- What staining techniques can be used for examining animal and plant cells under a microscope? - Name one locally available material suitable for observing animal cells. - Name one locally available material suitable for observing plant cells. - List two organelles found in both animal and plant cells. - What is the function of ribosomes in a cell? - How does the structure of a plant cell differ from an animal cell? - Describe one function of the nucleus in a cell. - What is the main function of chloroplasts in plant cells? - Name one structure unique to plant cells. - Define the term "cell membrane." - What is the function of the cell wall in plant cells? - What is the role of the cytoplasm in a cell? - Briefly describe the structure of bacterial DNA. - What is the primary function of plasmids in bacterial cells? 2. Specialized Cells, Tissues, and Organs: - Give an example of a specialized cell and its function. - Define the term "tissue" in the context of biology. - Provide an example of an organ in the human body. - How are organs and tissues related? - Define the term "organ system." - Give an example of an organ system in the human body. - Explain how cells become specialized. - Define the term "organism." - How are specialized cells adapted to perform specific functions? - Describe one example of a specialized cell found in plants. - Give an example of a specialized cell found in animals. - How do specialized cells contribute to the overall function of an organ system? - Name one organ system involved in nutrient absorption in the human body. - Explain the relationship between cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. 3. Formula for Magnification: - Define magnification in microscopy. - What does "image size" represent in the magnification formula? - Define "actual size" in the context of microscopy. - How is magnification calculated using the given formula? - Describe one application of magnification in biological research. - Provide an example of when magnification might be used in a laboratory setting. - How does increasing magnification affect the clarity of an image? - Why is it important to calculate the magnification when using a microscope? - What units are typically used for expressing magnification? - Explain how magnification can help in the study of cell structure and function. 4. Concept and Use of a Classification System: - How are organisms grouped in a classification system? - Define a species according to its reproductive capabilities. - What does the binomial system of naming species consist of? - What is the purpose of a dichotomous key in classification? - What are the five kingdoms used in biological classification? - Name the main groups of vertebrates within the animal kingdom. - List the main groups of arthropods within the animal kingdom. - What are the main features used to distinguish ferns from flowering plants? - How are organisms classified using the identified features? 5. Diffusion and Osmosis: - Describe the role of water as a solvent in biological processes. - What provides the energy for diffusion and osmosis? - Define diffusion. - List the factors that influence diffusion. - Define osmosis. - How do plants maintain their structure with the help of osmosis? - Explain the effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues. - Describe the terms turgid, turgor pressure, plasmolysis, and flaccid in the context of osmosis. - What materials can be used to investigate osmosis experimentally? 6. Active Transport: - Define active transport. - Explain why active transport requires energy. - What is the significance of active transport in root hair cells? 7. Biological Molecules: - List the chemical elements present in carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and DNA. - Name some large molecules and their constituent smaller molecules. - Describe chemical tests for starch, glucose and maltose, proteins, and lipids. - Explain the importance of carbohydrates in living organisms. - Describe the structure of a triglyceride. - What are the functions of proteins in biological systems? - Name two types of nucleic acids other than DNA. - What is the significance of starch, cellulose, and glycogen in organisms? 8. Enzyme Action: - Define catalyst. - What are enzymes, and what role do they play in metabolic reactions? - Explain the mechanism of enzyme action, including substrate, active site, enzyme-substrate complex, and product formation. - Describe the specificity of enzymes using the "lock and key" hypothesis. - Explain why enzymes are considered highly specific catalysts. - Describe the role of the active site in enzyme-substrate interactions. - What happens to an enzyme's activity if its active site is altered? - How do enzymes affect the activation energy of a chemical reaction? 9. Effects of Temperature and pH: - How can the progress of enzyme-catalyzed reactions be monitored? - Investigate the effects of temperature and pH on enzyme activity. - Explain how changes in temperature and pH affect enzyme activity, considering kinetic energy, denaturation, and effective collisions. - Discuss the optimal temperature for enzyme activity. - Explain why extreme pH levels can denature enzymes. - How does pH affect the ionization state of amino acid residues in an enzyme's active site? - Describe how changes in temperature affect enzyme kinetics. - What is the relationship between enzyme activity and substrate concentration at different temperatures? 10. Photosynthesis: - Define photosynthesis. - What is the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis? - How does chlorophyll transfer light energy? - Name one carbohydrate produced in photosynthesis and its subsequent use/storage. - Provide the word equation and balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis. - What are the requirements for photosynthesis? - How does light intensity affect the rate of photosynthesis? - Describe an experiment to investigate the factors affecting photosynthesis. - What are the limiting factors of photosynthesis? 11. Leaf Structure: - Why do most leaves have a large surface area and are thin? - Name and label the structures of a dicotyledonous leaf involved in photosynthesis and gas exchange. - Explain the adaptations of stomata and guard cells. - Describe the roles of spongy and palisade mesophyll cells in photosynthesis. - What is the function of air spaces in leaves? - How do vascular bundles contribute to leaf function? - Where are chloroplasts mainly found in leaves? - Name the outermost layer of a leaf and its function. 12. Mineral Nutrition: - Why are nitrate ions important for plants? - What role do magnesium ions play inplant physiology? 13. Uptake and Transport of Water and Ions: - How is the structure of root hair cells related to their function? - Outline the pathway of water through the root, stem, and leaf. - What method can be used to investigate the pathway of water in a cut stem? 14. Transpiration and Translocation: - Define transpiration. - Describe how water evaporates from leaves during transpiration. - Explain the factors that affect the rate of transpiration. - How does wilting occur in plants? - What factors can affect transpiration rate? - Describe the mechanism of water movement in the xylem. - Define translocation. - Identify tissues in transverse sections of non-woody dicotyledonous roots and stems. - State the functions of xylem. - How is the structure of xylem vessels related to their function? 15. Blood: - Identify red and white blood cells under a light microscope. - List the components of blood. - What are the functions of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma? - Describe the transfer of substances between blood in capillaries, tissue fluid, and body cells. 16. Disease: - What is a pathogen? - Define transmissible disease. - How can pathogens be transmitted? - What are the human body's barriers to the entry of pathogens? - Explain the role of mosquitoes as vectors of disease. - Describe malaria as an example of a parasitic disease and its transmission. - How is the mosquito that transmits malaria controlled? - What type of pathogen is HIV? - How is HIV transmitted? - What can HIV infection lead to? - How can HIV be controlled? - What causes cholera and how is it transmitted? - Explain the importance of clean water supply, hygiene, and waste disposal in controlling cholera. - Describe how the cholera bacterium causes symptoms. - What are the effects of excessive alcohol consumption? - What are the effects of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components 17. Antibiotics: - Define a drug. - How are antibiotics used in the treatment of bacterial infection? - What types of pathogens do antibiotics target? - How can the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria be minimized? 18. Immunity: - Describe active immunity. - What are antigens and antibodies? - How do antibodies work in the immune response? - How is active immunity gained? - Outline the process of vaccination. - What is the role of vaccination in controlling disease spread? - What is passive immunity and how is it acquired? - Why is breast-feeding important for passive immunity in infants? - What happens to memory cells in passive immunity? - How does HIV affect the immune system? 19. Excretion: - What is excretion? - How is carbon dioxide excreted from the body? - What is urea, and how is it produced in the body? 20. Coordination and Response in Plants: - Define gravitropism and provide an example. - Explain phototropism and give a real-life scenario. - Describe the role of auxin in controlling shoot growth. - How can gravitropism and phototropism be investigated in shoots and roots? 21. Nuclear Division: - Define chromosomes and their role in carrying genetic information. - What is a haploid nucleus, and how does it differ from a diploid nucleus? - Explain mitosis and its significance in maintaining chromosome number. - Describe the role of mitosis in growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. - What are stem cells, and how do they contribute to specialized cell types? - Define meiosis and its role in producing gametes. - How does cancer develop? 22. Asexual and Sexual Reproduction: - Describe asexual reproduction and provide examples. - Explain sexual reproduction and the process of fertilization. - Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction. 23. Sexual Reproduction in Plants: - Identify and describe the structures of an insect-pollinated flower. - Compare the structures of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers. - Explain the process of pollination and distinguish between self-pollination and cross- pollination. - Discuss the effects of self-pollination and cross-pollination on population variation and adaptation. - Describe the growth of the pollen tube and fertilization. - Explain the development of seeds and fruits after fertilization. - Investigate and describe the structure of a seed. 24. Sexual Reproduction in Humans: - Identify and describe the structures of the male reproductive system. - Identify and describe the structures of the female reproductive system. - Explain the structure of sperm cells and their functions. - Describe the structure of egg cells and their functions. - Define fertilization and its process. - Compare male and female gametes. - Describe the roles of testosterone and estrogen during puberty. - Explain the menstrual cycle and the roles of hormones involved. - Describe the early development of the zygote. - State the functions of the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid. - Identify and describe the placenta and umbilical cord. - Explain how some viruses can affect the fetus through the placenta. 25. Variation: - Define variation and provide examples. - Explain continuous variation and give examples. - Define discontinuous variation and provide examples. - Differentiate between continuous and discontinuous variation. - Provide examples of both continuous and discontinuous variation. 26. DNA: - Describe the structure of DNA. - Define a gene and its function. - Explain how DNA controls cell function. - Describe the relationship between DNA, genes, and proteins. - Explain the significance of the sequence of bases in a gene. 27. Inheritance: - Define inheritance and its significance. - Define allele and provide an example. - Explain the terms dominant, recessive, phenotype, genotype, homozygous, and heterozygous. - Use Punnett squares to predict the results of monohybrid crosses. - Explain why observed ratios may differ from expected ratios in genetics. - Define pure-breeding individuals. - Describe codominance using the ABO blood groups as an example. - Explain the determination of sex in humans. - Define gene mutation and provide an example. - Define chromosome mutation and provide an example. - Identify sources of genetic variation in populations. - Explain the effects of ionizing radiation and certain chemicals on mutation rates. 28. Selection: - Describe natural selection and its key components. - Explain how natural selection leads to the evolution of populations over time. - Describe the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria as an example of natural selection. - Define artificial selection and its process. - Describe the role of artificial selection in agriculture and animal breeding. 29. Biotechnology: - Explain the role of yeast in bread production. - Describe the role of yeast in ethanol production. - Discuss the advantages of using bacteria in biotechnology. - Describe the conditions controlled in fermenters for large-scale production. - Explain the use of enzymes in biological washing powders, fruit juice production, and lactose- free milk. 30. Genetic modification: - Define genetic modification. - Explain the insertion of the human insulin gene into bacterial DNA. - Outline the use of genetic modification in crop plants. - Discuss potential advantages and risks of genetic modification. 31. Energy flow: - Describe the importance of the Sun as the source of energy in biological systems. - Explain the dependence of most life forms on photosynthesis. - Describe the flow of energy through food chains and webs. - Construct and interpret simple food chains. - Define producer, consumer, herbivore, carnivore, and decomposer. - Explain the inefficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels. - Describe why food chains typically have fewer than five trophic levels. - Explain the energy efficiency of eating crop plants versus eating livestock. - Construct and interpret pyramids of numbers, biomass, and energy. 32. Nutrient cycles: - Describe the carbon cycle. - Outline the nitrogen cycle. - Explain the role of fungi and bacteria in decomposition.
33. Ecosystems and biodiversity
- Define population, community, ecosystem, and biodiversity. - Identify factors affecting the rate of population growth. - Understand the impact of human population growth on global resources. 34. Effects of humans on ecosystems: - Outline the causes and consequences of deforestation. - Describe the impacts of over-harvesting and introducing non-native species. - Describe the harmful effects of water pollution, air pollution, insecticides and herbicides, and non-biodegradable plastics. 35. Conservation: - Discuss reasons for species conservation. - Explain conservation methods for forests and fish stocks. - Define sustainable resource and describe its characteristics.