RIGID PAVEMENT

A rigid pavement consists of a subgrade/subbase foundation covered by a slab constructed of

pavement quality concrete.

The concrete must be of sufficient depth so as to prevent the traffic load causing premature
failure. Appropriate measures should also be taken to prevent damage due to other causes. The
proportions within the concrete mix will determine both its strength and its resistance to
climate changes and general wear. The required slab dimensions are of great importance and
the design procedure involved in ascertaining them. Joints in the concrete may be formed in
order to aid the resistance to tensile and compressive forces set up in the slab due to shrinkage
effects.

Types of rigid pavement

1) Continuous Reinforced Concrete (CRC): This is the type of rigid pavement which consists
of reinforcing the slab and lessening the effect of induced internal stresses by the
addition of further reinforcement that increases the slab’s ability to withstand them.
2) Jointed Reinforced Concrete (JRC): This is type of rigid pavement which consists of
dividing the pavement into a series of slabs and providing movement joints between
them to permit the release and dissipation of induced internal stresses.
3) Unreinforced Concrete (URC): Is when the slab is jointed and not reinforced

LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM

"Load transfer” is a term used to describe the transfer (or distribution) load across
discontinuities such as joints or cracks (AASHTO, 1993[1]). When a wheel load is applied at a
joint or crack, both the loaded slab and adjacent unloaded slab deflect. The amount the
unloaded slab deflects is directly related to joint performance. If a joint is performing perfectly,
both the loaded and unloaded slabs deflect equally. Load transfer efficiency is defined by the
following equation:
This efficiency depends on several factors, including temperature (which affects joint opening),
joint spacing, number and magnitude of load applications, foundation support, aggregate
particle angularity, and the presence of mechanical load transfer devices. Most performance
problems with concrete pavement are a result of poorly performing joints (ACPA, 2001). Poor
load transfer creates high slab stresses, which contribute heavily to distresses such as faulting,
pumping and corner breaks. Thus, adequate load transfer is vital to rigid pavement
performance.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

There are a number of key issues that must be addressed in order to properly construct a
concrete (rigid) pavement. These include the positioning of the reinforcement in the concrete,
the correct forming of both joints and slabs and the chosen method of construction, be it
mechanised or manual.

Mechanised paving allows a higher quality concrete finish to be attained. The spreading,
compacting and finishing of the pavement involves use of a fixed form or slip-form paving train.

Concrete paving is a dynamic and vigorous process, so it is imperative that the steel
reinforcement is kept firmly in place throughout. In particular, chairs made from bent
reinforcing bars permit the mesh or fabric reinforcement at the top of the slab to be secured
throughout the concreting process. These chairs should be strong enough to take the weight of
workers required to walk over them during the concreting process. Crack inducers must also be
firmly connected to the subbase
Where the top of the pavement foundation consists of unbound material, it is possible that
grout from the concreting process may leak into it. To prevent this occurring, and to minimise
frictional forces, a heavy-duty polythene separation membrane is positioned between the
foundation and the jointed concrete pavement.

The pavement slab can be constructed in one or two layers. Two layers could be employed
where an air-entrained upper layer is being installed or for ease in the placement of
reinforcement, where the reinforcement could be placed on the lower layer after it has been
compacted, thereby obviating the need for supporting chairs.

Fixed-form paving: Fixed-form paving uses steel forms or a preconstructed concrete edge-
beam to retain the concrete, using machine rails to support and guide the individual items of
plant utilised in the pavement construction process. A train of machines, each individually
operated, run along the rails, executing the basic tasks of: Spreading the concrete Compacting it
by vibration Finishing the surface.Machines for dowel and joint forming that leave the surface
of the concrete with the required texture and the addition of curing compounds may also be
included within the process. The machines themselves may be manually propelled, selfpowered
or towed along the rail.
The sequence of operations for two-layer placement with a fixed-form paver is illustrated
below;

Slip-form paving: The previous method is analogous to manually placing the concrete. The process can
also be completed without using fixed-forms.

It works on the basis that the sides of the pavement slab will support themselves before an initial set has
been developed within the concrete.

It produces a fully compacted slab. It cannot therefore be subsequently disturbed in order to place
dowel or tie-bars, as the surrounding concrete could not then be properly made good. The slip-form
paver spreads, compacts and finishes the concrete with only the forming and finishing of the joint
grooves, texturing and curing done using other pieces of equipment.
However, both methods work on the basis that the full construction process is completed following one
pass over the prepared foundation of the pavement. After the usual curing period the slab can then be
subjected to normal traffic loadings.

Equally good results are possible with both types of paving machine. The slipform paver has certain
advantages/disadvantages associated with it:

 A higher output is achievable as less machinery is involved.

 It will tend to be less expensive as labour costs will be lower due to the increased level of
automation.

But:

 Edge slump may occur just after the concrete has left the paver.
 Greater stockpiles of raw materials such as cement, steel mesh and aggregate are needed in
advance of the operation in order to ensure continuedoutput from the paving train.
 The contractor operating it may be more vulnerable to weather conditions.
 A minor quality control failure can cause the entire system to come to a sudden stop

JOINTS IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

Joints are provided in a pavement slab in order to allow for movement caused by changes in
moisture content and slab temperature. The joint are classified into the following;

1. Longitudinal joints: These are joints that deals with induced stresses most evident
across the width of the pavement.
Longitudinal joints may also be required to counteract the effects of warping along the
length of the slab. They are broadly similar in layout to transverse warping joints.
2. Transverse joints: These are joints across the pavement at right angles to its centreline
inorder to permit the release of shrinkage and temperature stresses. There are four
main types of transverse joints which includes;
a) Contraction joints: Contraction occurs when water is lost or temperatures drop.
Expansion occurs when water is absorbed or the temperature rises. The insertion of
contraction and expansion joints permit movement to happen. Contraction joints
allow induced stresses to be released by permitting the adjacent slab to contract,
thereby causing a reduction in tensile stresses within the slab. The joint, therefore,
must open in order to permit this movement while at the same time prohibiting
vertical movement between adjacent concrete slabs.
Furthermore, water should not be allowed to penetrate into the foundation of the
pavement. The joint reduces the thickness of the concrete slab, inducing a
concentration of stress and subsequent cracking at the chosen appropriate location. The
reduction in thickness is usually achieved by cutting a groove in the surface of the slab,
causing a reduction in depth of approximately 30%. A dowel bar placed in the middle of
the joint delivers the requisite vertical shear strength across it and provides load-
transfer capabilities. It also keeps adjacent concrete surfaces level during temperature
induced movements. In order to ensure full longitudinal movement, the bar is debonded
on one side of the contraction joint.
 b)
c) Expansion
joints:
Expansion
joints differ
in that a full
discontinuity exists between the two sides, with a compressible filler material
included to permit the adjacent concrete to expand. These can also function as
contraction or warping joints.

d) Warping joints:
Warping joints are required in plain unreinforced concrete slabs only. They permit
small angular movements to occur between adjacent concrete slabs. Warping
stresses are very likely to occur in long narrow slabs. They are required in
unreinforced slabs only, as in reinforced slabs the warping is kept in check by the
reinforcing bars. They are simply a sealed break or discontinuity in the concrete slab
itself, with tie-bars used to restrict any widening and hold the sides together.
 e) Construction joints: Construction is normally organised so that work on any given
day ends at the location of an intended contraction or expansion joint. Where this
proves not to be possible, a construction joint can be used. No relative movement is
permitted across the joint.

NOTE:
In all
cases,

reinforcement is required to support dowels/tie-bars during construction.

Concrete slab and joint details

As the strength of concrete develops with time, its 28-day value is taken for specification
purposes, though its strength at 7 days is often used as an initial guideline of the mix’s ultimate
strength. Pavement quality concrete generally has a 28-day characteristic strength of 40
N/mm2, termed C40 concrete. Ordinary

Portland cement (OPC) is commonly used. The cement content for C40 concrete should be a
minimum of 320 kg/m3. Air content of up to 5% may be acceptable with a typical maximum
water cement ratio of 0.5 for C40 concrete

Reinforcement
Reinforcement can be in the form of a prefabricated mesh or a bar-mat. The function of the
reinforcement is to limit the extent of surface cracking in order to maintain the particle
interlock within the aggregate.

In order to maximise its bond with the concrete within the slab, care must be taken to ensure
that the steel is cleaned thoroughly before use. Because the purpose of the reinforcement is to
minimise cracking, it should be placed near the upper surface of the pavement slab. A cover of
approximately 60 mm is usually required, though this may be reduced slightly for thinner slabs.
It is normally stopped approximately 125 mm from the edge of a slab, 100 mm from a
longitudinal joint and 300 mm from any transverse joint.

Transverse lapping of reinforcement within a pavement slab will normally be in the order of 300
mm.

LOAD TRANSFER DEVICES (Dowel bars, Tie bars etc.)

Dowel bars: Dowel bars used in expansion and contraction joints are usually positioned on
metal cradles so that they will not move from their required position while the concrete is
being placed and compacted. These cradles, however, should not extend across the line of the
joint.

Tie bars: Tie-bars in warping joints are also normally part of a rigid construction that allows
them to be firmly secured to the supporting subbase, while those in construction joints can be
inserted into the side of the pavement slab and recompacted. Alternatively, both dowels and
tie-bars can be vibrated into position.

Typical types of machinery used in a fixed-form paving train are:

a) Feeder – receives concrete as it arrives at the required location.

b) Spreader – distributes the concrete across the full width of the pour in question,
discharging it at a controlled rate.
c) Rotary strike-off paddles and compaction beams – regulate the concrete by trimming
any irregularities in the concrete and vibrate its surface.
 d) Dowel/tie-bar placers – place these elements in the appropriate joints either manually
or by vibration.
e) Joint groove formers and finishers – grooves formed by a knife travelling within the
plastic concrete (wet-formed). Otherwise, a vibrating blade can be used to form them
when the concrete has hardened sufficiently.
f) Final finishing equipment – additional compaction and regulation of the concrete after
the dowel and tie-bars have been put in place. (Machine uses two oblique finishing
beams oscillating in opposite directions to achieve a uniform finish to the surface of the
concrete).
g) Curing compound sprayer.
h) Protective tentage.

Effect of Water on Rigid Pavements

 It leads to the failure of the pavement's foundation

 It causes the pavement surface to break-up with time which leads to the formation of
potholes and areas of crazing.
 Water forms between the surface and the vehicle tyres, which reduces the skidding
resistance of a highway.
 Water can be inform of moisture, so once that moisture is lost due to exposure to
sunlight and wind, shrinkage cracks will develop.

DEFECTS

Three types of rigid (concrete) pavement are commonly in use i.e., Jointed Concrete Pavement
(JCP), Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements (JRCP), and Continuously Reinforced Concrete
(CRCP). A fourth type, Prestressed Concrete Pavements, has been used on airport pavements.
Most of the defects apply to all three types of concrete pavements which include;

Surface defects are defects at the surface which do not protrude deeply into the concrete slab
i.e., map cracking, scaling, polished aggregate and pop-outs. Map cracking is a series of
random cracks that extend only into the upper surface of the slab. Scaling is defined as the
process when the thin layers of the surface get dislodged. Polished aggregate refers to the
surface mortar and texturing worn away to expose coarse aggregate. Pop-outs are small pieces
of pavement broken loose from the surface, normally ranging in diameter from 25 to 100 mm
and depth from 13 to 50 mm.

These defects are normally not of major concern, but if action is needed milling, grooving, or
resurfacing can be considered.

Durability cracking (D-cracking) is a progressive condition in that the first cracks that appear
are at the junctions of joint, cracks and pavement edges and progress outward to involve
greater slab areas. The development of D-cracking is strongly dependent on the physical and
chemical character of the ingredients of the concrete mixture, especially the coarse aggregate.
No maintenance procedures are known that will slow or stop the progression of deterioration
in susceptible concrete. D-cracking is considered to be a concrete material problem attributable
to freeze-thaw cycles and a peculiar aggregate pore structure.

Repair of D-cracking is by means of full-depth patching.

Longitudinal cracking describes cracks that are predominantly parallel to the pavement
centreline. Most longitudinal cracking, and especially that which results when fracture does not
take place at weakened-plane longitudinal joints as planned (for instance due to late sawing or
shallow cut-depths), does not become a performance problem nor is it usually a precursor of
the problem development elsewhere. Occasionally, and especially where progressive widening
or spalling of the crack becomes evident, a longitudinal crack can signify the begining of the
foundation settlement or base erosion that prompt treatment may control. If unattended, the
open crack can provide easy entry for surface water to aggravate an already damaging
condition. Longitudinal cracking, if not already present, may take place during the development
of punch-outs in CRCPs.

Timeous crack sealing is the most appropriate maintenance action, unless the slab support is
affected in which case under sealing may have to be considered.
Diagonal cracking is cracking in a direction oblique to the pavement centreline and can be
viewed as an indicator of the existence of a foundation problem (settlement, expansion or
erosion) that may be controllable through early treatment. These cracks should be sealed to
prevent water from entering and affecting the support. Under sealing the slab and fill the voids
should be considered if appropriate. Where more than one diagonal crack develops on a slab, a
shattered slab situation will develop which requires the replacement of the slab.

Transverse cracking is cracking that is predominantly perpendicular to the pavement centreline

and can also take the shape of a "Y". This cracking is expected in a properly functioning CRCP
and ideally 1 to 1.5 m apart. Transverse cracks in groups at close intervals, i.e., cluster cracking,
can be the sign of a potential problem area (e.g., punch-outs). Any abnormal increase in
amount of transverse cracking, especially when accompanied by an increase in spalling, also can
be a sign of problem development. Y-cracking appears to develop mostly when normally
transverse cracks meander sufficiently to either branch or join. Like closely spaced transverse
cracking, it can be a problem location if the underlying support weakens.

Transverse cracking in Jointed Concrete Pavements is often caused by late sawing of joints,
constrained movements at the joints or the lack of slab support. Crack sealing is required as a
maintenance option. Transverse cracking in CRC pavements is expected and only requires
attention if it has developed into closely spaced cluster cracking and punch-outs in which full-
depth patching is required.

Cluster cracking is a group of three or more closely spaced transverse cracks where spacing
may be in order of 150 to 600 mm. This can occur in CRCP and often develops into punch-outs.
Cluster cracking is believed to be associated with such factors as localized areas of change in
subgrade support, lack of concrete consolidation, inadequate pavement thickness, high base
friction, poor drainage, and high temperatures at the time of construction. Concrete mixture
variability might be added to the foregoing list. Because cluster cracking is so often seen early in
the life of a pavement, traffic loads probably are not a basic cause. The appropriate repair is full
depth patching.
A punch-out is the area enclosed by the two closely spaced (usually less than 0.6m) transverse
cracks, a short longitudinal crack, and the edge of the pavement or a longitudinal joint present
only on CRCP. It also includes "Y"-cracks that exhibit spalling, break-up and faulting and occurs
when two transverse cracks at a critical distance apart are connected by a longitudinal crack.
Once a transverse cracks has begun to open, repeated heavy loads continue the breakdown of
aggregate interlock. The process may be aided by corrosion of the steel, which begins when the
crack width becomes large enough to admit water and de-icing salts. A punch-out is a structural
failure in which a small segment of pavement is loosened from the main body and displaced
downward under traffic. The punch-out is usually bounded by two closely spaced transverse
cracks, a longitudinal crack, and the pavement edge and sometimes by the branches of a Y-
crack and the pavement edge. More rarely a punch-out may occur in the interior of a pavement
away from the edge, but these differ from the edge punch-outs in severity and cause. Edge
punch-outs are the major structural distress experienced in CRCPs.

The repair of a punch-out entails deep patching of the portion of the slab which had failed

Faulting of transverse joints and cracks is defined as the difference in elevation across a joint or
crack. This is caused by the loss of slab support due to erosion or settlement. Faulting is the
most important single defect influencing the riding quality of rigid pavements. Further faulting
can be prevented by under sealing and repaired by grinding or slab jacking.

Joint seal damage is any condition which enables incompressible materials or a significant
amount of water to infiltrate into the joint from the surface. Typical types of joint seal damage
are;

Extrusion, hardening, adhesive failure (bonding), cohesive failure (splitting), or complete loss of
sealant.

Intrusion of foreign material in the joint.

Weed growth in the joint.

Damage of construction joints due to the ingress of incompressibles can manifest as a series of
closely spaced transverse cracks or a large number of interconnecting cracks occuring near the
construction joint.

Water bleeding and pumping are the seeping or ejection of water from beneath the pavement
through cracks or joints. Most of the pumping in CRCPs is at the edges, while it can be at the
joints or the edges in Jointed pavements. In some cases it is detectable by deposits of fine
material left on the pavement surface, which were eroded (pumped) from the support layers
and have stained the surface. Inadequate pavement thickness and erodible underlying material
type are the main causes of pumping. Pumping can be rectified by under sealing (i.e., filling of
the voids) and prevented by keeping water out of the pavement and proper load transfer.

Patch deterioration describes the condition of a patch (asphalt or concrete) present on the
rigid pavement. Deteriorated patches should be replaced

Steel rupture in CRCP is almost invariably associated with open cracks or open construction
joints (0.3 mm). Steel rupture in CRCP is a breakage and full loss of continuity in the steel
reinforcement. Loss of tightness at any crack or joint in CRCP is evidence that the steel
reinforcement is not functioning properly and is either in a weakened condition or has already
ruptured. Excessive spalling is likely to be present. Rust stains on the pavement surface suggest
loss of cross-sectional area and the possibility of rupture. Faulting or slab settlement often
indicates that rupture has taken place. Although the actual fracture that takes place may be a
rather sudden occurrence, the weakening process may be gradual, taking place over a period of
time. Asphalt sealing or application of cement grout at an early age can postpone or avert
failure. Failure usually requires repair by removing the damaged material and patching the
area.

Corner breaks are recorded if the portion of the slab is separated by a crack which intersects
the adjacent transverse and longitudinal joints, describing a 45 angle with the direction of
traffic. The length of the sides is from 0.3 m to one-half the width of the slab, on each side of
the corner. These cracks are often caused by the loss of slab support due to erosion and
pumping at the corners.
Full depth patching is required to correct the integrity of the slab and load transfer.

Defects on shoulders can be; - Lane-to-shoulder drop-off which is the difference in elevation
between the edge of slab and outside shoulder; and typically occurs when the outside shoulder
settles.

Lane-to-shoulder separation widens the joint between the edge of the slab and the shoulder.

Deterioration of the flexible shoulder.

The distinction between preventative and remedial is not always clear and actions can often fall
into both categories

REFERENCES

1. AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials. Washington, D.C.

Civil Knowledges. 2021. Types of Joints concrete construction, Rigid Pavament,. [online]
Available at: https://www.civilknowledges.com/types-of-joints-concrete-construction/>
[Accessed 5 December 2021].

Concretenetwork.com. 2021. Sealing Joints in a Concrete Slab – Concrete Network. [online]

Available at: https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete-joints/sealing-filling.html> [Accessed
5 December 2021].

Nptel.ac.in. 2021. Basic concept of pavement analysis and design. [online] Available at:
https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/105104098/TransportationII/
lecture6/2slide.htm> [Accessed 5 December 2021].

Pavementinteractive.org. 2021. Joints – Pavement Interactive. [online] Available at:

https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/construction/placement/joints/> [Accessed 5
December 2021].
Wikipave.org. 2021. Joints – ACPA Wiki. [online] Available at: https://wikipave.org/index.php?
title=Joints> [Accessed 5 December 2021].