Dec 2019

Q1

a)

 Motor Learning: Motor learning refers to the process of acquiring and refining motor skills
through practice and experience. It involves the development of the capability to execute a
motor task with precision and consistency. An example of motor learning is when someone
learns to ride a bicycle for the first time. Initially, they may struggle to balance and
coordinate their movements, but with practice, they become more proficient at riding.

 Motor Control: Motor control is the process by which the nervous system coordinates the
muscular and skeletal systems to achieve a desired movement or action. It involves the
integration of sensory information with motor commands to execute precise movements. An
example of motor control is the ability to pour water from a pitcher into a glass without
spilling.

b)

 Continuous Motor Skill: Continuous motor skills involve movements that have no distinct
beginning or end and are often repetitive in nature. An example of a continuous motor skill is
swimming, where the movement of the arms and legs is continuous throughout the activity.

 Fine Discrete Motor Skill: Fine discrete motor skills involve precise, well-defined movements
with a clear beginning and end. An example of a fine discrete motor skill is threading a
needle, where the task requires intricate hand-eye coordination to insert the thread through
the eye of the needle.

c)

 Action 1: Continuous motor skill with variable speed and inclination (e.g., running on a
treadmill with changes in speed and incline).

 Action 2: Fine discrete motor skill (e.g., dribbling a ball on a field without
obstacles/opponents).

 Action 3: Adaptation of motor control to different surfaces (e.g., standing on a different

surface requires adjustments to balance and coordination).

 Action 4: Continuous motor skill with constant rate and no inclination (e.g., cycling on a static
cycle ergometer at a constant rate without incline).

 Action 5: Continuous motor skill with opponents present (e.g., motorcycle racing on a full
course layout with other riders).

 Action 6: Fine discrete motor skill (e.g., basketball player practicing free throws without
opponents or ball, focusing on technique and form).

Question 2

a) Types of Neurons:
 1. Sensory Neurons: Sensory neurons, also known as afferent neurons, transmit sensory
information from sensory organs, such as the skin, eyes, ears, nose, and tongue, to the
central nervous system (CNS). These neurons detect external stimuli or internal conditions
and transmit signals to the brain and spinal cord for processing. For example, sensory
neurons enable the perception of touch, temperature, pain, and other sensory modalities.

2. Motor Neurons: Motor neurons, also known as efferent neurons, transmit signals from the
central nervous system to muscles and glands throughout the body. These neurons carry
instructions from the brain and spinal cord to initiate muscle contractions or glandular
secretions. Motor neurons play a crucial role in controlling voluntary movements, such as
walking, reaching, and speaking.

3. Interneurons: Interneurons, also called association neurons, act as connectors between

sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system. They integrate and process
incoming sensory information and transmit signals to motor neurons, facilitating appropriate
responses. Interneurons are involved in complex neural circuits responsible for reflexes,
motor coordination, and higher cognitive functions.

b) Control Systems for Movement Control:

Open-Loop Control System:

 Similarities: Both open-loop and closed-loop control systems involve the regulation of
movement.

 Differences: In an open-loop control system, the control signal is generated without

feedback from the output. Once the movement is initiated, there is no adjustment based on
feedback. This system relies on pre-programmed instructions and does not modify the
movement based on environmental feedback during execution.

 Example: Throwing a dart at a dartboard can be characterized by an open-loop control

system. Once the throw is initiated, there's no feedback to adjust the trajectory based on
how the dart is flying towards the target.

Closed-Loop Control System:

 Similarities: Both open-loop and closed-loop systems involve movement control.

 Differences: In a closed-loop control system, feedback from the environment or the body is
used to adjust ongoing movements. The system continuously monitors performance and
makes corrections based on the difference between the desired and actual states. It allows
for real-time adjustments to achieve the desired outcome.

 Example: Catching a ball involves a closed-loop control system. As the ball approaches, visual
feedback helps adjust hand movements to intercept and catch the ball accurately based on
its trajectory and speed.

Question 3

a) Types of Vision Used in Human Performance:

1. Foveal Vision: Foveal vision involves focusing on a specific object or point in the visual field
with high acuity. The fovea, a small area at the center of the retina, contains a high density of
cone cells responsible for detailed vision and color perception. Foveal vision is crucial for
 tasks that require precise visual discrimination and attention to detail, such as reading,
driving, and targeting objects in sports like archery or shooting.

2. Peripheral Vision: Peripheral vision encompasses the visual information outside the central
foveal area of the retina. It provides a wide field of view but with lower acuity compared to
foveal vision. Peripheral vision is important for detecting motion, monitoring the surrounding
environment, and maintaining situational awareness. It contributes to spatial orientation,
balance, and the perception of objects in the environment, particularly in activities like
navigating crowded spaces, driving, and participating in team sports.

b) Components and Functions of Proprioceptors in Controlling Human Muscle Movements:

Proprioceptors are specialized sensory receptors located in muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints
throughout the body. They provide feedback to the central nervous system (CNS) about the position,
movement, and tension of muscles and the position of body parts relative to each other.
Proprioceptors play a critical role in controlling human muscle movements by contributing to
proprioception, the sense of body awareness and spatial orientation.

Components of Proprioceptors:

 Muscle Spindles: Muscle spindles are sensory receptors embedded within skeletal muscles,
parallel to muscle fibers. They detect changes in muscle length and the rate of muscle
stretch, providing information about muscle contraction and relaxation.

 Golgi Tendon Organs (GTOs): Golgi tendon organs are sensory receptors located at the
junction between muscles and tendons. They sense changes in muscle tension and force
during muscle contraction, transmitting signals to the CNS to regulate muscle contraction
strength and prevent excessive force that could damage the tendon or muscle.

 Joint Receptors: Joint receptors are sensory nerve endings found in joint capsules and
ligaments surrounding joints. They detect changes in joint position, movement, and
pressure, providing feedback about joint stability, range of motion, and joint congruence
during movements.

Functions of Proprioceptors:

 Sensory Feedback: Proprioceptors detect changes in muscle length, tension, joint position,
and movement, providing sensory feedback to the CNS about the status of muscle and joint
activities.

 Muscle Coordination: Proprioceptive feedback helps coordinate muscle activation patterns

and motor responses to maintain posture, balance, and joint stability during various
movements and activities.

 Motor Control: Proprioceptive information is integrated with other sensory inputs to

regulate muscle tone, coordinate muscle synergies, and adjust motor commands,
contributing to precise and coordinated movements.

 Postural Control: Proprioceptive feedback plays a key role in postural control by continuously
monitoring body position and orientation, adjusting muscle activity to maintain stability and
equilibrium in different environmental conditions and during dynamic activities.

c) Monocular vs. Binocular Vision in Tracking Action of Sport Performance:

Monocular Vision:

 Monocular vision relies on visual input from one eye.

 It provides limited depth perception and spatial awareness compared to binocular vision.

 In sport performance, monocular vision may be utilized in activities where precise depth
perception is less critical, such as running or sprinting in a straight line.

Binocular Vision:

 Binocular vision involves the coordinated use of both eyes to perceive depth, distance, and
spatial relationships accurately.

 It provides superior depth perception and three-dimensional (3D) vision compared to

monocular vision.

 In sport performance, binocular vision is essential for activities requiring precise depth
perception, such as catching a ball, judging distances for aiming in archery or shooting, and
navigating through complex environments with obstacles and opponents.

Question 4

a) General Performance Characteristics of Skill Learning:

1. Improvement: Skill learning involves a noticeable improvement in performance over time as

individuals acquire and refine motor skills through practice and experience.

2. Consistency: Learners demonstrate increased consistency in executing motor skills, showing

reduced variability in performance outcomes.

3. Accuracy: As skill learning progresses, individuals achieve greater accuracy and precision in
performing motor tasks, minimizing errors and deviations from the desired outcome.

4. Efficiency: Skill learning is characterized by enhanced efficiency in movement execution, with

learners achieving the desired outcome using fewer resources (e.g., time, energy) and
exhibiting smoother and more fluid movements.

5. Automaticity: With extensive practice and mastery, skilled performers demonstrate

automaticity in executing motor skills, where movements become highly fluent and require
minimal conscious effort or attention.

b) Performance Curve:

A performance curve graphically illustrates the level of athlete abilities over time or practice sessions.
Typically, the curve shows the relationship between performance (y-axis) and practice or time (x-
axis).

Initially, performance may show rapid improvements, followed by gradual progress as learning
plateaus. The curve may exhibit phases such as an initial rapid improvement phase, a plateau phase,
and possibly a later improvement phase if additional training or experience is provided.

c) Performance Changes Across Stages of Learning:

 1. Novice Stage: In the novice stage, performance is characterized by inconsistency, errors, and
high variability. Learners rely heavily on conscious control and cognitive processing to
execute motor skills. Movements are often slow, inefficient, and lack fluidity.

2. Intermediate Stage: In the intermediate stage, learners begin to demonstrate more

consistent and accurate performance. They develop basic movement patterns and strategies,
relying less on conscious control and more on automated processing. Movements become
smoother and more coordinated.

3. Expert Stage: In the expert stage, performance reaches a high level of proficiency and
consistency. Skilled performers execute motor skills effortlessly and with precision.
Movements are highly automated, requiring minimal conscious effort. Experts can adapt
their skills to various contexts and perform effectively under different conditions.

As learners progress from the novice to expert level, they undergo significant changes in skill
execution, transitioning from conscious and effortful processing to automated and highly efficient
performance.

Question 5

a) Variable Practice vs. Constant Practice:

 Variable Practice: Variable practice involves practicing a skill in a variety of contexts,

conditions, or variations. It challenges learners to adapt and adjust their motor responses to
different situations, enhancing skill generalization and adaptability.

 Constant Practice: Constant practice involves repetitive practice of a skill under consistent
conditions. It focuses on refining specific movement patterns and developing muscle
memory for consistent performance under stable conditions.

b) Implementation of Practice Variability in Motor Skill Training:

 Random Practice: Random practice involves interleaving or mixing different motor skills or
variations within a practice session. It promotes enhanced learning and retention by forcing
learners to constantly switch between tasks, which strengthens cognitive processes and
facilitates skill transfer to diverse contexts.

 Blocked Practice: Blocked practice involves practicing a single skill or variation repeatedly
before moving on to the next task. While blocked practice may lead to short-term
performance gains, it may hinder skill transfer and adaptation to novel situations.

c) Contextual Interference Continuum:

1. Highest Contextual Interference: Random practice, where different skills or variations are
interleaved within a practice session, leading to frequent task switching and high cognitive
demands.

2. High Contextual Interference: Variable practice, where learners experience a range of task
variations or conditions, promoting skill adaptation and transfer across different contexts.

3. Medium Contextual Interference: Mixed practice, which combines elements of random and
blocked practice, offering some variability while still providing opportunities for focused skill
refinement.
4. Low Contextual Interference: Blocked practice, where learners repeatedly practice the same
skill or task under consistent conditions, leading to stable performance but potentially
limiting transfer to novel situations.

5. Lowest Contextual Interference: Constant practice, characterized by repetitive practice of a

single skill or task with minimal variation, focusing on refining specific movement patterns
but limiting skill adaptability and transfer.