (Callaghan et al., 2005) despite following different
developmental pathways to do so.
False-Belief Tasks

Most theory of mind studies are conducted with toddlers and infants. Because this is a
developmental concept, researchers are concerned with the age at which individuals adopt a
theory of mind. Most studies that measure theory of mind rely on a false-belief task.

The traditional test for theory of mind is a false-belief task. A false-belief task is
commonly used in child development research to assess a child’s understanding that other people
can have beliefs about the world which are not true. The false-belief task allows researchers to
distinguish unambiguously between the child’s (true) belief and the child’s awareness of
someone else’s different (false) belief (Dennett, 1978).

First-order false-belief tasks assess the realization that it is possible to hold false-
beliefs about real events in the world. An example of a commonly used first-order false-belief
task is the “Unexpected contents”, or “Smarties” task.

Experimenters ask children to predict another child’s perception of the contents of a box
that looks as though it holds a candy called “Smarties” (that actually includes a pencil) (Gopnik
& Astington, 1988). First-order false-belief tasks involve attribution about others’ false-belief
with regard to real events.

In second-order false-belief tasks, the child is required to determine what one character
in a pictured scenario thinks regarding another character’s beliefs (Baron-Cohen, 1995). Thus,
can a child understand that another person’s belief about a situation can be different from their
own and also from reality? For example, a character leaves an object in one location and while
he or she is outside the room, the object is transferred to a new location. Passing this task
demonstrates the realization that it is possible to hold a false-belief about someone else’s belief.
 A commonly used second-order false-belief task is the Sally-Anne task, in which a
character leaves an object in one location, and while he or she is outside the room, the object is
transferred to a new location.

The Sally-Anne Task

 Simon Baron-Cohen (1985) used the Sally–Anne task to investigate whether autistic
children could understand false-belief. The child who is being tested sits at a table on which two
dolls (Anne and Sally) are positioned facing lidded containers (a box and a basket). The
experimenter enacts a scenario with the dolls.

In this task, Sally first places a marble into her basket and then leaves the scene. Anne
then enters, takes the marble out of the basket, and places it into a closed box. The experimenter
then asks the participant where Sally will look for the marble. Three groups of children were
tested (one at a time) – 20 children with autism (experimental group), 14 children with Down’s
syndrome (control group 1), and 27 typically developing children (control group 2).
 If the child passes, he or she will point to the basket, understanding that, although this is
no longer reality (as the marble is now in the basket), Sally possesses a false belief that the
marble is in the basket because she did not watch Anne move it (Baron-Cohen et al., 1985).

To point to the basket is to understand that Sally has her own set of beliefs about the
world that differ from the child’s (he or she knows where the marble actually is).

Findings

● 85% of the typically developing children and 86% of the children with Down’s
syndrome answered the false-belief question correctly.
● 80% of the autistic children fail the false-belief question.

Several studies indicate that children around four or five years of age are able to pass this
false-belief task (Baron-Cohen et al., 1985; Gopnik & Astington, 1988; Nelson et al., 2008; Sung
& Hsu, 2014). However, other studies indicate otherwise – that toddlers as young as 15 months
old have some understanding of a theory of mind. A nonverbal version of the false belief task is
employed for babies of this age, with their looking time serving as the dependent variable.

In other words, following the traditional false belief task in which a toy or object is
hidden, instead of verbally asking the participant where Sally would look, she would come back
and either looks in the basket or box, and experimenters would measure the duration that
participants looked at Sally performing this action.

If the toddlers looked longer when Sally reached for the box, this would indicate that they
expected Sally to look in the basket. And the results demonstrated this, revealing that, even from
a very young age, children do have some understanding of the mental states of others (Onishi &
Baillargeon, 2005; replicated by Träuble et al., 2010).
Problems with TOM

Theory of mind is an important underlying mechanism that allows human social interaction.
Without it, we would greatly struggle to communicate with each other, understand each other’s
behavior, and we wouldn’t be known as the unique social beings that make us so special.

Theory of mind problems can have a range of serious complications.

Autism, Asperger’s, Schizophrenia, Depression and Anxiety

Together, these examples illustrate that while humans do have a unique ability to detect mental
states in others, for some, this ability is reduced or not present at all, thus making social
interaction challenging and all the more stressful.

ToM In the Brain

Like all psychological concepts, our brain is activated when we rely on theory of mind.
Countless neuroimaging studies have helped pinpoint the specific regions that are activated when
we engage in theory of mind tasks, identifying a few key areas of our brain. Administering false
belief tasks while simultaneously scanning the brain and pinpointing which regions are active
has led researchers to identify the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and temporo-parietal junction
(TPJ), among a few other regions, as the main structures that are responsible for theory of mind.

To determine this, researchers have conducted various experimental designs.

A common paradigm relies on a false belief story and false photograph story. As
discussed, a false belief test would involve a story similar to that of Sally and Anne, followed by
asking the participant a question such as “Does Sally expect to find her doll in the basket or
box?”

An example of the control condition, referred to as the false photograph story, is “A

photograph was taken of an apple hanging on a tree branch. The film took half an hour to
develop.
 In the meantime, a strong wind blew the apple to the ground,” followed by asking the
participant, “Does this developed photograph show an apple on the ground or branch” (Callejas
et al., 2011).

Here, there is no inference about another’s mental state but rather about the state of the
apple in the photograph. Studies that utilize this method illustrate that the temporo-parietal
junction (TPJ) is active during the false belief story but not in the brains of participants who are
part of the control group (Saxe & Kanwisher, 2003; Saxe & Powell, 2006; Saxe, Schultz, &
Jiang, 2006).

Additionally, when participants are asked to read stories that describe the thoughts and
beliefs of a protagonist as opposed to a story that merely describes the protagonist’s physical
characteristics, the TPJ activates in the former condition (Saxe & Powell, 2006).

These findings have allowed researchers to conclude that the TPJ is located where the
temporal and parietal lobes meet.

Research studies also examine the role other brain regions play in theory of mind. The
medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), the area that covers part of the frontal lobe, is responsible for
predicting behavioral and emotional consequences of mental states (Aichhorn et al., 2006).
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