HISTOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
MUSCLE FIBER  Skeletal muscles
 ■ Elongated and oriented parallel to its direction of  Cardiac muscles
action  Smooth muscles
 ■ Cell membrane is known as sarcolemma
 ■ Nucleus is elongated and is parallel to the long axis
SKELETAL MUSCLE
of the muscle fiber
 ■ Cytoplasm is known as sarcoplasm  Striated and voluntary
 strongly acidophilic due to its myoglobin pigment  Forms the main bulk of the body musculature
 ■ Contractility is its fundamental property  Generally attached to the bone except for the
 contraction generates heat intrinsic muscles of the tongue, upper esophagus and
some of the facial expression muscles
NOTE:

CHARACTERISTICS
Functions of Muscles  Long cylindrical and multinucleated cells
 Movements  10-100 u
 Locomotion  Myoblasts; satellite cells
 Maintenance of body posture  Muscle fibers do not branch
 On cross-section
- fibers appear almost equal in size
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION - nuclei are located at the periphery or beneath the
 Voluntary sarcolemma and may be more than 2
under the control of the CNS
Skeletal muscle
 Involuntary
contract in response to stimulation of the autonomic
nervous system
cardiac muscle and smooth muscles

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION

 Striated
presence of transverse or cross-striations known as
dark and light bands
 Smooth
no cross-striations but with longitudinal striations
NOTE: Striated- Skeletal and Cardiac muscle
Non Striated- Smooth Muscle
EXAMPLE OF NOMENCLATURE
Skeletal muscle: Striated, Voluntary Muscle
Cardiac: Striated, Involuntary muscle
Smooth: Non-Striated, Involuntary muscle
 SKELETAL MUSCLE: SATELITE CELL
SKELETAL MUSCLE CONNECTIVE
TISSUE COVERING
 Epimysium: the dense CT surrounding the whole
muscle
 Perimysium: The thin septa that extend to surround
each fascicle
 Endomysium: The delicate reticulum surrounding
individual fibers
SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER
 Fine longitudinal striations and cross- striations are
detectable and both are due to the arrangement of
myofibril
 Longitudinal sections show heavily stained dark bands
alternating with relatively pale bands are seen
 Dark bands are designated A-bands (myosin)
H band
Lighter staining bands are I-bands (actin)
Z line
NOTE:
I bond- is the light bond/color of the fiber
A bond- is the dark bond/color of the fiber
Z disc- the line inside the I bond
H zone- it is the light color inside the A bond
M line- is the line inside the A bond
Sarcomere- is the whole fiber (starting from zline 1
to zline 2)
SARCOMERE
 Structural and functional unit of the skeletal muscle
 The segments of myofibrils between su ccessive
Z-lines
 Includes an A-band and half of the 2 contiguous I-
bands
ACTINE AND MYOSIN
 Actin (thin) myofilaments
 free ends are attached to the Z-line, then
towards the A-band up to the edge of the H-
zone
 Myosin (thick) myofilaments
 occupy the entire A-band
 Actin (thin) myofilaments NOTE: Attached protein tintin for myosin and
 Composed of F-actin, tropomyosin and troponin a-actinin for actin
complex (TnT, TnC, TnI)
 Attached to the a-actinin of the Z disc
 Myosin (thick) myofilaments
 Bound to proteins of M line and to the Z disc by
a large protein called titin (with spring-like
domains)

SLIDING FILAMENT MECHANISM

 Actin filaments slide past the myosin filaments
towards the center of the sarcomere
 H zone becomes narrow and may be obliterated
 I-band also becomes narrow
 A-band remains constant during relaxation and
contraction

NOTE:

 I bond- is the light bond/color of the fiber

 A bond- is the dark bond/color of the fiber
 Z disc- the line inside the I bond
 H zone- it is the light color inside the A bond
 M line- is the line inside the A bond
 Sarcomere- is the whole fiber (starting from zline 1
to zline 2)

NOTE:

 Thick myofilament: It located between the dark

bond
 Thin myofilament: within the lighter bond
 SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 Corresponds to the endoplasmic reticulum of other
cell types
 Consists of membrane-bound sarcotubules that
forms a canalicular network around each myofibril
 Devoid of ribosomes
 Site of sequestration of calcium during muscle
relaxation and for release into the sarcoplasm of
free calcium ions that trigger contraction in
response to a nerve impulse
 Storage of Ca
 Release of Ca during contraction
 sequestration of calcium during muscle
relaxation of muscle
TYPES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS
 Type I or slow, red oxidative fibers
 Type IIa or fast, intermediate oxidative- glycolytic
fibers
 Type IIb or fast, white glycolytic fibers
TYPE I OR SLOW, RED OXIDATIVE
FIBERS
 Many mitochondria; abundant myoglobin
 Oxidative phosphorylation of fatty acids
 For slow, continuous contraction for prolonged
periods such as postural muscles at the back
TYPE IIA OR FAST, INTERMEDIATE
OXIDATIVE- GLYCOLYTIC FIBERS
 Many mitochondria, myoglobin and glycogen
 Both oxidative and anaerobic glycolysis
 For rapid contraction and short burst of activity
such as in athletes
CARDIAC MUSCLES
 Striated and involuntary
 Thickest layer of the heart, the myocardium
 Branching and anastomosing fiber
 Generally have single nucleus per cell
 Ovoid nucleus
 nucleus are centrally located unlike the
skeletal muscle
 Cross-section show moderate variation in the
size of muscle fibers
 Each cell is joined end to end by a surface
specialization called intercalated discs
 Intercalated discs functions
 maintain firm cohesion of successive
cellular units of the myocardium
 transmits the pull of one contractile unit to
the next cellular unit along the long axis of
the myofibrils
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION: PURKINJE MYOCYTES
 Modified cardiac muscle fibers that are
specialized for impulse conduction
 Located in the
 Sinoatrial node at the junction of the superior
vena cava with the right atrium
 Atrioventricular node at the lower part of the
interatrial septum
 Internodal tracts and bundle of His

NOTE:

The one who instructs our heart to beat/pump

NOTE: INTERCALATED DISC- dark stain

 Fine longitudinal striations and transverse striations

are also found
 Sarcomere is also the structural and functional unit
 The component fibers have inherent automicity and
rhythmicity
 Myofibrils closely resemble those of the skeletal
muscle
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum is present but not as highly
developed as skeletal muscle

SMOOTH MUSCLE

 Non-striated and involuntary

 Capable of slow, sustained, resistant to fatigue
contraction
 Muscle fiber is the structural and functional unit

FUSIFORM OR SPINDLE-SHAPED
 Elongated nucleus situated in their widest
central portion
 Vary in their length in the different organs (20 u
- 500 u)
 NOTE: Manipis and parang letter “S”

3 kinds of filaments
 thin actin filaments, 4-8 nm in diameter
 F-actin and calmodulin insert into dense bodies
(contain a-actinin)
 thicker myosin filaments, 15 nm
 intermediate filaments, 10 nm, generally are
desmin
 Rudimentary sarcoplasmic reticulum
 T tubules are absent
 During contraction the borders of the cell
become scalloped and the nucleus distorted

 When in bundles or in extensive layers

 individual fibers are off set such that the wide
portion of the cells are adjacent to the thin
tapering end of neighboring cells
 So in transverse sections
 smooth muscle appear as a mosaic of irregular
polygons of varying sizes
 with nuclei found only in larger cross- sections

LOCATION OF SMOOTH MUSCLES

 Walls of the digestive tract from the middle
of the esophagus to the inner anal sphincter
 Walls of the respiratory tract from the
trachea to the alveolar ducts
 Walls of blood vessels
 Walls of ducts of glands
 Arrector pili muscle found in the hair bulb
of skin
  Stratum basale (Stratum germinativum) – aka basal layer; separates epidermis
and dermal layer
 Stratum spinosum (Malpighian layer) – aka spinus layer; looks like spind daw…
fowkin where
 Stratum granulosum – has dots of granules
 Stratum lucidum – milk white looking layer
 Stratum corneum – mostly dead cell; thickest; this is the layer that sheds.

Epidermis is darker because of melanocytes. Light pink is dermal layer, white part is papillary
dermal layer. Below is reticular layer.

Stratum Basale (Stratum Germinativum)

 Single layer of cells supported by basal lamina. Outer layers flatten as they go.
 Cells are cuboidal or low columnar, nucleus is large and cytoplasm basophilic.
 Intermediate keratin filaments
 Regenerates number of keratinocyte (continuously dividing)
 Has darker staining compared to outer layers. Darker ‘coz of the basophil
 Contain stem cells, their proliferation is responsible for the continuous renewal of
epithelium.
 Mitotic figures are seen
 Human epidermis renewed every 15-30 days
 Skin color is affected by:
 Melanin - dark
 Carotene - yellow
 Hemoglobin – red

Stratum Spinosusm (Malpighian Layer)

 Cuboidal or slightly flattened cells

 Prominent feature is the presence in the cytoplasm of numerous bundles of keratin
 Seen on light microscope and are called tonofilaments — bundles of keratin
 End and insert at desmosomes – reason for spine-like appearance
 Therefore, play an important role in maintaining cell cohesion
 Here, keratinocytes capacity to divide are limited

Stratum Granulosum

 Consists of 3-5 layer of flattened polygonal cells

 Distinguishing features
 Cytoplasm contain large granules with irregular shape called keratohyaline
granules
  Contains fat cells

Appendages of the Skin

 Hairs
 Sebaceous gland
 Sweat gland
 Nails

Hairs

 Formed from invaginations of the epidermis called hair follicles

 Hair and its hair follicle is always inclined at a certain angle to the surface of epithelium
 Arrector pili muscle inserts into the CT sheath of hair follicle slightly above its midpoint;
chills and goosebumps
 Hair shaft extends outside the skin

Hair Follicle Structures

 Hair bulb
 Hair papilla
 Hair matrix (Epithelial cells)
 Glassy layer
 External root sheath
 Internal root sheath

Hairs Absent in the

 Palms and soles

 Lateral surfaces of feet
 Glans penis, inner surface of prepuce
 Clitoris
 Labia minora and inner surfaces of labia majora

Sebaceous Glands

 Embedded in the dermis

 Appendages of the hair follicle located above the insertion of the arrector pili muscle
 Ducts open into the upper 3rd of the follicular canal
 Lobular structures consisting of elongated acini that open into a short duct
 Holocrine glandSecretion is called sebum
Circulatory System Heart
- Blood Vascular System - Muscular organ that is rhythmically
- Lymphatic Vascular System contracting
- Middle mediastinum within the
In adults, it is estimated the total length of
pericardial cavity
vessels is up to 100,000 to 150,000km
- Weight in normal adult
Blood Vascular System o Females: 250-300g
o Males: 300-350g
- Heart – propels bloods; 4 chambers
- Blood vessels
o Arteries
 series of efferent
vessels from the heart
 carries oxygenated
blood going to the
circulatory system
o Blood capillaries
 Smallest arteries and
smallest venous
branch
 Site of the exchange
of oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, and
waste products 4 chambers
between the blood and
tissues. - Right and left atria
o Veins - Right and left ventricles
 Convergence of o Right atria receives blood
venules into a system from the body > right
of a larger channel ventricle will propel the
that continues blood to the pulmonary > left
enlarging as it atria will receive the blood
approaches the heart from the pulmonary > left
carrying blood to be ventricle will propel the
pumped again. blood to the circulation

Lymphatic Vascular System Walls of the heart have 3 layers

- Lymphatic capillaries - Endocardium

o Carry the lymph fluid o lining
- Larger lymphatic vessels - Myocardium
- Thoracic duct and right lymphatic o Thicker part of the walls of
duct the heart; responsible for the
pumping of the blood

KMCC
 o Left ventricle is 3times more
thicker because it is
responsible for propelling the
blood to the circulation
- Epicardium
Endocardium
- Lined by endothelium
o Underneath is a thin
subendothelial layer (contains
collagen and elastic fibers
and dome smooth muscles)
- Subendocardial layer
o Connects the myocardium to
subendothelial layer
o Contains veins, nerves,
branches of impulse-
conducting system
Cardiac Valves
- Central core of dense fibrous tissue
(collagen and elastic fibers)
- Lined on both sides by endothelium
- Bases of valves attached to annuli
fibrosis
- Types
o Atrioventricular; tricuspid
and mitral
o pulmonary, aortic valves
- Function
o Prevent the reflux of blood
during relaxation of heart
Myocardium
- Middle and thickest layer
- Cardiac muscles arranged in layers
which insert intro fibrous skeleton
- Responsible for;
o Pumping blood through
circulation
o Conduction of impulses
Pericardium
- Outer fibrous layer or fibrous
pericardium
- Inner serous layer or serous
pericardium
o External parietal layer
KMCC
 o Inner visceral layer o Septum membranosum
(epicardium)  Interatrial
 Interventricular
Epicardium
 Atrioventricular septa
- Tissue containing the blood vessels
Conducting System
and nerves and corresponds to the
visceral layer of the pericardium - Specialized cardiac muscle fibers for
- Covered by mesothelium impulse conduction
- Subepicardial layer of loos CT o Sinoatrial node (SA)
contains veins, nerves, adipose tissue  Generates an electric
signal that causes the
upper heart chamber
(atria) to contract
o Atrioventricular node (AV)
 Connect the electrical
system of the atria
and ventricles
o Atrioventricular bundle
(bundle of His)
 Quickly transmit the
impulse to the right
and left bundle
branches into the
ventricles
Pericardial Cavity
o Purkinje cells
- Formed by visceral and outer parietal  Plays a major role in
layer of the pericardium electrical conduction
- Has small amount of fluid
o Pericardial fluid (15 to
20mL)
Cardiac Skeleton
- Continuous framework of dense
connective tissue (thick collagen
fibers oriented in various directions)
which;
o Provide attachment for many
cardiac muscles
o Serves as base of valves
Blood Vessels
- Principle components
o Annuli fibrosis – 4 fibrous - Arteries
ring - Capillaries
o Trigona fibrosa - Veins

KMCC
Macrovasculature o Forms boundary between
tunica media and tunica
- Vessels more than 0.1 mm in
adventitia
diameter
- Larger arterioles, muscular and Tunica adventitia
elastic arteries, muscular veins
- Outer coat
Microvasculature - Tunica externa
- Consists principally of collagen
- Visible only under the microscope
(type 1 collagen) and elastic fibers
(<0.5 mm)
- Small arterioles, capillaries, Vasa Vasorum (vessel of the vessel)
postcapillary venules
- Blood supple to blood vessels
- Important site of exchange between
- Numerous in the adventitia of large
blood and surrounding tissues
vessels
Blood Vessels (3 layers) - Supple blood to adventitia and outer
part of tunica media
- Tunica intima
- More frequent in veins than arteries
- Tunica media
- Tunica adventitia (tunica externa) Nerve Supply
Tunica intima - Blood vessels containing smooth
muscles are supplied by sympathetic
- Lined by endothelium supported by
nerve fibers (vasomotor nerve)
subendothelial layer
o Its neurotransmitter is
- In arteries, internal elastic lamina
epinephrine
(elastic interna)
o Forms the boundary between
the tunica intima and tunica
media
o Composed if elastin
o Has gaps that allow diffusion
of substances to nourish the
deeper layers
Tunica media
- Middle layer of circular smooth
muscles
- Variable amounts of elastic fibers,
Classification of Artery
reticular fibers, proteoglycans and
glycoproteins - Elastic artery
- In arteries, has external elastic - Muscular artery
lamina (elastic extena) - Small artery and arterioles
Elastic artery of Conducting artery

KMCC
 - Role: carry blood to the smaller
arteries
- Large elastic arteries
- Thicker intima
- Internal elastic lamina not clear
- Numerous elastic fibers in the tunica
media
- Lumen is larger while wall is thinner
- Include the aorta and its large
branches
Muscular or Distributing artery
- Distribute blood to the organ and
help regulate blood pressure by
contracting or relaxing the smooth
muscle in the tunica media.
- Medium sized arteries
- Intima with very thin subendothelial
layer
- Prominent internal elastic lamina
- Less elastic fibers and more smooth
muscles
- Lumen is smaller and wall is thicker
- Include branchial, femoral, radial,
Blood Capillaries
popliteal arteries and their branches
Small artery and Arterioles
- Arterioles
o 200u to 400u in diameter
with narrow lumen
o Very thin subendothelial
layer; internal elastic lamina
absent; media with 1 or 2
circular smooth muscles
- Small artery
o Tunica media more
developed with larger lumens
- In both, tunica adventitia very thin
- Important segment of the circulation
o Principal component of the
peripheral resistance to flow
that regulate blood pressure
- Small endothelial tubes that connect
arterioles to venules
- Average diameter 5-10u
- Wall is composed of simple
squamous (endothelium) resting on a
basal lamina
- Scattered along the outside are cells
called pericytes
o Perivascular contractile cells
o Possess long branching
processes that extend
circumferentially around each
capillary
o Well developed actin and
myosin
o Help propel blood through
the capillaries
- Pericyte functions
KMCC
 o Help propel blood through
the capillaries
o After tissue injury can
proliferate and differentiate to
form smooth muscles when
Fenestrated Capillaries
capillaries are transformed
into arterioles or large
venules.
Sinusoidal Capillaries (discontinuous)
Blood Capillaries (3 types)
- Continuous type
o Found in; muscle, CT, lungs,
exocrine glands, nervous
tissue.
o Most common type of
capillary
- Fenestrated type
o Seen in; kidney, intestine,
choroid plexus, endocrine
glands
- Sinusoidal (discontinuous)
o Seen in; liver, spleen, other
endocrine glands and bone
Postcapillary Venules
marrow
Continuous Capillaries
- Or tight capillaries
- Endothelium forms a thin
uninterrupted layer around the
capillary
- Allows regulated exchange of
materials
- Found in all types of muscles, CT,
exocrine glands, nervous tissue
- Visceral capillaries
- Endothelium is interrupted with
small circular fenestrae
o Are obliterated by a
diaphragm that is thinner than
cell membrane
o Basal lamina is continuous
o Found in kidneys, small
intestine choroid plexus,
endocrine glands
- Capillaries have wider diameter
- Endothelial cells are separated by
wide spaces
o Have large fenestrae without
diaphragm
- Basal lamina discontinuous
- Found in the liver, bone marrow, and
spleen, and some endocrine glands.
- 15-20u diameter
- Endothelium with very pericytes
- Loose endothelium junctions
- Large diameter and lumen
- Converge to form collecting venules,
then muscular venules
KMCC
 o Thickest coat in the veins is
the tunica adventitia
o Presence of valves

Veins
- Majority of veins are small or
medium-sized with < 1cm diameter
- Wall has 3 layers
o Intima with thin
subendothelial layer
o Media with small bundles of
smooth muscles
o Well developed adventitia
Large Veins
- Veins close to the heart
- Well developed intima
- Relatively thin tunica media
- Thick tunica adventitia
- Veins have valves especially
numerous in the veins of the legs
- Consists of paired semi-lunar folds
of tunica intima
- Prevent backflow of blood
Veins
- Structural differences with arteries
o Veins have lesser smooth
muscle fibers and elastic
fibers Lymphatic Vascular System
o Boundaries of the layers are - Lymphatic capillaries
not very distinct - Larger lymphatic vessels

KMCC
 - The thoracic duct and right - End blindly as rounded or swollen
lymphatic duct ends
Lymphatic Vessels
- Larger lymphatic vessels
o Resemble veins more than
arteries
o 3 layers of coat but less
distinct
o Tunica media smooth muscle
fibers are more developed
o Valves are present
- Thoracic duct and right lymphatic
duct

Lymphatic Capillaries
- Drain interstitial fluid
- Blind ended terminal branches
- Variable diameter between 10-50u
- Single layer of endothelium and
incomplete basal lamina
- Have openings between endothelial
cells with anchoring filaments
- Transport clear fluid called lymph

Lymphatic Capillaries Differ from Blood

Capillaries
- Lymphatic vessels are more variable
with regards to its shape and caliber
- Pericytes are absent
- Incomplete basal lamina

KMCC
 : Module 8

DERMIS (CORIUM)
● TOUGH LEATHERY LAYER OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE THAT
SUPPORTS THE EPIDERMIS AND BINDS IT TO THE
SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
● 2 LAYERS ARE IDENTIFIED
○ SUPERFICIAL PAPILLARY LAYER (COLLAGEN TYPE
III)
○ DEEPER RETICULAR LAYER (COLLAGEN TYPE I)

HYPODERMIS
● SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER
● LOOSE CT WHICH ANCHORS THE SKIN TO THE UNDERLYING
FASCIA OR BONE
● CONTAINS FAT CELLS

OTHER CELLS
● MELANOCYTES
● LANGERHANS CELLS
● MERKEL CELLS

MELANOCYTES
● SPECIALIZED CELLS IN THE BASAL LAYER OR IN THE
UNDERLYING DERMIS
● PRODUCE THE PIGMENT MELANIN, RESPONSIBLE FOR THE APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
PIGMENTATION OF THE SKIN AND HAIR
● MELANIN IS SYNTHESIZED IN THE MELANOCYTES BY THE
● HAIR

ACTION OF TYROSINASE ENZYME ACTING ON TYROSINE

● SEBACEOUS GLAND
● SWEAT GLAND
● NAILS

LANGERHANS CELLS
HAIRS
● STAR-SHAPED CELLS FOUND MAINLY IN THE STRATUM
SPINOSUM
● FORMED FROM INVAGINATIONS OF THE EPIDERMIS CALLED
HAIR FOLLICLES
● ITS MOST RELIABLE IDENTIFYING FEATURE HISTOLOGICALLY
IS THE PRESENCE OF CYTOPLASMIC GRANULES CALLED
● HAIR AND ITS HAIR FOLLICLE IS ALWAYS INCLINED AT A
CERTAIN ANGLE TO THE SURFACE OF EPITHELIUM
BIRBECK GRANULES
● FUNCTION:
● ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLE INSERTS INTO THE CT SHEATH OF
HAIR FOLLICLE SLIGHTLY ABOVE ITS MIDPOINT
○ ANTIGEN TRAPPING AND ANTIGEN PRESENTATION

MERKEL CELLS
● CELLS RESEMBLE KERATINOCYTES BUT HAVE A SMALL
DENSE GRANULES IN THE CYTOPLASM
● FEW CELLS IN THE BASAL LAYER
● PRESENT IN AREAS LIKE THE FINGERTIPS
● SPECIAL ROLE FOR SENSORY PERCEPTION

NICOLE PANGAN 2
 : Module 8

SEBACEOUS GLANDS
● EMBEDDED IN THE DERMIS
● APPENDAGES OF THE HAIR FOLLICLE LOCATED ABOVE THE
INSERTION OF THE ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLE
● DUCTS OPEN INTO THE UPPER 3RD OF THE FOLLICULAR
CANAL
● LOBULAR STRUCTURES CONSISTING OF ELONGATED ACINI
THAT OPEN INTO A SHORT DUCT
● HOLOCRINE GLAND
● SECRETION IS CALLED SEBUM

SWEAT GLANDS
2 TYPES
ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
● COILED TUBULAR GLANDS LOCATED DEEP IN THE DERMIS
● SLENDER DUCT ASCENDS TO THE EPIDERMIS AND OPENS
AS A SWEAT PORE ON SURFACE OF SKIN
● WIDELY DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT THE INTEGUMENT

HAIRS APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS

ABSENT IN THE ● FOUND IN AXILLA, MONS PUBIS, CIRCUMANAL REGION
● LARGER THAN ECCRINE GLAND
● PALMS AND SOLES
● LOCATED IN THE DERMIS AND DUCT OPENS INTO THE
● LATERAL SURFACES OF FEET
CANAL OF HAIR FOLLICLE
● GLANS PENIS, INNER SURFACE OF PREPUCE
● CLITORIS
● LABIA MINORA AND INNER SURFACES OF LABIA MAJORA

NAILS
● PLATES OF CLOSELY COMPACTED HARD KERATIN

NICOLE PANGAN 3
 : Module 8

● FORMED BY KERATINIZATION OF EPITHELIAL CELLS IN A

NAIL MATRIX

PARTS:
● FREE EDGE OF NAIL PLATE, BODY, ROOT WHICH IS THE
PROXIMAL END OF NAIL PLATE COVERED BY SKIN FOLD
● LANULA
● NAIL BED
● NAIL MATRIX
● EPONYCHIUM

NICOLE PANGAN 4
 o Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths (PALS) of spleen
o Internodal regions of the tonsils, in the Peyer's patches of the ileum, and
appendix

Stroma - pink rubber looking on the outside Medulla (no lymphatic nodule) inner
is the capsule (Dense CT

PALS (Periarteriolar lymphatic sheath)

spleen – deep classification
Trabeculae – blue flowy looking structure,
branching thinner and smaller ones are
trabecular sinuses

Ileum (Peyer’s patches) classification:

deep
Cortex - (lymphatic nodule - circular) outer

Lymphoid Nodules or Follicles

 Circumscribed closely packed collections of lymphocytes within areas of di use

lymphoid tissue
 Found in the
o Cortex of lymph nodes
 o Periphery of the white pulp of spleen
o Lamina propria of the digestive and respiratory tracts
o Especially numerous in the tonsils, Peyer's patches and the appendix

Spleen

 PALS
 White pulp
o appears darker because marami siyang
cells – darker portion of spleen
o Central portion is the germinal center
o PALS is beside this

 Red pulp
o pink because of the rbc and because of
the eosin stain
o Lighter

2 Types of Lymphoid Nodules

Primary lymphoid nodule – looks like white pulp

 Commonly used to designate any rounded aggregation of closely packed small

lymphocytes

Secondary lymphoid nodule – looks like germinal center

 Ovoid areas consisting of larger pale-staining cells covered by a cap of small

lymphocytes; sites of active proliferation of B lymphocytes following an initial or
secondary exposure to antigen

Lymphatic Organs and Tissues

 Thymus – Lymph nodes

 Spleen
 MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues)
 GALT (gut-associated lymphoid tissues)
 Tonsils
 Peyer's patches – Appendix

Thymus

 Broad, flat, pyramid-shaped, bilobed organ, well encapsulated

 Located in the superior anterior mediastinum
 Maximum weight at puberty: 20-50 gm
 Functions
o production of lymphocytes in embryonic life
 o immunologic defense of the body

Structure of Thymus

Stroma (of thymus)

 capsule made up of loose CT which have septa extending inwards dividing the thymus
into lobules
 reticular cells serve as supporting cells for the parenchyma

Parenchyma (of thymus)

 Each lobule is made up of an outer darker region called the cortex and an inner lighter
portion called the medulla
 Principal cellular components of thymus
o Lymphocytes (thymocytes)
o Epithelial cells of unusual form (epithelial reticular cells
o A moderate number of macrophages
 6 types of epithelial cells
o Cortex
 type 1, type 2 and type 3 epithelial cells
o Cortico-medullary
 type 4 and type 5
o Medulla
 type 6 epithelial cells are involved in the
formation of the Hassall's corpuscles

Hassall's corpuscles (only in thymus)

 Characteristic of the medulla of thymus

 Consist of concentric mass of squamous cells which
may contain kerato-hyaline granules (acidophilic or
pinkish on H&E)

Lymph Nodes

 Aggregates of lymphoid tissue occurring in series along the course of lymphatic vessels
 Area of abundance
o prevertebral region
o mesentery
o loose CT of neck
o axilla
o inguinal region

Function:

 Filtration
 Immunologic defense of the body
Lymph Nodes Structure

 Rounded or kidney-shaped organ (0.5 cm) with an indentation or concavity (hilus) where
blood and lymphatic vessels enter and leave the organ

Stroma (of lymphoid)

 Capsule made up of dense CT covering with a thickened portion at the hilus

 Inward extensions called trabeculae
 Cellular proportions supported by a network of reticular fibers and reticular cells
 Thymus loose CT
 Lymph node dense CT

Parenchyma (of lymphoid)

Cortex

 The outer darker staining portion

 Composed of dense masses of lymphocytes classified as
o primary lymphoid nodules
o secondary nodules or germinal center (B lymphocytes)
o di use lymphoid tissue occupying the internodular cortex and the inner or deep
cortex (T lymphocytes)
 Germinal center, what parenchyma? B lymphocyte
 Deep cortex, what parenchyma? T lymphocyte

Secondary nodule/germinal

– inner portion

– Parenchyma; B lymphocyte

Medulla

– parenchyma: lymphocyte
Types of Tonsils

Palatine tonsils

 A pair of large ovoid accumulations of lymphoid tissue found at the boundary between
the mouth and oropharynx
 Lined by stratified squamous epithelium

Pharyngeal tonsil

 Unpaired lymphoid tissue found at the posterior wall of the nasopharynx

 Epithelium is pseudostratified ciliated columnar

Lingual tonsils

 Posterior surface of tongue

 Stratified squamous

Peyer’s Patches

 Aggregates of lymphoid nodules found in the lamina propria of the ileum

 M cells
o Basal large intraepithelial pockets

Appendix

 Arise from the cecum

 Aggregates of lymphoid nodules in the lamina propria found throughout the
circumference of the lumen

Blood, Blood Cell Formation, and Bone Marrow

 Organic Components

 Nonmetabolic waste
 Urea, creatinine, uric acid, glucose,
cholesterol, and enzymes (lipase,
amylase, protease)

Formed Elements or Blood Cells

 Erythrocytes
 Platelets
 Leukocytes

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

 Most abundant cells

 8 u; flattened biconcave shape
 6-8 um diameter
 Shape provide a surface area that is optimal for gas di usion into and out of the cell
 Its reversible deformability enable the erythrocytes to alter its shape to squeeze through
the microcirculation
 Vein and Pulmonary artery: Deoxygenated
 Artery and Pulmonary vein: Oxygenated
 Lungs – CO2 out, O2 in
 Life span of 120 days (3-4 months)
 Primarily responsible for tissue oxygenation
 Hemoglobin is a pigment that makes up about 33% of the red cell mass
 RBC count:
o Men: 4.7- 6.1 cell/cu mm
o Women: 4.2 - 5.2 cell/cu mm

White Blood Cell (Leukocytes)

 Granulocytes, monocytes, lymphocytes

 5000 – 10000 cells/cu mm
 Cells responsible for defense against microorganisms and injury
Platelets (Thrombocytes)

 Disk-shaped cytoplasmic fragments

 140,000 to 340,000 cell/cu mm
 Essential for blood coagulation and control of bleeding

Hemopoiesis

 Mesoblastic Phase (Yolk Sac Phase)

o 2nd week of gestation, blood formation detectable in mesenchyme of the body
stalk and the nearby yolk sac
 Hepatic Phase (Liver Phase)
o Blood formation shift to the liver, later the spleen also becomes site of
hemopoiesis
o 5th month of gestation
 Myeloid Phase (Medullary Phase)
o Bone marrow

Bone Marrow

 Occupies the cylindrical cavities of the long bones and the spony portion of the
vertebrae, ribs, sternum, the flat bones of the cranium, and pelvis
 Soft, highly cellular tissue which occupies the are of cancellous (spongy) bone
 Blood cells come from pluripotential stem cells = lymphoid multipotential cells (B
cell, T cell, natural killer cell) and myeloid multipotential cells (RBC, platelet,
monocyte, neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil)
 Endocrine Glands

 Series of ductless glands that secrete hormones. This is directed towards our blood.
 Our endocrine system is considered a regulatory system.
 Hormones regulate the di erent
mechanisms of the body.
 Endocrine glands are composed of
secretory cells. These secretory
cells will release their products—
signalling molcules (hormones)

Two Types of Glands

 Exocrine – has channels (ducts)

 Endocrine

2 Types of Endocrine Glands Base on the

Arrangement of Cells

 Those that for anastomosing cords interspersed between dilated blood capillaries.
o Adrenals, parathyroid, anterior pituitary — hormones are dispersed in blood
vessels.
 Those arranged as vesicles or follicles filled with noncellular material.
o Thyroid gland — vesicle act as vehicle

Glands

 Pituitary gland — “hypophysis”; is the master gland.

 Pineal gland — located in our brain to regulate sleeping patterns.
 Thyroid gland — neck area; butterfly-shaped
 Parathyroid glands — 4 glands at the back of our thyroid. Responsible for our calcium
homeostasis
 Adrenal glands — ad means above; responsible for our steroid hormones
 Endocrine pancreas — releases insulin and glucagon (carbohyrates)

Hypothalamus

 It is attached to our posterior pituitary gland through our infundibulum (pituitary stalk)
 Link between our nervous system and endocrine system.
 They release regulatory, antidiuretic, and oxytocin.
 Regulatory hormones are our releasing hormones.
 Antidiuretic hormones are also known as arginine vasopressin.
 Oxytocin plays a big role in pregnancy.
Pineal Gland

 Releases melatonin — for sleep

 Melatonin increases at night (in the dark)

Pituitary Gland

 Anterior and posterior

 They are responsible for releasing stimulating hormones. Stimulating hormones target
specific endocrine glands.
 Anterior Pituitary Gland – pars tuberalis, pars intermedia, pars distalis
o Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - stimulates adrenal glands to produce
cortisol, etc.
o Growth hormone (GH)
o Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - along with LH stimulates ovaries and testes
to release estrogen and testosterone, etc.
o Luteinizing hormone (LH)
o Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
o Prolactin (PRL)
o Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - release of calcitonin and thyroid hormones
 Posterior Pituitary Gland – median eminence and pars nervosa
o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
o Oxytocin (OT)

Thyroid Gland  Calcitonin and thyroid

Parathyroid Gland  Erythropoietin targets bone marrow
(contains receptor of EPO) for the
 Located on the posterior surface of
release of RBC
thyroid.
 Renin is for our sodium; maintain
 Releases parathyroid hormones
blood pressure
(PTH) for the balance of our calcium
Gastrointestinal Tract
Thymosin
 Cholecystokinin (CCK), gastric
 Thymopoietin and thymosin — also
inhibitory peptide (GIP), gastrin,
part of our immune system
secretin, and vasoactive intestinal
Heart peptide (VIP)

 Atriopeptin Pancreatic Islets

Adrenal Glands  Glucagon, insulin, somatostatin,

and pancreatic polypeptide
 Cortex: corticosteroids  Carbohydrate metabolism
 Medulla: epinephrine (E) and
norepinephrine (NE) Testes

Kidney  Androgens and inhibin

 Calcitriol, erythropoietin (EPO), and

renin
Ovaries

 Estrogen, inhibin, and progesterone

Classification of Endocrine Glands Based on the Chemical Nature of Their Hormones

 Polypeptide-secreting endocrine glands: secrete peptides, proteins, glycoproteins

o Beta cells of pancreas
o Hypophysis
o Thyroid gland
o Parathyroid gland
 Steroid-secreting endocrine glands: secrete steroids
o Ovary
o Testes
o Adrenal glands

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

 Small ovoid organ

 Size: 10x13x6 mm
 Weight: 0.5 gm in adults
 Located in the base of the brain,
within the cavity of the sphenoid
bone, the sella turica (Turkish
Saddle)
 o E ects on cells: increase uptake of amino acids and increase protein synthesis
o Secretion stimulated by growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) from the
hypothalamus.

Mammotrophs or Lactotrophs

 Cells are few and distributed individually

 Secrete lactogenic hormone prolactin
o Promote mammary gland development during pregnancy and lactation

Basophils

 Small rounded or ovoid cells with secretory granules of varying sizes

 3 kinds
o Thyrotrophs – secretes TSH
o Corticotrophs – pro opio melanocrtin
o Gonadotrophs – LH and FSH

Thyrotrophs

 Secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone

 o Acts on thyroid follicles stimulating the thyroid hormone synthesis
o TSH secretion depends on thyroid-releasing hormone from hypothalamus

Corticotrophs

 Secrete adrenocorticotrophic
hormone (ACTH) which
stimulates the adrenal cortex
to release cortisol
 Controlled by corticotropin-
releasing hormone from
hypothalamus

Gonadotrophs

 Secrete follicle stimulating

hormone and luteinizing
hormone which influences the
cyclic development of the
ovarian follicles
 Controlled by gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH)
from hypothalamus
Neurophysis (Posterior Pituitary)

 Pars nervosa and infundibular stalk

 Neural Tissue
o Unlimited axons with terminal
swellings called neurosecretory
(herring) bodies where
hormones are released upon
neural stimulation
o supported by pituicytes
(resemble astrocytes)

In the picture, NB is the herring body or

neurosecretory body

 Vasopressin or Antidiuretic Hormone

(ADH)
o Increase water reabsorption in the collecting ducts of the kidney (urination is
ceased)
o Helps regulate the osmotic balance of body fluids.
 Oxytocin
o Stimulates contraction of myoepithelial cells of mammary glands during
lactation and also contraction of smooth muscles of uterus
o More oxytocin is released when the nipple is stimulated.
Thyroid Gland

 Located in the cervical region (neck) anterior to the cricoid cartilage of larynx
 Consists of 2 lateral lobes connected by a narrow isthmus
 Weighs 25-40 grams
 Covered by a fibrous capsule

Microscopic

 Composed of 20-30 million microscopic thyroid follicles

 Follicles are lined by simple cuboidal epithelium and their lumen contains gelatinous
substance called colloid (pink on H&E)
 It is in the colloid where thyroglobulin is stored

Thyroid Follicles

 Follicular cells
o Principal cells that secrete thyroid
hormones that regulate the rate of
metabolism in cells
 Parafollicular cells
o Occur singly or in small groups beneath
the principal cells
o Larger in size
o Secrete calcitonin which lowers the
concentration of calcium in the body by
suppressing bone resorption

In the right picture, that is the follicle with the lumen (L)
Parathyroid Glands

 Small ovoid bodies located at the posterior surface of the thyroid glands
 Usually 4; weigh 25-50 mg each
 2 types of epithelial cells
o Chief cells (c)
o Oxyphil cells (o)
 Produce parathyroid
hormones (PTH)
o Acts on kidneys,
intestines and
bones to maintain
the concentration of
calcium in the
extracellular fluid
o Leads to resorption
– taking calcium
from bone

Adrenal Glands

 Paired organs located in

the upper poles of the
kidneys
 Flat triangular organs with
combined weight of 8 g; 4-
6 cm x 1-2 cm x 4-6 mm
 Fresh section of adrenals
show
o Thick yellow outer
cortex
o Thin reddish-
brown inner
medulla
 Left gland is crescent,
right is triangular

Adrenal Cortex

 Makes up 80-90% of the gland

 Arise from mesoderm
 3 zones
o Zona Glomerulosa – secretes mineralocorticoids
 Thin outer layer beneath the capsule
 Lined with columnar epithelium in an acinar arrangement
o Zona Fasciculata – secretes glucocorticoids
 Intermediate
 Pale staining polyhedral cells
 o Zona Reticularis – secretes androgen
 Smaller inner cells which form anastomosing cords

Mineralocorticoids

 Principle hormones is aldosterone

 Secreted by zona glomerulosa
 Controls body fluid volume by increasing the reabsorption of sodium by the kidneys.
  The sodium attracts water

Glucocorticoids

 Principal hormone is cortisol

 Secreted by zona fasciculata
 A ects the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats
 Also has anti-inflammatory e ects

Androgen

 Secreted by zona reticularis

 Produced in small quantity (more in males).
 Of little physiological significance in normal adults

‘Adrenal Medulla – controlled by CNS

 10-20% of the gland

 Arises from the ectoderm
 Large epithelioid cells arranged in rounded clusters or short cords
o Cells are believed to be modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons
o Secretory activity under the control of the nervous system
 Secrete catecholamines
o Epineprine and norepinephrine – emergency hormones
o NE produces our primary amines; concentration is highest in the brain
o E is our secondary amine and adrenaline; most abundant medullary hormone
for fight or flight hormones
 E ects of circulating epinephrine
o Brain: increases alertness
o CVS: increases heart rate and cardiac output
o Liver: stimulates the release of glucose which serves as energy source

Pineal Gland

 Flattened conical organ

 Located at the roof of diencephalon
 5-8 mm length, 3-5 mm width
 120 mg
 Covered by pia mater
o Septae from capsule divide
the parenchyma into lobules

2 Types of Cells

 Pinealocytes
o Pale staining cells, large irregular nuclei often deeply indented
o Cytoplasm slightly basophilic
 Interstitial glial cells
o Similar to astrocytes with smaller denser more elongated nuclei
o Long cell process containing abundant intermediate filaments
Brain Sand or Corpora Aranacea

 Calcified extracellular concretions in the intercellular spaces

 Consist of calcium and magnesium salts in an organic matrix
 Radio-opaque

Melatonin

 Secreted by pinealocytes
 Activity exhibits diurnal rhythmicity related to the periods of light and dark
 Plasma concentration of melatonin increase in the dark phase of the cycle
 Neural control

Pi- pinealocytes

BS is brains sand, below is zoomed pic of corpora aranacea

Other Endocrine Products

 Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

 Gastrin
 Secretin
 Erythropoietin
 Leptin