GENBIO2: PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
A. PLANT REPRODUCTION
• The propagation of flowering plants by sexual and asexual
reproduction forms the basis of agriculture.
• Flowering plants are the most important group of plants in
most terrestrial ecosystems and in agriculture.
LIFE CYCLES OF PLANTS
• The life cycles of plants are characterized by an
alternation of generations.
o This alternation involves the haploid (n) and diploid
(2n) generations taking turns producing each other.
• The sporophyte (diploid plant) produces haploid spores
by meiosis.
o These spores then divide by mitosis and give rise to
the gametophytes (the small male and female haploid
plants that produce gametes: sperm and eggs).
• Fertilization results in diploid zygotes.
o These zygotes divide by mitosis and form new
sporophytes.
FLOWER STRUCTURE
• Flowers, the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm
sporophyte, are typically composed of four whorls of highly
modified leaves called floral organs, which are separated
by very short internodes.
o They are called determinate shoots, meaning that
they stop growing after the flower and fruit are formed.
• The floral organs – sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels
(pistils) – are attached to a part of the stem called the
receptacle.
• Stamens and carpels are reproductive organs; whereas,
• Sepals and petals are sterile.
SEPALS
• Sepals, which enclose and protect the floral bud before it
opens, are usually green and more leaflike in appearance
than the other floral organs.
PETALS
• In most cases, petals are more brightly colored than sepals
and attract the flower to insects and other pollinators.
STAMEN
• A stamen consists of a filament and an anther.
• A stamen consists of a stalk called the filament and a
terminal structure called the anther; within the anther are
chambers called pollen sacs, in which pollen is produced.
CARPEL
• A carpel has an ovary, a style, and a stigma.
• A carpel has an ovary at its base and a long, slender neck
called the style. At the top of the style is the sticky structure
called the stigma that serves as a landing platform for
pollen. Within the ovary are one or more ovules, with the
number depending on the species.
• The term pistil is sometimes used to refer to a single carpel
or to group of fused carpels.
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TYPES OF FLOWERS BASED
ON THE PRESENCE OF THE WHORLS:
1. COMPLETE
• Is a plant biology term that is used to describe a flower that
is built with four parts which include the sepals, petals,
pistils, and stamens.
2. INCOMPLETE
• If any of the sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens, which are
integral in forming a flower, is missing, a flower is called an
incomplete flower.
TYPES OF FLOWERS BASED ON THE
PRESENCE OF THE REPRODUCTIVE WHORLS:
1. PERFECT/BISEXUAL
• Is one in which both male and female reproductive
structures are present. Both androecium (whorl of stamens)
and gynoecium (whorl of carpels or pistil) are located on the
same flower.
o Example: roses
2. IMPERFECT/UNISEXUAL
• Flower that does not have both male and female structures.
– Staminate flower (male)
– Carpellate/pistillate flower (female)
o Examples: squashes, cucumbers, corn, and grasses
GAMETOPHYTE DEVELOPMENT AND POLLINATION
• Anthers and ovules bear sporangia, structures where
spores are produced by meiosis and gametophytes
develop.
o Pollen grains, each consisting of a mature male
gametophyte surrounded by a spore wall, are formed
within pollen sacs (microsporangia) of anthers.
o An egg-producing female gametophyte, or embryo
sac, forms within each ovule.
• In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen from
an anther to a stigma.
o If pollination is successful, a pollen grain produces a
structure called a pollen tube, which grows and
digests its way down into the ovary via the style and
discharges sperm in the vicinity of the embryo sac,
resulting in fertilization of the egg.
o The zygote gives rise to an embryo, and as the
embryo grows, the ovule that contains it develops
into a seed.
o The entire ovary develops into a fruit containing one
or more seeds, depending on the species.
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 GENBIO2: PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
o Fruits, which disperse by dropping to the ground or
being carried by wind or animals, help spread seeds
some distance from their source plants.
o When light, soil, and temperature conditions are
suitable, seeds germinate, and the embryo carried
in the seed grows and develops into a seedling
(Campbell & Reece, 2005).
The development of angiosperm gametophytes (pollen grains and embryo sacs).
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
• After landing on a receptive stigma, a pollen grain absorbs
moisture and germinates; that is, it produces a pollen tube
that extends down between the cells of the style toward the
ovary.
Growth of the pollen tube and double fertilization.
FROM OVULE TO SEED
• After double fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed,
and the ovary develops into a fruit enclosing the seed(s). As
the embryo develops from the zygote, the seed stockpiles
proteins, oils, and starch to varying extents, depending on
the species. This is why seeds are such major sugar sinks.
Initially, these nutrients are stored in the endosperm, but
later in seed development in many species, the storage
function of the endosperm is more or less taken over by the
swelling cotyledons of the embryo (Campbell & Reece).
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FROM OVARY TO FRUIT
• While the seeds are developing from ovules, the ovary of
the flower is developing into a fruit, which protects the
enclosed seeds and, when mature, aids in their dispersal
by wind or animals. Fertilization triggers hormonal changes
that cause the ovary to begin its transformation into a fruit.
If the flower has not been pollinated, fruit usually does not
develop, and the entire flower withers and falls away.
• During fruit development, the ovary wall becomes the
pericarp, the thickened wall of the fruit. As the ovary grows,
the other parts of the flower wither and are shed (Campbell
& Reece).
DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGIN OF FRUITS
B. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
• Just like the plants, animals reproduce with two principal
modes: asexual (without sex) and sexual (fusion of
gametes) reproduction.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Is the creation of new individuals whose genes all come
from one parent without the fusion of egg and sperm.
• Asexual reproduction has several potential advantages.
o For instance, it enables animals living in isolation to
produce offspring without locating mates.
o It can also create numerous offspring in a short amount
of time, which is ideal for colonizing a habitat rapidly.
• Theoretically, asexual reproduction is most advantageous
in stable, favorable environments because it perpetuates
successful genotypes precisely.
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 GENBIO2: PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION other aquatic aquatic mammals,

• Is the creation of offspring by the fusion of haploid gametes animals. sharks, and some
to form a zygote (fertilized egg), which is diploid. other special types
• The female gamete, the unfertilized egg (also called an of fish).
ovum), is a relatively large cell and not motile.
• The male gamete, the sperm, is generally a much smaller, REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
motile cell. • The details of the reproductive process vary tremendously
• Sexual reproduction increases genetic variability (one of from one organism to another, and so some generalizations
its advantages over asexual reproduction) among offspring were made about animal reproductive systems in order to
by generating unique combinations of genes inherited from understand its variations.
two parents. Thus, by producing offspring having a variety
of phenotypes, sexual reproduction may enhance the REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
reproductive success of parents when environmental MALE FEMALE
factors (including pathogens) change relatively rapidly. 1. Male gonad (testis) 1. Female gonad (ovary)
– in which sperm are – in which eggs are
MECHANISMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION produced. produced.
• In asexual reproduction, a single parent splits, buds, or 2. Sperm duct 2. Oviduct
fragments to give rise to two or more offspring that have – used for the transport of – a tube for the transport of
hereditary traits identical with those of the parent. sperm to the exterior of the egg.
body.
TYPES OF 3. Penis 3. Vagina
ASEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES – the terminal part of the – the terminal portion of the
REPRODUCTION sperm duct which opens oviduct responsible for the
1. Fission – The separation of a Sea anemone onto or into a copulatory receiving of male copulatory
parent into two or organ. organ.
more individuals of
approximately equal SOME REPRODUCTIVE VARIATIONS
size. • Some animals show unique and tremendous diversity in
2. Budding – In which new Cnidarians their methods of reproduction. Even members of the same
individuals arise from and tunicates class may differ markedly in their reproductive process.
outgrowths of existing
ones; the offspring 1. METAGENESIS
may either remain
attached or become • Also known as 'transformation development', refers to an
detached to begin alternation of asexual and sexual generations.
independent life. o Example: hydrozoan Obelia, a polyp generation
gives rise by budding to a generation of medusas. The
3. Fragmentation – The breaking of the Flatworms
motile medusas produce gametes and reproduce
body into several
sexually, giving rise to new generation of polyps. Thus,
pieces, some or all of
there is alternation of generations - polyp, medusa,
which develop into
polyp, medusa, and so on. Both generations consist of
complete adults.
diploid organisms.
4. Regeneration – The regrowth of lost Sea stars
body parts; usually
accompanied with 2. PARTHENOGENESIS
fragmentation. • Also known as 'virgin development', is a form of
reproduction in which an unfertilized egg develops into an
MECHANISMS OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION adult animal. This occurs for several generations, after
• Sexual reproduction involves two parents. Each contributes which males develop, produce sperm, and mate with
a specialized gamete (an egg or sperm); these fuse to form females to fertilize their eggs. In some species,
the fertilized egg, or zygote. parthenogenesis is advantageous in maintaining social
• Fertilization, the fusion of sperm and egg, may take place order; in others, it appears to be an adaptation for survival
inside the body (internal fertilization) or outside the body in times of stressor when there is a serious decrease in
(external fertilization). population.
o Example: Honeybees. The queen honeybee is
inseminated by a male during the "nuptial flight". The
TYPES OF FERTILIZATION sperm she receives are stored in a little pouch
Internal Fertilization External Fertilization connected with her genital tract but closed off by a
• The male generally • Mating partners usually muscular valve. As the queen lays eggs, she can either
delivers sperm cells release eggs and open this valve, permitting the sperm to escape and
directly into the body of sperms into the water fertilize the eggs, or keep the valve closed, so that the
the female. Her moist simultaneously. eggs develop without fertilization. Generally,
tissues provide the o Example: Many fertilization occurs in the fall, and the fertilized eggs are
watery medium required fish, amphibians, quiescent during the winter. The fertilized eggs
for movement of sperm. and other sexual become females (queens and workers); the unfertilized
o Example: Most aquatic animals use eggs become males (drones).
terrestrial animals, external fertilization
few fish, and some (the exceptions are

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 GENBIO2: PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
3. HERMAPHRODITISM
• Means that a single organism produces both eggs and
sperm. Although this form of reproduction is still classified
as sexual, (since both eggs and sperms are involved), it is
an exception to the important generalization that sexual
reproduction involves two different individuals.
o Example: Earthworm. Most hermaphrodites do not
reproduce by self-fertilization. Rather, as in
earthworms, two animals copulate, and each
inseminates the other.
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
1. OVARIES
• Produce both the egg cell and the sex hormones.
• Enclosed in a tough protective capsule and contains many
follicles.
• Egg cell is expelled from the follicle in the process of
ovulation.
2. OVIDUCTS AND UTERUS
• Egg cell is released into the abdominal activity near the
opening of the oviduct, or fallopian tube.
• The uterus is a thick, muscular organ that can expand
during pregnancy to accommodate a 4-kg fetus.
• The inner lining of the uterus, the endometrium, is richly
supplied with blood vessels.
• The neck of the uterus is the cervix, which opens into the
vagina.
3. VAGINA AND VULVA
• Vagina is a thin-walled chamber that is the repository for
sperm during copulation and that serves as the birth canal
through which a baby is born.
• Vulva is a collective term for the external female genitalia.
Vestibule, labia minora, labia majora, clitoris, and
Bartholin's glands are all located in this area having their
special functions.
4. MAMMARY GLANDS
• Present in both sexes but normally function only in women.
• They are not part of the reproductive system but are
important to mammalian reproduction.
• Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete
milk which drains into a series of ducts opening at the
nipple.
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MALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY
1. TESTES (SINGULAR, TESTIS)
• Consist of many highly coiled tubes (seminiferous tubules -
where sperm form) surrounded by several layers of
connective tissue.
• The Leydig cells that are scattered between the
seminiferous tubules produce testosterone and other
androgens.
• The production of normal 'sperm cannot occur at the normal
body temperatures of most mammals, and the testes of
humans and many other mammals are held outside the
abdominal cavity in the scrotum.
2. DUCTS
• From seminiferous tubules, the sperm pass into the
epididymis. During ejaculation, the sperm are propelled
from the epididymis through the muscular vas deferens.
These two ducts (one from each epididymis) run from the
scrotum around and behind the urinary bladder, where each
joins a duct from the seminal vesicle, forming a short
ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory ducts open into the
urethra, the tube that drains both the excretory system and
reproductive system of male. The urethra runs through the
penis and opens to the outside at the tip of the penis.
3. GLANDS
• Three sets of accessory glands - the seminal vesicles,
prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands - add secretions
to the semen, the fluid that is ejaculated.
4. SEMEN IN THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT
• Males usually ejaculates 2-5 ml of semen, and each milliliter
may contain 50-130 million of sperm.
• Prostaglandins in the semen cause thinning of the mucus
at the opening of the uterus and stimulate 15 contractions
of the uterine muscles, which help semen move up to the
uterus.
5. PENIS
• Is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue
derived from modified veins and capillaries.
o During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood
from the arteries. As this tissue fills, the increasing
pressure seals off the veins that drain the penis,
causing it to engorge with blood. The resulting erection
is essential to insertion of the penis into the vagina.
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 GENBIO2: PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

TWO TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS
1. VASOCONGESTION
• The filling of a tissue with blood caused by increased blood
flow through the arteries of that tissue.

2. MYOTONIA
• Increased muscle tension of both skeletal and smooth
muscles.

FOUR PHASES OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

1. EXCITEMENT PHASE
• Preparation of penis and vagina for coitus (sexual
intercourse). During this phase, vasocongestion is
particularly evident in erection of the penis and clitoris;
enlargement of the testes, labia, and breasts; and vaginal
lubrication. Myotonia may occur, resulting in nipple erection
or tension of the arms and legs.

2. PLATEAU PHASE
• Responses in excitement phase continue. In females, the
outer third of the vagina becomes vasocongested, while the
inner two-thirds slightly expands. This change, coupled with
the elevation of the uterus, forms a depression that receives
sperm at the back of the vagina. Breathing increases and
heart rate rises, sometimes to 150 beats per minute - not in
response to the physical effort of sexual activity, but as an
involuntary response to stimulation of the autonomic
nervous system.

3. ORGASM PHASE
• Is characterized by rhythmic, involuntary contractions of the
reproductive structures in both sexes.
• Male orgasm has two stages.
o Emission is the contraction of the glands and ducts of
the reproductive tract, which forces semen into the
urethra.
o Expulsion or ejaculation occurs when the urethra
contracts and the semen is expelled.
• During female orgasm, the uterus and outer vagina
contract, but the inner two-thirds of the vagina do not.
• Orgasm is the shortest response of the sexual response
cycle, usually lasting only a few seconds.

4. RESOLUTION PHASE
• Completes the cycle and reverses the responses of the
earlier stages.

CONTRACEPTION AND ITS TYPES

TYPES EXAMPLE
Ovulation- Oral contraceptives (pills)
suppressing
method
Barrier methods Condom, Diaphragm, Cervical cap
Chemical Spermicidal jelly and foam
Surgical methods Vasectomy and Tubal ligation
Implantation- IUD and Morning-after pill
suppressing
methods
Others Abstinence

Note: Abstinence is the only form of contraception that is

guaranteed 100% effective.

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 GENBIO2: PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

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