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Soft Palate- unsupported posterior

13 Respiratory System Nasal Septum- midline that divides the nasal
cavity
o The respiratory system provides oxygen
Olfactory Receptors- senses of smell are
to the body, disposes of carbon dioxide,
located in the mucosa in the slit like superior
and helps regulate blood pH.
part of the nasal cavity.
o The cardiovascular and respiratory
systems share responsibility for supplying
o Pharynx
the body with oxygen and disposing of
 Is a muscular passageway about
carbon dioxide.
13 cm (5 inches) long that
vaguely resembles a short length
of red garden hose.
 Throat is a mucosa-lined,
muscular tube with 3 regions
 Nasopharynx- reparation
only
 Oropharynx-
 Laryngopharynx-
 Esophagus- entrance of the food
 Pharyngotympanic tubes – drain
the middle ears, open into the
nasopharynx
Tonsils- lymphatic tissue found in the
pharynx
Functional Anatomy of Respiratory System
Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid)
 Oversees gas exchanges between the Palatine tonsils- oropharynx
blood and external environment Lingual tonsils- at the base of
 Exchange of gasses takes place within the tongue
the lungs in the alveoli
 Passageways to the lungs purify,
warm, and humidify the incoming air.
ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
o Nose- button or hooked in shaped
 The only externally visible part of
the
respiratory system
 Air enters the nose through the
external nares (nostrils/ nares)
 The interior of the nose consists
of a nasal cavity divided by a
nasal septum
Nasal Cavity – interior of the nose
Separated from the oral cavity- Palate
Hard Palate- supported by bone
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o Larynx- voice box, routes air and food
into the proper channels and plays a role
in speech.
 Epiglottis – eight rigid hyaline
cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap
of elastic cartilage
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter,
and straighter than left
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller
and smaller branches

 Structures of the Larynx

 Thyroid Cartilage –
largest of the hyaline
cartilages is the shield-
shaped, protrudes
anteriorly and is
commonly called the
Adam’s Apple. o Lungs – alveoli
 Epiglottis- superior  Occupy most of the thoracic
opening of the larynx, cavity
routes food to the larynx  Apex is near the clavicle
and air toward the trachea (Superior portion)
 Vocal folds/ true vocal  Base rests on the
cords – part of the diaphragm (inferior
mucous membrane of the portion)
larynx, vibrate with  Each lung is divided into lobes by
expelled air. fissures
 Glottis-vocal folds & the  Left- 2 lobes
slit like passage way  Right- 3 lobes
(opening)
o Trachea- windpipe, from the larynx
travels down its length (10-12 cm or 4
inches) th the level of the fifth thoracic
vertebra (MIDCHEST)
 Lined with ciliated mucosa
 Beat continuously in the
opposite direction of
incoming air
 Expel mucus loaded with
dust and other debris
away from lungs
 Hyaline Cartilage- Walls are
reinforced with C-shaped trachea
is fairly rigid because its walls are
reinforced
o Bronchi
 Formed by division of the trachea
 Enters the lung at the hilus
(medial depression)

 Covering of the lungs
o Pulmonary Visceral
pluera- Covers the
lung surface
o Parietal pleura lines
the walls of the
thoracic cavity
o Pleural fluid fills the
area between layers
of pleura to allow
gliding
 Pleural space- potential space
than an actual one.
 Respiratory Tree Division
o Primary bronchi
o Secondary bronchi
o Tertiary bronchi
o Bronchiole
o Terminal bronchiole
 The Bronchial Tree
o Bronchioles – smallest
branches of the bronchi
o All but the smallest branches
have reinforcing cartilage
o Terminal bronchioles end in
alveoli
 Respiratory Zone
o Structure
 Respiratory
bronchiole
 Alveolar duct
 Alveoli
o Site of gas exchange
 Alveoli
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o Structure
 Alveolar duct
 Alveolar sac
 Alveolus
o Gas exchange takes place
within the alveoli in the
respiratory membrane.
 Respiratory Membrane – Air-blood
Barrier
o Thin squamous epithelial
layer lining alveolar walls
o Pulmonary capillaries cover
external surfaces of alveoli
 Gas exchange
o Gas crosses the respiratory
membrane by diffusion
 O2 enters blood
 CO2 enters the
alveoli
o Macrophages add protection
o Surfactant coats gas-exposed
alveolar surfaces
Respiratory Physiology
O Events of Respiration
1. Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in
and out of the lungs
2. External respiration – gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli
3. Respiratory gas transport – transport
of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
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4. Internal respiration – gas exchange  Normal pressure within the pleural

between blood and tissue cells in space is always negative (intrapleural
systemic capillaries pressure)
 Differences in lung and pleural space
O Mechanics of breathing (Pulmonary
pressures keep lungs from collapsing
Ventilation)
Non respiratory Air Movements
 Completely mechanical process
 Can be caused by reflexes or
 Depends on volume changes in the
voluntary actions
thoracic cavity
Examples
 Volume changes lead to pressure
 Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of
changes, which lead to the flow of
debris
gases to equalize pressure
 Laughing
 Two phases
 Crying
o Inspiration – flow of air into
 Yawn
lung
 Hiccup
o Expiration – air leaving lung

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 Normal breathing moves about 500

ml of air with each breath (tidal
volume [TV])
Inspiration Exhalation  Many factors that affect respiratory
Diaphragm and Largely a passive capacity
intercostal muscles process which o A person’s size
contract depends on natural o Sex
The size of the lung elasticity
o Age
thoracic cavity As muscles relax,
increases air is pushed out of o Physical condition
External air is the lungs  Residual volume of air – after
pulled into the lungs Forced expiration exhalation, about 1200 ml of air
due to an increase in can occur mostly by remains in the lungs
intrapulmonary contracting internal  Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
volume intercostal muscles o Amount of air that can be
to depress the rib taken in forcibly over the tidal
cage volume
Pressure Differences in the Thoracic Cavity

o Usually between 2100 and
3200 ml
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
o Amount of air that can be
forcibly exhaled
o Approximately 1200 ml
 Residual Volume
o Air remaining in lung after
expiration
o About 1200 ml
 Vital capacity
o The total amount of
exchangeable air
o Vital capacity = TV + IRV +
ERV
o Dead space volume
 Air that remains in
conducting zone and
never reaches alveoli
 150 ml
 Functional volume
o Air that actually reaches the
respiratory zone
o Usually about 350 ml
 Respiratory capacities are measured
with a spirometer
Respiratory Sounds
 Sounds are monitored with a
stethoscope
 Bronchial sounds – produced by air
rushing through trachea and bronchi
 Vesicular breathing sounds – soft
sounds of air filling alveoli
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External Respiration, Gas Transport, and
Internal Respiration
 Oxygen movement into the blood
o The alveoli always has more
oxygen than the blood
o Oxygen moves by diffusion
towards the area of lower
concentration
o Pulmonary capillary blood gains
oxygen
 Carbon dioxide movement out of the
blood
o Blood returning from tissues has
higher concentrations of carbon
dioxide than air the alveoli
o Pulmonary capillary blood gives
up carbon dioxide
 Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich
and carbon dioxide-poor
Gas transport in the Blood
 Oxygen transport in the blood
o Inside red blood cells
attached to hemoglobin
(oxyhemoglobin HbO2)
o A small amount is carried
dissolved in the plasma
 Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
o Most is transported in the
plasma as bicarbonate ion
(HCO3 – )
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o A small amount is carried

inside red blood cells on
hemoglobin, but at different
binding sites than those of
oxygen
Internal Respiration

 Exchange of gases between blood and

body cells
 An opposite reaction to what occurs in the
lungs
o Carbon dioxide diffuses out of
tissue to blood
o Oxygen diffuses from blood into
tissue

Control of Respiration
Neural Regulation of Respiration

 Activity of respiratory muscles is

transmitted to the brain by the phrenic
and intercostal nerves
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 Neural centers that control rate and o Exemplified by chronic bronchitis

depth are located in the medulla and emphysema
 The pons appears to smooth out o Major causes of death and
respiratory rate disability in the United States
 Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is o Features of these diseases
12–15 respirations per minute  Patients almost always
 Hypernia is increased respiratory rate have a history of smoking
often due to extra oxygen needs  Labored breathing
(dyspnea) becomes
Nonneural Factors Influencing Respiratory progressively more severe
Rate and depth  Coughing and frequent
 Physical factors pulmonary infections are
o Increased body temperature common
o Exercise  Most victims retain
carbon dioxide, are
o Talking
hypoxic and have
o Coughing
respiratory acidosis
 Volition (conscious control)  Those infected will
 Emotional factors ultimately develop
 Chemical factors respiratory failure
o Carbon dioxide levels
 Level of carbon
dioxide in the blood
is the main regulatory
chemical for
respiration
 Increased carbon
dioxide increases
respiration
 Changes in carbon
dioxide act directly
on the medulla
oblongata
o Oxygen levels
 Changes in oxygen
concentration in the
blood are detected by  Emphysema
chemoreceptors in the o Alveoli enlarge as adjacent
aorta and carotid chambers break through
artery o Chronic inflammation promotes
 Information is sent to lung fibrosis
the medulla o Airways collapse during
oblongata expiration
o Patients use a large amount of
Respiration Disorders energy to exhale
 Chronic Respiratory Disorders: Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
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o Overinflation of the lungs leads to development and may not be present in

a permanently expanded barrel premature babies
chest  Important birth defects
o Cyanosis appears late in the o Cystic fibrosis – over secretion of
disease thick mucus clogs the respiratory
 Chronic Bronchitis system
o Mucosa of the lower respiratory o Cleft palate
passages becomes severely  Aging effects
inflamed o Elasticity of lungs decreases
o Mucus production increases o Vital capacity decreases
o Pooled mucus impairs ventilation o Blood oxygen levels decrease
and gas exchange o Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
o Risk of lung infection increases decreases
o Pneumonia is common o More risks of respiratory tract
o Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early infection
 Lung cancer
Respiratory Rate Changes throughout Life
o Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer
deaths in the United States Newborns 40 to 80 respirations
o Increased incidence associated per minute
with smoking Infants 30 respirations per
o Three common types minute
 Squamous cell carcinoma Age 5 25 respirations per
 Adenocarcinoma minute
 Small cell carcinoma Adults 12 to 18 respirations
per minute
 Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
 Rate often increases somewhat with
o Apparently healthy infant stops
old age
breathing and dies during sleep
o Some cases are thought to be a
problem of the neural respiratory
control center
o One third of cases appear to be
due to heart rhythm abnormalities
 Asthma
o Chronic inflamed hypersensitive
bronchiole passages
o Response to irritants with
dyspnea, coughing, and wheezing
Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
System

 Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus

 Lungs are not fully inflated with air until
two weeks after birth
 Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface
tension is not present until late in fetal