Unit 1

Dr. Paramvir Singh, Mechanical Engg. Dept.
, NIT Agartala 1/30/24

https://sites.google.com/view/paramvirsingh/home
Courses Objective Course Content

• To cover the basic principles of classical thermodynamics in a comprehensive • Unit – I
way inconsistent with engineering perspective Definition: Thermodynamic system, control volume, thermodynamic properties, processes,
cycles, homogenous and heterogeneous system, thermodynamic equilibrium, quasi-static
• To develop an intuitive understanding of thermodynamics by insightful
process, work transfer, pdv work, indicator diagram, free expansion, path function.
explanation of the physics and physical arguments • Unit – II
• To lay the foundation of subsequent subjects like Applied Thermodynamics, First law of thermodynamics: quantity of energy and its measurement, first law energy
Fluid Mechanics, Heat and Mass Transfer, Refrigeration, Air Conditioning etc. equation for closed and open loop system under SSSF and USUF condition, application of
first law energy equation to thermodynamic system components such as boiler, turbine,
• To prepare the students efficiently how to use classical thermodynamics in
compressor, nozzle, expander, pump, condenser, first law efficiency, first law analysis of
practical engineering applications
combustion process.
2 3
• Unit – III Thermodynamics

Second law of thermodynamics, quality of energy and its measurements, reversible and
irreversible processes, entropy and its significance, principle of increase of entropy of the
universe, Carnot cycle, Clausius inequality, Application of second law to various
thermodynamic system, combination of first and second law, first and second law
combined, reversible adiabatic work in a steady flow system, unsteady flow, control
system analysis, control volume analysis, Entropy and disorder, availability and
irreversibility, second law analysis of combustion process.
• Unit – IV
Air standard cycles, Otto-cycle, Diesel cycle, Limited pressure cycle, comparison of Otto
and Diesel and dual cycle, Brayton cycle, Stirling cycle and Ericsson cycle.
• Unit – V
Simple vapour cycles, Rankine cycle, Actual vapour cycle processes, comparison of
Rankine and Carnot cycle, Reheat cycle, regenerative cycle, binary vapour cycles.
4 5
1
Dr. Paramvir Singh, Mechanical Engg. Dept., NIT Agartala 1/30/24
Thermodynamics and Energy Continued…

• Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy • One of the most fundamental laws of
• Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes nature is the conservation of energy
principle
Therme (heat) • It simply states that during an interaction,
Greek energy can change from one form to
Thermodynamics words another but the total amount of energy
remains constant
Dynamis (power
or motion)
• Today the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and
Energy cannot be
energy transformations including power generation, refrigeration, and created or destroyed
relationships among the properties of matter
6 7
First use of “thermo-dynamic” History of Thermodynamics

• Although the principles of thermodynamics have been in existence since the
creation of the universe, thermodynamics did not emerge as a science until the
construction of the first successful atmospheric steam engines by
• William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907), Ulster-born Scottish scientist; image from
https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Thomson.html and image giving the first
use of “thermo-dynamic” extracted from his 1849 work Thomas Savery in 1697 Thomas Newcomen in 1712
These engines were very slow and inefficient, but they opened the way for the
development of a new science
9 10
2
Classical and Statistical Thermodynamics

The term
The first and second thermodynamics Study of whole system Study of individual particles
laws of thermodynamics
was first used in
emerged simultaneously a publication by
in the 1850s, primarily Lord Kelvin in
out of the works 1849.
• The macroscopic approach to the • A more elaborate approach, based on

The first thermodynamics study of thermodynamics that does
the average behavior of large groups
textbook was written in 1859 by not require a knowledge of the
William Rankine, a professor at of individual particles, is called
behavior of individual particles is
the University of Glasgow. statistical thermodynamics.
called classical thermodynamics.
• It provides a direct and easy way to
Rudolf Clausius, Lord Kelvin, and William Rankine
Source: Wikimedia Commons. solve engineering problems.
11 12
Application Areas of Thermodynamics Continued…

• All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter; thus, • Other applications of thermodynamics are right where one lives.
it is hard to imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in some
manner.
• Thermodynamics is commonly encountered in many engineering systems and
other aspects of life.
• The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human body, various energy The design of many
conversions occur in trillions of body cells, and the body heat generated is constantly engineering systems, such as
rejected to the environment. this solar hot water system,
involves
• Human comfort is closely tied to the rate of this metabolic heat rejection. We try to thermodynamics.
control this heat transfer rate by adjusting our clothing to the environmental
conditions.
13 14
3
Some application areas of thermodynamics Systems and Control Volumes

• A system is defined as a quantity of
matter or a region in space chosen
for study
• The mass or region outside the
system is called the surroundings.
• The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary.
• Note that the boundary is the contact
Thickness/Mass/Volume of Boundary?
surface shared by both the system
Mathematically, the boundary has zero
and the surroundings.
thickness, and thus it can neither
• Universe: combination of system
contain any mass nor occupy any
and surroundings
volume in space.
15 16
Open, Closed and Isolated System Open, Closed and Isolated System
Type of System Mass Energy
Open System ✓ ✓
Closed System ✕ ✓
Isolated System ✕ ✕
Closed System
Control Mass
System
Thermodynamic Isolated System
Systems
Control Volume
System Open System
Source: Maria Victoria Gonzaga of BiologyOnline.com.
17 18
4
Closed System Open System

Moving Boundary for Closed • An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected
System?
region in space
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor,
turbine, or nozzle
• Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the
device as the control volume
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume
Mass cannot cross the boundaries
of a closed system, but energy can.
A closed system with a moving

boundary.
19 20
Continued… Properties of a System

A control volume can involve fixed, moving, real, and imaginary boundaries. • Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Properties
Intensive properties Extensive properties
Properties are those Properties are those

that are independent whose values depend
of the mass of a on the size or extent
system, such as of the system
temperature,
pressure, and density.
21 22
5
Continued… Continuum
• An easy way to determine whether a property is intensive or extensive is to • It may be defined as a continuous distribution of matter with no voids or empty spaces.
divide the system into two equal parts with an imaginary partition. • Each body is made up of atoms and molecules
• Each part will have the same value of intensive properties as the original system, • The matter is assumed as continuously distributed since the behaviour of atoms and
but half the value of the extensive properties. molecules are too complex to deal with
• It is used to study the measurable behaviour
• The continuum idealization is implicit in many statements we make, such as “the density
of water in a glass is the same at any point.”
• Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.

• Like specific volume (v = V/m) and specific total energy (e = E/m).
23 24
State and Equilibrium Continued..

• Consider a system not undergoing any change.
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
• At this point, all the properties can be measured or calculated throughout the
entire system, which gives us a set of properties that completely describes the • The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.
condition, or the state, of the system. • In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
• At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.
• If the value of even one property changes, the state will change to a different one. within the system.
• A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its
surroundings.
25 26
6
Continued… Continued…
• There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in thermodynamic • Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system is in mechanical
equilibrium unless the conditions of all the relevant types of equilibrium are equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time
satisfied • If a system involves two phases, it is in phase equilibrium when the mass of each
• For example, a system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there
throughout the entire system • Finally, a system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition does not
• That is, the system involves no temperature differential, which is the driving change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur
force for heat flow
A system will not be in equilibrium

unless all the relevant equilibrium
criteria are satisfied
27 28
Processes and Cycles Continued…

• Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is
called a process Process diagrams plotted by
• The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
path of the process visualizing the processes.
• To describe a process completely,
one should specify the initial and
final states of the process, as well
Some common properties that are
as the path it follows, and the used as coordinates are temperature
interactions with the surroundings T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
The P-V diagram of a compression

process.
29 30
7
Quasi-equilibrium Type of Processes

• When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains Isobaric Process Isothermal Process
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-static,
or quasi-equilibrium, process.
• A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow process that
allows the system to adjust itself internally so that properties in one part of the
system do not change any faster than those at other parts.
Isochoric Process Adiabatic Process
31 32
Steady-Flow Process
Isobaric Process Isothermal Process • The terms steady and uniform are used often in engineering, and thus it is
important to have a clear understanding of their meanings.
• The term steady implies no change with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.

• The term uniform, however, implies no change with location over a specified
Isochoric Process Adiabatic Process region
Source
33 34
8
• A large number of engineering devices • The fluid properties can change from point to point within the control volume,
operate for long periods of time under but at any fixed point they remain the same during the entire process
the same conditions, and they are • Therefore, the volume V, the mass m, and the total energy content E of the
classified as steady-flow devices control volume remain constant during a steady-flow process
• Processes involving such devices can
be represented reasonably well by a
somewhat idealized process, called the
steady-flow process, which can be
defined as a process during which a
fluid flows through a control volume
steadily During a steady-flow process, fluid properties Under steady-flow conditions, the mass and
within the control volume may change with energy contents of a control volume remain
position but not with time. constant.
35 36
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Pure Substance

• A quantity of matter homogeneous throughout in chemical composition and • A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure
physical structure is called a phase substance.
• Every substance can exist in any one of the three phases, viz., solid, liquid and • Water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide, for example, are all pure substances.
• A pure substance does not have to be of a single chemical element or compound
gas
• A mixture of various chemical elements or compounds also qualifies as a pure
• A system is homogeneous if any intensive property remains constant
substance as long as the mixture is homogeneous.
throughout the entire system (the same density and composition at every point
• Air, for example, is a mixture of several gases, but it is
in the system)
often considered to be a pure substance because it has a
• A system consisting of a single phase is called a homogeneous system, while a
uniform chemical composition
system consisting of more than one phase is known as a heterogeneous system • However, a mixture of oil and water is not a pure
• When a system is not homogeneous it consists of a series of parts with different substance. Since oil is not soluble in water, it will
properties called phases collect on top of the water, forming two chemically
dissimilar regions.
37 38
9
Continued… Energy Transfer by Heat or Heat Transfer

• A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance as long as Heat is defined as the form of energy that is
the chemical composition of all phases is the same. transferred between two systems (or a Energy can cross the
system and its surroundings) by virtue of a boundaries of a
• A mixture of ice and liquid water, for example, is a pure substance because both phases
temperature difference closed system in the
have the same chemical composition. form of heat and
Heat is energy in transition. It is recognized
• A mixture of liquid air and gaseous air, however, is not a pure substance since the work.
only as it crosses the boundary of a system.
composition of liquid air is different from the composition of gaseous air, and thus the
mixture is no longer chemically homogeneous.
• This is due to different components

in air condensing at different Temperature difference is
the driving force for heat
temperatures at a specified pressure. transfer. The larger the
temperature difference, the
higher is the rate of heat
transfer.
39 40
Continued..
• As a form of energy, heat has energy units, kJ (or British thermal unit (Btu)) being • The heat transfer rate is denoted Q̇ , where the over- dot stands for the time
the most common one. derivative, or “per unit time.”
• The heat transfer rate Q̇ has the unit kJ/s, which is equivalent to kW
• The amount of heat transferred during the process between two states (states 1
• When Q̇ varies with time, the amount of heat transfer during a process is
and 2) is denoted by Q12, or just Q.
determined by integrating Q̇ over the time interval of the process:
• Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is denoted q and is determined from
• When Q̇ remains constant during a process, this relation reduces to

• Sometimes it is desirable to know the rate of heat transfer (the amount of heat
transferred per unit time) instead of the total heat transferred over some time
interval. • where Δt = t2 – t1 is the time interval during which the process takes place
41 42
10
Relationships among q, Q, and Q̇ Modes of Heat Transfer

• Heat transfer during the process, Q (kJ)
• Heat transfer per unit mass, q (kJ/kg)

q = Q/m = 30/2 = 15 kJ/kg
• Heat transfer rate, Q̇ (kW or kJ/s)

Q̇ = Q/𝛥t = 30/5 = 6 kW
43 44
Energy Transfer by Work or Work Transfer Energy Transfer by Work

• Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings • Work is also a form of energy transferred like heat and, therefore, has energy units such
• As discussed earlier, energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in the form of as kJ
heat or work • The work done during a process between states 1 and 2 is denoted by W12, or simply W
• Therefore, if the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be • The work done per unit mass of a system is denoted by w and is expressed as
work
• Heat is easy to recognize: Its driving force is a temperature difference between the
system and its surroundings • The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted Ẇ (see Fig.).
• Then we can simply say that an energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature • The unit of power is kJ/s, or kW
difference between a system and its surroundings is work
• More specifically, work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a
distance
• A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system boundaries are all
associated with work interactions
45 46
11
Continued… Heat and Work Transfer

• Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete description of a heat or Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and its surroundings,
work interaction requires the specification of both the magnitude and direction. and there are many similarities between them:
• One way of doing that is to adopt a sign convention
• The generally accepted formal sign convention for heat and work interactions is as • Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the boundaries.
• That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena
follows:
• heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive
• heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative • Systems possess energy, but not heat or work
• Another way is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate direction (see Fig.)
• Heat and work are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states)
• Heat and work are associated with a process, not a state

• Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state
47 48
Path Functions Continued…

• Path functions have inexact differentials designated by the symbol δ. • The total work done during process 1–2, however, is
• Therefore, a differential amount of heat or work is represented by δQ or δW, respectively, instead
of dQ or dW.
• Properties, however, are point functions (i.e., they depend on the state only, and not on how a
system reaches that state), and they have exact differentials designated by the symbol d.
• A small change in volume, for example, is represented by dV, and • That is, the total work is obtained by following the process path and adding the
the total volume change during a process between states 1 and 2
differential amounts of work (δW) done along the way.
is
• The integral of δW is not W2 − W1 (i.e., the work at state 2 minus work at state 1), which
is meaningless since work is not a property and systems do not possess work at a state
• That is, the volume change during process 1–2 is always the
volume at state 2 minus the volume at state 1, regardless of the
path followed
Properties are point functions; but heat and work are path
functions (their magnitudes depend on the path followed).
49 50
12
Moving Boundary, Displacement or ‘PdV’ Work Continued…

• During the expansion or compression of a gas in a • The work associated with a moving boundary is evaluated for a quasi-equilibrium
piston–cylinder device, part of the boundary (the inner process
face of the piston) moves back and forth. • Consider the gas enclosed in the piston–cylinder device shown in Fig.
• Therefore, the expansion and compression work is often • The initial pressure of the gas is P, the total volume is V, and the
called moving boundary work, or simply boundary work cross-sectional area of the piston is A.
(see Fig.). • If the piston is allowed to move a distance ‘ds’ in a quasi-
• Some call it the PdV work or displacement work. equilibrium manner, the differential work done during this
• Moving boundary work is the primary form of work process is
involved in automobile engines.
• During their expansion, the combustion gases force the • That is, the boundary work in the differential form is equal to the
piston to move, which in turn forces the crankshaft to A gas does a
product of the absolute pressure P and the differential change in
differential amount of
rotate. the volume dV of the system. This expression also explains why work δWb as it forces
the piston to move by a
the moving boundary work is sometimes called the PdV work.
differential amount ds.
51 52
• P is the absolute pressure, which is always positive. • The quasi-equilibrium expansion process described is
shown on a P-V diagram in Fig.
• However, the volume change dV is positive during an expansion process (volume
• On this diagram, the differential area dA is equal to P
increasing) and negative during a compression process (volume decreasing). dV, which is the differential work.
• Thus, the boundary work is positive during an expansion process and negative during a • The total area A under the process curve 1–2 is
compression process. obtained by adding these differential areas:
• The total boundary work done during the entire process as the piston moves is obtained
by adding all the differential works from the initial state to the final state: • A comparison of this equation reveals that the area
under the process curve on a P-V diagram (capital V) is
equal, in magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-
equilibrium expansion or compression process of a
closed system.
• On the P-v diagram (small v), it represents the
The area under the process curve on a
boundary work done per unit mass P-V diagram represents the boundary
work
53 54
13
PdV Work for a Constant-Volume Process PdV Work for a Constant-Pressure Process
Problem: A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150°C. As a result of heat transfer to the Problem: A frictionless piston–cylinder device contains 10 lbm of steam at 60 psia and 320°F. Heat is
surroundings, the temperature and pressure inside the tank drop to 65°C and 400 kPa, respectively. now transferred to the steam until the temperature reaches 400°F. If the piston is not attached to a
Determine the boundary work done during this process. shaft and its mass is constant, determine the work done by the steam during this process.
Solution: Air in a rigid tank is cooled, and both the pressure and temperature drop. The boundary Solution: Steam in a piston–cylinder device is heated and the
work done is to be determined. temperature rises at constant pressure. The Pdv work done is to be
Analysis: The P-V diagram of the process are shown in Fig. determined.
The boundary work can be determined from Eq. to be Assumptions The expansion process is quasi-equilibrium.
• The pressure of the steam within the cylinder remains constant
during this process since both the atmospheric pressure and the
Discussion This is expected since a rigid tank has weight of the piston remain constant.
a constant volume and dV = 0 in this equation. • Therefore, this is a constant-pressure process,
Therefore, there is no boundary work done during
this process. That is, the boundary work done
during a constant-volume process is always zero.
This is also evident from the P-V diagram of the
process (the area under the process curve is zero). since V = mv
55 56
Isothermal Compression of an Ideal Gas or PdV work for Isothermal Process
• From the superheated vapor table, the specific volumes are determined to be Problem: A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100 kPa and 80°C. The air is
• v1 = 7.4863 ft3/lbm at state 1 (60 psia, 320°F) and now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way that the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant.
• v2 = 8.3548 ft3/lbm at state 2 (60 psia, 400°F). Determine the work done during this process.
• Substituting these values yields
• The positive sign indicates that the work is done

by the system
57 58
14
Isothermal Compression of an Ideal Gas or PdV work for Isothermal Process
Problem: A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100 kPa and 80°C. The air is
now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way that the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant.
Determine the work done during this process.
Solution: Air in a piston–cylinder device is compressed isothermally.
The PdV work done is to be determined.
Assumptions
• The compression process is quasi-equilibrium.
• At specified conditions, air can be considered to be an ideal gas
since it is at a high temperature and low pressure relative to its The negative sign indicates that this work is done on the system (a work input), which is
critical-point values.
always the case for compression processes.
For an ideal gas at constant temperature T0,
Note:
• P1V1 can be replaced by P2V2 or mRT0
• Also, V2/V1 can be replaced by P1/P2 since P1V1 = P2V2
59 60
PdV work for Polytropic Process

• During actual expansion and compression processes of gases, pressure and volume are • For an ideal gas (PV = mRT), this equation can also be written as
often related by PVn = C, where n and C are constants.
• A process of this kind is called a polytropic process (see Fig.).
• The pressure for a polytropic process can be expressed as
• For the special case of n = 1 the boundary work becomes
• During actual expansion and compression processes of

gases, pressure and volume are often related by PVn = C,
where n and C are constants.
• For an ideal gas this result is equivalent to the isothermal process discussed in previous
slides
since C = P1V1n = P2V2n
61 62
15
Indicated Power Indicator Diagram

• Indicated power of an engine tells about the health of the engine and also gives an Method using the Indicator Diagram
• The device which measures the variation of the pressure in the cylinder
indication regarding the conversion of chemical energy in the fuel into heat energy.
over a part or full cycle is called an indicator and the plot of such
Indicated power is an important variable because it is the potential output of the cycle.
information obtained is called an indicator diagram.
• Indicator diagram is the only intermediate record available in the
account of total liberated energy before it is measured at the output
• In order to estimate the indicated power of an engine the following methods are usually shaft.
• Thus an indicator diagram gives a very good indication of the process
followed.
of combustion and in the associated factors such as rate of pressure rise,
• (i) using the indicator diagram ignition delay, etc. by its analysis.
• (ii) by adding two measured quantities viz. brake power and friction power • Also the losses occurring in the suction and exhaust strokes can be
studied.
• It is very rare that an indicator diagram is taken to find indicated power
only.
• It is almost invariably used to study engine combustion, knocking,
tuning of inlet and exhaust manifolds, etc.
63 64
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (imep) Indicated Power (ip)

• As the piston moves back and forth between TDC • In working with actual engines, it is often desirable to compute ip from a given Pim and given
and BDC, the process lines on the P-V diagram engine operating conditions.
indicate the successive states of the working fluid • The necessary formula may be developed from the equation of net work based on the mean
through the cycle.
effective pressure and piston displacement.
• The indicated net work of the cycle is represented
by the area 1234 enclosed by the process lines for
that cycle.
• If the area of rectangle ABCD equals area 1234, the
vertical distance between the horizontal lines
represents the imep.
• It is a mean value expressed in N/m2, which, when
multiplied by the displacement volume, Vs, gives L = length of the stroke (m) N = speed in revolutions per minute number of
the same indicated net work as is actually produced A = area of the piston (m2) power strokes per minute
with the varying pressures.
N/2 for a four-stroke engine
N for a two-stroke engine number of cylinders
65 66
16
Free Expansion
• Let us consider a gas/liquid separated from the vacuum
by the the partition.
• Let the partition be removed. The gas/liquid rushes to fill
the entire volume.
• The expansion of a gas/liquid against vacuum is called
free expansion.
• If we neglect the work associated with the removal of
partition, and consider the gas/liquid and vacuum
Expansion against a
together as our system, there is no work transfer involved vacuum involves no
work and thus no
here, since no work crosses the system boundary, and energy transfer.
hence
67
17

Unit 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dr. Paramvir Singh, Mechanical Engg. Dept.

, NIT Agartala 1/30/24

Courses Objective Course Content

• Unit – III Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics and Energy Continued…

First use of “thermo-dynamic” History of Thermodynamics

Classical and Statistical Thermodynamics

• The macroscopic approach to the • A more elaborate approach, based on

Application Areas of Thermodynamics Continued…

Some application areas of thermodynamics Systems and Control Volumes

Source: Maria Victoria Gonzaga of BiologyOnline.com.

Closed System Open System

A closed system with a moving

Continued… Properties of a System

Intensive properties Extensive properties

Properties are those Properties are those

• It is used to study the measurable behaviour

• Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.

State and Equilibrium Continued..

• A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its

A system will not be in equilibrium

Processes and Cycles Continued…

The P-V diagram of a compression

Quasi-equilibrium Type of Processes

Isochoric Process Adiabatic Process

• The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Pure Substance

Continued… Energy Transfer by Heat or Heat Transfer

• This is due to different components

• When Q̇ remains constant during a process, this relation reduces to

Relationships among q, Q, and Q̇ Modes of Heat Transfer

• Heat transfer per unit mass, q (kJ/kg)

• Heat transfer rate, Q̇ (kW or kJ/s)

Energy Transfer by Work or Work Transfer Energy Transfer by Work

Continued… Heat and Work Transfer

• Heat and work are associated with a process, not a state

Path Functions Continued…

Moving Boundary, Displacement or ‘PdV’ Work Continued…

Isothermal Compression of an Ideal Gas or PdV work for Isothermal Process

• Substituting these values yields

• The positive sign indicates that the work is done

Isothermal Compression of an Ideal Gas or PdV work for Isothermal Process

PdV work for Polytropic Process

• During actual expansion and compression processes of

since C = P1V1n = P2V2n

Indicated Power Indicator Diagram

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (imep) Indicated Power (ip)

You might also like