GST Sugesstion

¸”Q †bUIqvK© 4.
0 kU© mv‡Rkb c`v_©weÁvb cÖ_g cÎ
¸”Q fwZ© cixÿvi mv‡Rkb
wcwWGd †c‡Z
K‡g›U e‡· jÿ¨ K‡iv
mv‡Rkb cÖ¯‘ZKi‡Y.....
†gv. †nv‡mb Avjx
†jLK, †Kwgw÷ª cøvm
†jLK, †bUIqvK© K…wl wek¦we`¨vjq fwZ© mnvwqKv
†jLK, dvg©vb‡jR (Rvwe wW mnvwqKv)
cÖavb m¤úv`K, Avm‡c± wmwiR
I
†iRvDj Kwig
m¤úv`K, Avm‡c± wmwiR
¸”Q †bUIqvK© 4.0 kU© mv‡Rkb c`v_©weÁvb cÖ_g cÎ
†f±i
 w`K / †f±i ivwk: f‡e me wcÖIZg fv‡m Uzwbi wZZv †cÖ‡g|
f †e m e wcÖ I Z g fv †m Uzwbi wZZv †cÖ †g
             
fi‡eM †eM miY ej mKj IRb Z¡ib g›`b mKj åvgK (e¨wZµg: ïay mv›`ªZv UK© Zwor c„ôUvb gnvKl©xq
cÖvej¨ RoZvi åvgK †¯‥jvi ivwk) ¸bvsK †ÿÎ cÖvej¨
]
 Aw`K/†¯‥jvi ivwk: `ªæwZ, KvR, ¶gZv, kw³, Zvc, Pvc, mKj wefe, we`y¨r  †f±i ivwki †hvM exRMwYZxq m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv wKš‧ †¯‥jvi ivwki †hvM
cÖevn, PvR©, w¯wZ¯vcK ¸YvsK, RoZvi åvgK| exRMwYZxq m~Î †g‡b P‡j|
 g~j we›`y mv‡c‡¶ Ab¨ †Kvb we›`yi Ae¯vb wbY©‡qi Rb¨ ‡h †f±i eënvi Kiv  w¯wZ kw³, •e`y¨wZK wefe †f±i ivwki †¯‥jvi ¸b‡bi D`vnib
nq Zv‡K e‡j- Ae¯vb †f±i|  jb †ivjvi‡K ‡Vjv A‡c¶v Uvbv mnRZi|
   `ywU †f±i wecixZ w`‡K wµqviZ _vK‡j jwäi gvb n‡e- me©wbgœ
 mvgšÍwi‡Ki `yBwU mwbœwnZ evû †Ìqv _vK‡j †ÿÎdj = A  B
 `ywU †f±‡ii WU ¸Y‡b cÖvß ¸Ydj †¯‥jvi ivwk nq|
1    
 mvgvšÍwi‡Ki `ywU KY© †Ìqv _vK‡j †ÿÎdj = A  B  A . B = 0 n‡j †evSvq-
2    
(K) A = 0 (L) B = 0 (M) A I B G‡K Ac‡ii Dci j¤^
1  
 wÎfy‡Ri `ywU evû †Ìqv _vK‡j †ÿÎdj = A  B 

( 
)
A . B  C = 0 n‡j †f±i wZbwU mgZjxq nq| A I B Gi jwäi m‡e©v”P
 
2    
      gvb A + B Ges me©wb¤œ gvb A  B|
 UK©,  = r  F, ‣iwLK †eM, v =   r ,        
     hw` C = A  B Ges D = B  A nq Zvn‡j C Ges D Gi gaëZ©x †KvY n‡e 180|
†K․wYK fi‡eM, L = r  P, KvR W = F. S       
 g‡b ivL‡e,  A = i Ges B = j  k n‡j A I B Gi gaëZ©x †KvY 90| A . B = | |
      
i ×i = j × j = k × k = 0    |A  B| n‡j A I B Gi gaëZ©x †KvY 45| F I s gaëZ©x †KvY  =
          i .j = j .i
i×j=k,j×k=i,k×i=j 90 n‡j KvR k~b¨ nq|

GKB GKK †f±‡ii WU ¸Yb = 1
     
Ges µm ¸Yb Gi gvb = 0  `ywU †f±i ci¯úi 45 †Kv‡Y wµqv Ki‡j G‡ì †¯‥jvi I †f±i ¸Yd‡ji
i .i = j .j = k .k = 1
      gvb mgvb nq|
i . j = j . k =k .i = 0  `ywU †f±‡ii jwäi gvb m‡e©v”P n‡e hLb G‡ì gaëZ©x †KvY 0 nq|
       
A.B  B.A , A  B  B  A  
   P Q
Â.Â  A.A cos 0  A  2
 P + Q = R †K cÖKvk Kiv nq wP‡Îi mvnv‡h¨| gvb k~b¨ bq
    
 When | A  B | = | A  B | then  = 90 R
    Ggb GKwU †f±i‡K Zvi gvb Øviv fvM Ki‡j GKK †f±i cvIqv hvq|
When A.B = A  B then  = 45
     
*** |A.B|2 + |A  B|2 = A2B2 wPÎwU GKwU †f±i †ÿ‡Îi WvBfvi‡RÝ, d‡j  . V = ‘+’ ve;
  
 wZbwU †f±i GKB Z‡j nIqvi kZ©: A.( B  C) = 0  
 we‡kl †ÿÎmg~n: wPÎwU GKwU †f±i WvBfvi‡RÝ, d‡j  . V = ‘’ ve
α †¯‥jvi ¸Ydj †f±i ¸Ydj  
      wPÎwU k~b¨ WvBfvi‡RÝ, d‡j  . V = 0|
0 P . Q = PQ cos0 = PQ P  Q = PQ sin 0 = 0
 `ywU ej hw` `yBwU wfbœ we›`y‡Z wµqvkxj nq Z‡e G‡ì jwä wbY©q m¤¢e bq|
90      –
P . Q= PQ cos90 = 0 P  Q = PQ sin 90 = PQ  
R Q   
  
180 P .Q= PQ cos180 = –PQ P  Q = PQ sin 180 = 0     wP‡Î R †f±iwU P  Q †f±‡ii gvb I w`K wb‡`©k K‡i| `yBwU

P
 `ywU †f±i wecixZ w`‡K wµqviZ _vK‡j jwäi gvb n‡e- me©wbgœ  
†f±i mgvšÍivj n‡e hLb A  B = 0 nq| †¯‥jvi ev †f±i ¸Y‡b `ywU
 †f±i‡K †¯‥jvi Øviv ¸Y Ki‡j ¸Ydj †f±i ivwk nq| †f±‡ii Aš‧f©y³ †Kv‡Yi m¤úK© n‡jv 0    180
 `ywU †f±‡ii WU ¸Y‡b cÖvß ¸Ydj †¯‥jvi ivwk nq|       
  A =  B n‡j A + B I A  B †f±iØq ci¯úi mgvb nIqvi kZ© n‡jv B = 0|
 †f±i Acv‡iU‡ii Aci bvg †Wj/b¨vejv ()|
 `ywU †f±‡ii †hvMdj I we‡qvMd‡ji gvb mgvb nq hLb Zv‡ì gaëZ©x †KvY 90 nq|
 m`„k (Like) †f±‡ii Rb¨- A > B, B > A|    
 †Kvb †f±i ivwk AN~bv©qgvb I msiÿYkxj n‡e hw`- Kvj© k~b¨ nq|   = 2 n‡j  I  †f±iØq (i) m`„k †f±i, (ii) GKB w`‡K wµqv K‡i,
 Zwor cÖevn GKwU- †¯‥jvi ivwk| (iii) mgRvZxq †f±i|
   
 †Kv‡bv †f±i †¶‡Îi Kvj©-Gi bwZgvÎv k~b¨|  †f±‡ii wewbgq m~Î: A + B = B + A
     
 †f±‡ii ms‡hvM m~Î: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) sine Acv‡iUi sin wKš‘ Acv‡iUi bq
   
 †f±‡ii eÈb m~Î: m (A + B) = mA + mB  Acv‡iUi, †MÖwW‡q›U, WvBfvi‡RÝ Ges Kv‡j©i aviYv:
[†f±i †hv‡Mi wewbgq wewa gv‡b, wKš‧ ¸‡Yi wewbgq wewa gv‡b bv] ivwk •ewkó¨ I Zvrch©
    †MÖwW‡q›U = Aÿ mv‡c‡ÿ †Kv‡bv †¯‥jvi dvsk‡bi Xvj|
 †f±‡ii mvgšÍwiK m~Î: A + B = C
 †¯‥jvi ivwki †MÖwW‡q›U = †¯‥jvi ivwki me©vwaK
 ‡f±i †hvR‡bi `„óvšÍ: †b․Kvi MwZ, PjšÍ Mvwo‡Z cošÍ e„wó, cvwLi DÇqb| †MÖwW‡q›U
cwieZ©‡bi nvi I w`K wb‡`©kK †f±i wdì|
(†f±i ivwk)
 ‡f±i wefvR‡bi `„óvšÍ: ¸Y Uvbv †b․Kv, jb †ivjvi Gi MwZ, mvB‡K‡ji  †¯‥jvi †ÿÎ †_‡K †f±i †ÿÎ DËi‡Yi †K․kjB n‡”Q
µvs‡Ki wµqv, mij †`vjK, cv‡q nvUv| †¯‥jvi ivwki †MÖwW‡q›U wbY©q Kiv|
 WvBfvi‡R‡Ýi gva¨‡g GKwU †f±i †ÿÎ‡K †¯‥jvi †ÿÎ
 R¨vwgwZK c×wZ‡Z †f±i ivwki †hv‡Mi 5wU m~Î:
iƒcvšÍi Kiv hvq|
(i) mvaviY m~Î (ii) wÎfzR m~Î  gvb abvZ¥K  cÖevnxi AvqZb e„w×
(iii) eûfzR m~Î (iv) mvgvšÍwiK m~Î (v) Dcvsk m~Î|  NbZ¡ n«vm |
 †f±i †hvRb g‡b ivLvi mnR m~Î: Dmv eû wÎfzR Gu‡K‡Q  gvb FYvZ¥K  AvqZb ms‡KvPb
D mv eû wÎfzR Gu‡K‡Q WvBfvi‡RÝ  NbZ¡ e„w×|
(†¯‥jvi ivwk)  
     gvb k~b¨  AvqZb I NbZ¡ GKB _v‡K| A_©vr, .V = 0|
Dcvsk m~Î mvaviY m~Î, eûfzR m~Î wÎfzR m~Î ZLb IB †f±i †ÿÎ‡K mwjbqWvj (Solenoidal) e‡j|
  
mvgvšÍwiK m~Î  WvBfvi‡RÝ (.V ev div. V) = AwZÿz`ª AvqZ‡b
 `yB ev Z‡ZvwaK †f±i †hvM K‡i GKwU bZzb †f±i cvIqv hvq G‡K jwä e‡j| †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Input flux (AšÍg©~Lx cÖevn)- Output
flux (ewntg©~Lx cÖevn)
 `ywU †f±i wecixZ w`‡K wµqv Ki‡j jwäi gvb me©wb¤œ nq|
 Gi gvb H †ÿ‡Î GKK †ÿ‡Îi Rb¨ me©vwaK †iLv
 `ywU †f±i hLb GKB w`‡K wµqv K‡i ZLb Zv‡ì jwäi gvb Zv‡ì Bw›UMÖv‡ji mgvb I NyY©b cÖeYZvi mv‡_ m¤úwK©Z|
†hvMd‡ji mgvb, R = P + Q hLb,  = 0  
 (  V) = 2

 `ywU †f±i hLb wecixZ w`‡K wµqv K‡i ZLb Zv‡ì jwäi gvb Zv‡ì  ‡Kv‡bv †f±i †ÿÎ Kvj© Gi WvBfvi‡RÝ k~b¨|
  
we‡qvMd‡ji mgvb, R = P  Q hLb,  = 180 A_©vr .(V) = 0
Kvj©
 me©wb¤œ mg‡q b`x cvi n‡Z n‡j b`xi cÖ¯ eivei †b․Kv Pvjv‡Z nq| (†f±i ivwk)  †f±‡ii w`K H †ÿ‡Îi Awfj¤^ eivei wµqv K‡i|
 
†h †f±‡ii gvb GK GKK Zv‡K GKK  ‡Kvb †f±‡ii Kvj© k~b¨ n‡j (  F = 0) †f±iwU
GKK †f±i e‡j| AN~Y©bkxj (Irrotational) Ges msiÿYkxj nq|
Unit Vector   ej wb‡`©kK †f±i wdì [†hgb, Zwor‡ÿÎ cÖvej¨,
†f±i  A
= 
gnvKl©xq †ÿÎ cÖvej¨ BZ¨vw`] Gi Rb¨ Kvj© k~b¨ n‡j,
|A| mswkøó ejwU msiÿYkxj e‡j n‡e|
`ywU mgvšÍivj †f±i GKwU AciwUi ¸YvZ¥K  †MÖwW‡q›U, WvBfvi‡RÝ Kvj© g‡b ivLvi mnR †K․kj:
wecÖZxc Reciprocal wecixZ n‡j Zv‡K wecÖZxc †f±i e‡j| †MÖwW‡q›U WvBfvi‡RÝ Kvj©
†f±i Vector    1     
†hgb: A = 3 i | B = 3 i; A I B wecÖZxc| bigvj ¸Yb WU ¸Yb µm ¸Yb
mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ FORMULA ANALYSIS AT A GLANCE
      
 R=P +Q  P Q=QP
 R= P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos    †Kv‡Y jb †ivjvi F e‡j †Vj‡j/ Uvb‡j
 tan =
Q cos
  = tan1
Qsin †Vjvi mgq W1 =mg – F sin
P + Q cos P + Qcos Uvbvi mgq W2 = mg + Fsin
†f±‡ii jwä I Dcvsk
 wbw`©ó †f±i R Gi
 W2 > W1
Avbyf‚wgK Dcvsk = Rcos = x Aÿ eivei Dcvsk W = W2 – W1 = 2 F sin 
Djø¤^ Dcvsk = Rsin = y Aÿ eivei Dcvsk wµ‡KU wcP †ivjvi w`‡q mgvb Ki‡Z Djø¤^ eivei wb‡Pi w`‡K †ewk
e‡ji cÖ‡qvRb, d‡j †ivjvi †Vjv ZLb Kvh©Ki nq|
‡f±i
 †Kvb †f±‡ii mgvšÍivj w`‡K GKK †f±i =  gvb
 
  A+B
 A I B Gi jwäi mgvšÍivj w`‡K GKK †f±i =   
GKK †f±i I Ae¯’vb †f±i |A + B|
    
 A= x i + y j + zk n‡j |A| = x2 + y2 + z2
 
  AB
 A I B Gi mgZ‡ji Dci j¤^ GKK †f±i =   
|AB|
   
 A = Ax i + Ay j + Azk n‡j,
 Ax
 A †f±‡ii x A‡ÿi mv‡_ m„ó †KvY, x = cos–1 –
A‡¶i mv‡_ †KvY/ w`K

|A|
 Ay
†KvmvBb wbb©q  A †f±‡ii y A‡ÿi mv‡_ m„ó †KvY, y = cos–1 –
|A|
 Az
 A †f±‡ii z A‡ÿi mv‡_ m„ó †KvY, z = cos–1 –
|A|
 R= P2 + Q2 + 2PQcos ; Rmax = P + Q [ = 0 ev GKB w`‡K];
mvgšÍwi‡Ki m~Î, jwä I w`K Rmin = P  Q [ = 180 ev wecixZ w`‡K]; R = P2 + Q2 [ = 90]
wbY©q msµvšÍ Qsin   
jwäi w`K tan = ; R hvi mv‡_ †KvY Ki‡e †mwU P Gi ¯v‡b em‡e; P = Q n‡j  =
P + Qcos 2
Q
 P Q I  = 90 n‡j, R  P  Q Ges  = tan P
2 2 –1
 P  2Q Ges = 90 n‡j  = 120

ASPECT   = 90 n‡j, Rmax2 + Rmin2 = 2R2 ; jwäi †iÄ, Rmin  R  Rmax
SPECIAL 
 P = Q n‡j, R = 2Pcos :  = 90 n‡j, R = P 2 ;  = 60 n‡j R = P 3
2

 P = Q = R n‡j,  = 120 I  = = 60
2
       
 A = Ax i + Ay j + Azk Ges B = Bx i + By j + Bzk
 †f±‡ii WU ¸Ydj = A.B  Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz  AB cos 
†f±‡ii µm ¸Ydj, WU
¸Ydj î ĵ k̂
      
 †f±‡ii µm ¸Ydj = A  B = AB sin   = A x A y A z When A.B = A  B then  = 45
Bx By Bz
 Awf‡ÿc: †¯‥jvi ivwk * Dcvsk: †f±i ivwk
 Awf‡ÿc I Dcvsk welqK m~Îvejx| (D‡jøL¨ Dcvsk‡K AskKI ejv nq|) [g‡b ivL‡e hv j¤^ Awf‡ÿc †m wb‡RB cos]
 
  A.B  
 A eivei B Gi j¤^ Awf‡ÿc, Bcos =  = a.B
|A|
  
  A.B   A
 A eivei B Gi Dcvsk =   a [a =  ]
j¤^ Awf‡¶c I Dcvsk Ges |A| |A|
gaëZ©x †KvY msµvšÍ     
  A.B     A.B   B
 B eivei A Gi j¤^ Awf‡ÿc, Acos =  = A.b  B eivei A Gi Dcvsk =   b [b =  ]
|B| |B| |B|
 
 A.B 
 AšÍf~©³ †KvY   = cos   ; `ywU †f±‡ii gaëZ©x †Kvb †ei Ki‡Z n‡j WU ¸bb Ki‡Z n‡e|
–1

 AB 
        
 wZbwU †f±i GKB Z‡j nIqvi kZ©: A.( B  C) = 0 /(A  B).C = 0 / (A  C).B = 0
 
`ywU †f±i ci¯úi j¤¦  A.B = 0
  Ax Ay A z
`ywU †f±i ci¯úi mgvšÍivj  |A  B| = 0 ev = =
Bx By Bz
 me©wb¤œ mg‡q cvivcv‡ii †ÿ‡Î;
(i) hvÎv ïiæi w`K,  = 90 x = u  tmin
(ii) jwä †eM, R = u2 + v2
d
b`x cvivcvi I †¯ªvZ msµvšÍ (iii) ‡c․Qv‡bvi mgq, tmin =
v
[†b․Kvi †eM v I  me©wb¤œ `~i‡Z¡ cvivcv‡ii †ÿ‡Î
†¯ªv‡Zi †eM u] ‡QvU
(i) hvÎv ïiæi w`K  = cos–1 – u = cos–1 –
 v  eo 
(ii) jwä †eM, R = v – u = eo2 – ‡QvU2
2 2
d d x =0
(iii) ‡c․Qv‡bvi mgq, t = =
vsin 2 2
v –u
  
      V V V 
i

j

k

 
 
       
WvBfvi‡RÝ, †MÖwW‡q›U, Kvj©  †MÖwW‡q›U: = x i + y j + z k ; WvBfvi‡RÝ: .V =  x + y + z ; Kvj©:   V = x y z
x y z
msµvšÍ MvwYwZK cÖ‡qvM Vx Vy Vz  

  
 =  j + k ;  (x, y, z) = x, y I z Pj‡Ki dvskb; V = Vx i + Vy j + Vzk
       
i +
x y z 
mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ V.V.I MATH AT A GLANCE
         
MEx 01 R = 4i – 6j + 12k n‡j Gi mgvšÍivj GKK †f±i †KvbwU- MEx 06 A = 3i  3j I B = 5i + 5k `ywU †f±i ivwk| G‡ì gaëZx© †KvY wbb©q Ki|
     
Solve R = 4i – 6j + 12k 15 1
Solve Zv‡ì gaëZx© †KvY, cos  .B =
A =   = 60
A B 3 25 2 2
R  42   62  122  196  14
MEx 07 `ywU †f±‡ii †¯‥jvi ¸bdj 18 GKK| G‡ì †f±i ¸bd‡ji gvb
 mgvšÍivj w`‡K GKK †f±i  4 iˆ  6 ˆj  12 kˆ
14 14 14 6 3 GKK| †f±iØ‡qi gaëZ©x †Kvb KZ?
2ˆ 3 ˆ 6 ˆ 1    †f±i ¸Y 6 3 1
= i  j  k = (2i – 3j + 6k ) Solve tan = †¯‥jvi ¸Y = =   = 30
7 7 7 7 18 3

A  aiˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ
  
MEx 02 P = 2 j + 5k, x A‡ÿi mv‡_ KZ †KvY •Zix Ki‡e? MEx 08 a Gi gvb KZ n‡j Ges

Solve cosx =
0
 x = cos–1(0) = 90 B  2aiˆ  aˆj  4kˆ †f±iØq ci¯úi j¤^|
4 + 25
Solve 2a2  2a  4 = 0, ev, a2–a–2=0 ev, a2–2a+a–2 = 0
MEx 03 `yBwU e‡ji jwä 40 N. ej `ywUi g‡a¨ †QvU ejwUi gvb 30 N Ges GwU jwä
e‡ji j¤^ eivie wµqv K‡i| eo ejwUi gvb KZ? ev, a(a–2)+1(a–2) = 0 ev, a = 2, –1
 
Solve 1g ej P = ? C MEx 09 a Gi †Kvb gv‡bi Rb¨ A I B mgvšÍivj n‡e †hLv‡b
2q ej Q = 30N jwä, R = 40N B
R        
2q ej jwäi mv‡_ mg‡Kv‡b AvbZ| P
Q A
A  5 i  2 j  3 k Ges B  15 i  a j  9 k
O
5 2
= a=6 Solve
 wPÎ n‡Z, P  40  30 ev, P = 50N
2 2
15 a
 
MEx 04 `ywU †f±i ivwki cÖ‡Z¨KwUi gvb 7 GKK| Giv ci¯úi 120 †Kv‡Y
0 MEx 10 hw` A  3 î  k̂ Ges B  î  2ĵ GKwU mvgšÍwi‡Ki `ywU mwbœwnZ
†_‡K GKB mv‡_ †Kvb we›`y‡Z wµqvkxj| G‡ì jwäi gvb KZ n‡e? evû nq, Z‡e mvgvšÍwi‡Ki †ÿÎdj KZ?
Solve P = Q = R ; hLb,  = 120  R = 7 iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
MEx 05 `ywU w`K ivwki e„nËg jwä 14 GKK Ges ÿz`ªZg jwä 2 GKK| Solve A B  3 0 1  2î - ĵ  6k̂
ejØq ci¯úi j¤^fv‡e wµqv Ki‡j jwä KZ? 1 2 0
Solve R max + R
2 2
= 2R 2
[ = 90 n‡j]  14 + 2 = 2R
0 2 2 2
 
 A  B  ( 2) 2  ( 1) 2  (6) 2 = 41
min per per
 Rper = 10 GKK
MEx 11 GKRb mvB‡Kj Av‡ivnx mgZj iv¯Ívi Dci w`‡q KZ †e‡M Pj‡j 8 u 6 1
Solve cos = – = = – = cos1200 ev =1200,
ms–1 †e‡Mi e„wói †dvUv Zvi Mv‡q 45 †Kv‡Y co‡e? v 12 2
gvby‡li †eM 8
V= v 2  u 2 = 12  6 =6 3 =10.39kmh-1
2 2
Solve tan = e„wói †eM  tan 450 = Q  Q = 8 ms–1
   
MEx 12 †Kv‡bv GKwU b`x‡Z GKwU †b․Kv †mªv‡Zi AbyK‚‡j NÈvq 24 gvBj Ges cÖwZK‚‡j MEx 14 Ae¯’vb †f±i r = x i + y j k n‡j Gi WvBfvi‡RÝ wbY©q Ki|
     
N›Uvq 4 gvBj P‡j| †b․KvwU‡K †Kvb w`‡K Pvjv‡j †mvRv Aci cv‡o †c․uQv‡e? Solve GLv‡b,  = i +j +k
Solve P + Q = 24, P – Q = 4 x y z
     
10  r = x i + y j k ; . r = ?
 P=14, Q = 10, cos = – 14   = 135
Avgiv Rvwb, Ae¯vb †f±i Gi WvBfvi‡RÝ n‡”Q
MEx 13 ‡Kvb GKwU b`x‡Z GKwU ùv‡oi †b․Kvi †eM †¯ªv‡Zi AbyK~‡j N›Uvq     
. r =  i + k  . (x i + y j k)
    
+j
18 km Ges cÖwZKzj N›Uvq 6km| †b․KvwU‡K †Kvb w`‡K Pvjbv Ki‡j Zv  x y z
†mvRv Aci cv‡i †c․Qv‡e Ges †b․KvwU KZ †e‡M Pj‡e? x y (2)
 + + =1+1+0=2
x y z
wbDUwbqvb ejwe`¨v
 wbw`©ó A‡ÿi Pviw`‡K N~bv©qgvb e¯‧‡Z Z¡iY m„wó‡Z cÖhy³ Ø‡›ì åvgK ‡K e‡j  UK©
 N~bv© qgvb Kbvi e¨vmva© †f±i Ges Kbvi Dci cÖhy³ e‡ji †f±i ¸bdj‡K e‡j  ‡K․wbK UK©
 Pjgvb MwZ‡Z •iwLK Z¡i‡bi mv‡_ †hgb ej mswkøó, N~Y©b MwZ‡Z †K․wbK Z¡i‡bi mv‡_ †Zgwb mswkøó ivwk nj  ‡K․wbK ej/ UK©
 GKwU Nwoi wgwb‡Ui KvUvi cÖvšÍ Ges ga¨¯‡ji †K․wbK †eM → ga¨¯‡j †ekx|
 jwä ej = cÖhy³ ej – evav ej (jwä ej  Z¡iY m„wóKvix ej, cÖhy³ ej  MwZi w`‡K ej, evav ej  MwZi wecixZ w`‡K ej)
 G †¶‡Î UK© k~b¨ n‡e Ges e¯‧wU Nyi‡e bv  ‡K›`ªgyLx e‡ji gvb cÖhy³ e‡ji gv‡bi mgvb Ges wecixZgyLx
 RoZvi ‡gv‡g›U n«vm Kivi Rb¨B †`․‡o Pjvi mgq nvZ ¸wU‡q ivLv nq  Ø‡›ì `ywU e‡ji gaëZx© j¤^ `~iZ¡‡K evû e‡j|
 GKwU wjd‡Ui †g‡S‡Z ivLv GKwU IRb gvcvi h‡š¿i Dci GKRb 50kg fi wewkó gvbyl `vwo‡q Av‡Q| wjdwU w¯i Ae¯v †_‡K 2m/s2 Z¡i‡b 1 †m‡KÛ a‡i Dc‡ii w`‡K I‡V,
Zvi ci mg`ªæwZ‡Z DV‡Z _v‡K| wjdwU Pjvi ci †_‡K IRb gvcvi h‡š¿ KZ fi †`L‡e? (a‡i bvI ga¨Kl©b RwbZ Z¡ib 10m/s2) → Always 50 kg
 gvÎv mgxKiY:
ivwk GKK gvÎv mgxKiY ivwk GKK gvÎv mgxKiY
ej N [MLT-2] NvZ ej N [MLT-2]
fi‡eM kgms-1 [MLT-1] e‡ji NvZ Ns [MLT-1]
2
Ø›Ø ev Kvcj/UK©/ RoZvi åvgK kgm [ML2]
Ø‡›Øi åvgK/ N–m [ML2T-2 ] ‡K․wYK †eM rad s–1 [T–1]
–2
e‡ji åvgK ‡K․wYK Z¡iY rad s [T–2]
‡K․wYK fi‡eM kgm2s-1 [ML2T-1]
 RoZv: GKwU e¯‧ †hgb Av‡Q wVK †Zgb _vK‡Z PvIqvi †h ag© Zv‡K RoZv e‡j| RoZv 2 cÖKvi-
 wbDU‡bi MwZm~Î : 1687 mv‡j wbDUb Zvi MÖš Òwd‡jv‡mvwdqv b¨vPvivwjm wcÖwÝwcqv g¨v_g¨vwUKvÓ †Z e¯‧i fi, MwZ I e‡ji g‡a¨ m¤úK© ¯vcb K‡i wZbwU m~Î
cÖ`vb K‡ib| GB m~Î¸wjB wbDU‡bi MwZ m~Î bv‡g cwiwPZ|
 1g m~Î: evwn¨K ej cÖ‡qv‡M e¯‧i Ae¯vb cwieZ©b bv NUv‡j w¯i e¯‧ wPiKvj w¯i _vK‡e Ges MwZkxj e¯‧ mg‡e‡M mijc‡_ Pj‡Z _vK‡e|
 2q m~Î: e¯‧i fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi nvi e¯‧i Dci cÖhy³ e‡ji mgvbycvwZK Ges ej †h w`‡K wµqv K‡i e¯‧i fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©bI †m w`‡K N‡U|
 3q m~Î: cÖ‡Z¨K wµqviB mgvb I wecixZ cÖwZwµqv Av‡Q|
 m~‡Îi cÖ‡qvM:
m~Î cÖ‡qvM
fi‡e‡Mi msiÿY m~Î  Kvgvb †_‡K †Mvjv †Quvov  Av‡ivnxi †b․Kv †_‡K jvd †Ìqv  i‡K‡Ui MwZ  A¨v_‡j‡Ui js R¨v¤ú †Ìqv
wbDU‡bi MwZi wØZxq m~Î  wbDU‡bi MwZi cÖ_g m~Î cÖwZcv`b Kiv hvq  F= ma cÖwZcv`b Kiv hvq
wbDU‡bi MwZi Z…Zxq m~Î  i‡K‡Ui DÇqb  †Nvovi Mvwo Uvbv  †b․Kv Pvjv‡bv  e›`y‡Ki ¸wj
 †Uwe‡ji Dci eB  cv‡q nuvUv  cvwLi AvKv‡k Do
 fi‡e‡Mi msiÿY m~Î:
msÁv: e¯‧i fi I †e‡Mi mgš^‡q e¯‧‡Z †h a‡g©i D™¢e nq Zv‡K e¯‧i fi‡eM e‡j| e¯‧i fi I †e‡Mi ¸Ydj Øviv fi‡eM cwigvc Kiv nq| MwZ RoZv
fi‡e‡Mi mgvbycvwZK| Bnv GKwU †f±i ivwk|
 •iwLK fi‡eM msiÿ‡Yi `„óvšÍ: †RU BwÄb, K¨viv‡gi ¸wU, gm„Y Z‡j gv‡e©‡ji msNl©, i‡K‡Ui MwZ, e›`y‡Ki cðvr MwZ, †b․Kv †_‡K jvd †Ìqv|
 Pvi cÖKvi †g․wjK e‡ji Zzjbv:
welq gnvKl© ej `~e©j wbDwK¬q ej Zwor Pz¤^Kxq ej mej wbDwK¬q ej
KYvi wewbgq MÖvwfUb Intermediate vector bosons ‡dvUb (n) ‡gmb
ag© AvKl©Y agx© weKl©Y agx© AvKl©Y agx© I weKl©Y agx© AvKl©Y agx©
cvjøv Amxg G e‡ji gvb 10-16m Gi Kg | Z‡e 10-15 Gi Amxg 10-15m Z‡e
KLbI ïY¨ nq bv †ekx `~i‡Z¡ G ej Abyf~Z nq bv 10-14m `~i‡Z¡ G ej D‡cÿbxq
Av‡cwÿK mejZv 1 1030 1039 (kv.Zcb); 1040( Zdv¾j) 1041 (kv.Zcb); 1042( Zdv¾j)
D`vniY B‡jKUªb I †cÖvU‡bi wbDwK¬q weUv fv½b I †ZRw¯…qZv w¯wZ¯vcK ej, Nl©b ej, w¯úªs Gi ga¨Kvi †cÖvUb I wbDUªb‡K Ave× K‡i
ga¨Kvi ej fv½vi Rb¨ `vqx ej, ivmvqwbK wewµqv, AvYweK MVb| wbDwK¬qvm •Zix|
 cÖ‡dmi Avãym mvjvg, IqvBb evM© I Møv‡mv wZbRb M‡elYv K‡i `ye©j wbDwK¬q ej I Zwor Pz¤^Kxq e‡ji g‡a¨ m¤úK© ¯vcb K‡i‡Qb, hv mvjvg I
IqvBbevM© ZË¡ bv‡g cwiwPZ|
 ¯úk© ej I A¯úk© e‡ji cv_©K¨:
¯úk© ej A¯úk© ej
†h ej m„wói Rb¨ `ywU e¯‧i cÖZ¨ÿ ms¯úk© cÖ‡qvRb Zv‡K ¯úk© ej e‡j †h ej m„wói Rb¨ `ywU e¯‧i ms¯úk© cÖ‡qvRb nq bv Zv‡K A¯úk© ej e‡j
D`vniY: D`vniY: gnvKl© ej
 Nl©Y ej  Uvbv ej
 msN‡l©i d‡j m„ó ej  mv›`ª ej
 mgvb f‡ii `yBwU e¯‧i g‡a¨ msNl© n‡j GKwU e¯‧ AciwUi †eM cÖvß n‡e A_©vr e¯‧Øq †eM wewbgq K‡i|
 i‡K‡Ui MwZ:  GKwU Mvwo w¯i Ae¯v n‡Z Z¡iYkxj n‡j mg‡qi wecix‡Z fi‡e‡Mi †jLwPÎ
 i‡K‡U R¡vjvbx wn‡m‡e Zij nvB‡Wªv‡Rb _v‡K Y
mu
 i‡K‡U `n‡bi Rb¨ _v‡K Zij Aw·‡Rb
F 1 m n‡e
 i‡K‡Ui Z¡iY: a = M = M  .V
 t  t
X
 wbDU‡bi cÖ_g m~Î †_‡K e¯‧i RoZv m¤ú‡K© Rvbv hvq|  

 nvZNwoi KuvUvi †K․wYK †eM NÈvi KvUvi Rb¨ 720 rad min1 ev 21600 rad
 ‡K›`ªgyLx ej Øviv K…Z KvR k~b¨|
wPivqZ ejwe`¨vi g‡Z ¯vb, Kvj, fi G¸‡jv aªæeK|  
 s1, wgwb‡Ui KvUvi Rb¨ rad s1 , †m‡K‡Ûi KvUvi Rb¨ rad s1|
180 30
 ‡K›`ªweg~wL e‡ji Kvi‡b gvLb‡K `ya ‡_‡K c„_K Kiv hvq|
 †K›`ªgywL ej Øviv K…Z KvR k~b¨ n‡e| e¨vw¼s †KvY wbf©i K‡i e¯‧i †e‡Mi
 ‡K․wYK Z¡i‡Yi GKK rad/s2|
Ici Ges iv¯Ívi euv‡Ki e¨vmv‡a©i Dci|
 gnvKl© ej me©v‡cÿv `~e©j ej| mej wbDwK¬q ej me©v‡cÿv kw³kvjx ej| mu2
 1 rps = 2 rad, Fc = n‡j †K›`ªgywL e‡ji ivwkgvjv| †m‡K‡Ûi KvUvi
gnvKl© ej  `ye©j wbDwK¬q ej  Zwor Pz¤^Kxq ej  mej wbDwK¬q ej| r
 dzUej †Ljvq wbDU‡bi MwZ m~Î cÖ‡hvR¨| †K․wYK †eM > wgwb‡Ui KvUvi †K․wYK †eM > N›Uvi KvUvi †K․wYK †eM|
 e‡ji NvZ = fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b|  †Kv‡bv e¯‧i RoZvi åvgK wbf©i K‡i fi I N~Y©b A‡ÿi Ae¯v‡bi Ici|
 wbDwK¬qv‡mi g‡a¨ †gmb KYvi cvi¯úwiK wewbg‡qi Øviv mej wbDwK¬q e‡ji U‡K©i GKK N-m gvÎv [ML2T2]
 mgvb f‡ii `ywU e¯‧i g‡a¨ w¯wZ¯vcK msNl© n‡j Ges 1g e¯‧i Avw`‡eM u1,
DrcwË nq|
†kl †eM v1 Ges 2q e¯‧i Avw`‡eM u2 Ges †kl‡eM v2 n‡j u1 = v2
 Puv‡ì •iwLK †eM 1.55 kms–1
cÖ‡hvR¨|
 GKwU Nwoi wgwb‡Ui K¤úv¼ (Hz) 2.78 10–4Hz  GKK f‡ii e¯‧i Dci GKK Z¡iY m„wó Ki‡j GKK e‡ji m„wó nq| †K․wYK
 †Kvb A‡¶i Pviw`‡K GKwU e¯‧i RoZvi åvgK wbf©i K‡i  e¯‧i fi fi‡e‡Mi GKK kgm2s1.
web¨v‡mi Dci|  mg‡K․wYK †e‡M N~Y©biZ †Kv‡bv e¯‧i N~Y©b e¨vmva© wØ¸Y n‡j UK© 4 ¸Y n‡e|
 f‚wgi m‡½  †Kv‡Y AvbZ †Kvb Zj n‡Z GKwU e¯‧ co‡Z _vK‡j e¯‧i †K․wYK fi‡e‡Mi gvÎv = [ML2T1]
Z¡i‡Yi gvb KZ?  g sin|  †i․wLK †eM I †K․wYK †e‡Mi gaëZ©x †KvY 90| GKwU cvLv cÖwZ wgwb‡U 60
 msiÿbkxj e‡ji D`vniY: Zwor ej, †P․¤^K ej, AwfKl© ej, w¯úªs ej| evi Nyi‡j cvLvwUi †K․wYK †eM n‡e 2 rad/s. Nwoi wgwb‡Ui KvUvi K¤úv¼
Amsiÿbkxj e‡ji D`vniY: mv›`ª ej, Nl©Y ej| 2.78  104 Hz.
 †b․Kvq ¸Y Uvbvi mgq †b․Kvi nvj Øviv cÖhy³ e‡ji Djø¤^ Dcvsk cÖkwgZ
 NvZ ej: Lye Aí mg‡qi Rb¨ Lye †ekx gv‡bi ej wµqvkxj n‡j Zv‡K NvZ
nq|
ej e‡j| D`vniY: e¨vU w`‡q wµ‡KU e‡j AvNvZ, †Uª‡b †Uª‡b msNl©, Kvgvb
 e¨vw¼s n‡jv iv¯Ívi euv‡K †K›`ªgywL ej †hvMv‡bi Rb¨ Xvj| wµqv I cÖwZwµqvi
n‡Z †Mvjv †Qvov, †evgv we‡ùviY cÖf„wZ| gaëZ©x †KvY 180|
 el©vKv‡j PjšÍ Mvwoi PvKv n‡Z Kv`v wQU‡K c‡o KviY †Kvb †K›`ªgyLx  ‘r’ e¨mv‡a©i e„ËvKvi c‡_ GKevi Ny‡i Avm‡j miY n‡e 2r| †K․wYK Z¡i‡Yi
ej †bB| gvÎv [T2].
 e‡ji wµqv †iLv hw` N~Y©b A‡¶i mgvšÍivj nq, Zvn‡j N~Y©b A‡¶i j¤^ w`‡K  e‡ji NvZ fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi mgvb| Avi NvZej n‡jv Lye Aí mg‡qi
Aew¯Z Zj eivei Gi Dcvsk k~b¨ n‡e| Rb¨ Lye eo gv‡bi cÖhy³ ej|
 wµqv I cÖwZwµqv ej (i) `ywU wfbœ e¯‧i Dci wµqv K‡i (ii) G‡ì †hvMdj  GKK mg‡K․wYK †e‡M AveZ©biZ †Kv‡bv `„pe¯‧i RoZvi åvgK
k~b¨ nq| msL¨vMZfv‡e Gi MwZkw³i wØ¸Y|
 AveZ©b N~Y©b MwZi Rb¨ (i) KvR = UK©  †K․wYK †eM, (ii) ÿgZv = UK©   w¯wZ¯vcK msN‡l©i †ÿ‡Î msiwÿZ _v‡K MwZkw³ Ges fi‡eM| Aw¯wZ¯vcK
†K․wYK †eM| msN‡l©i †ÿ‡Î †gvU MwZkw³ msiwÿZ nq bv e„ËvKvi c‡_ †K‡›`ªi mv‡c‡ÿ
 
 `„p e¯‧i RoZvi åvgK wbf©i K‡i (i) N~Y©b A‡ÿi Ae¯v‡bi Ici (ii) `„p MwZkxj n‡j r I p Gi gaëZ©x †KvY 90 nq| e¨vw¼s †KvY wbf©i K‡i
e¯‧i AvK…wZB Dci (iii) N~Y©b A‡ÿi Pviw`‡K `„p e¯‧i f‡ii Dci| ej  e¯‧i †e‡Mi Ici Ges iv¯Ívi euv‡Ki e¨vmv‡a©i Dci|
wµqvKvj = NvZ ej|  M f‡ii Ges R e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU PvKwZ Zvi mv‡_ j¤^ eivei A‡ÿi mv‡c‡ÿ
 1g e¯‧i fi 2q e¯‧i f‡ii Zzjbvq A‡bK †ewk n‡j msN‡l©i ci 1g e¯‧wU MR2
GKB †e‡M Pj‡Z _vK‡e| RoZvi åvgK 2
| †Kv‡bv e¯‧i RoZvi åvgK wbf©i K‡i fi I N~Y©b
1 A‡ÿi Dci| Wvj fv½v‡bvi hvZvK‡j wKbvivi KYvi ‣iwLK †eM †ewk Ges
 RoZvi åvgK I N~Y©b MwZkw³i g‡a¨ m¤úK© n‡jv E = 2 I2| mg‡K․wYK
cÖwZwU KYvi †K․wYK fi‡eM mgvb|
†eM N~Y©vqgvb e¯‧i MwZkw³ RoZvi åvg‡Ki AbycvZ †K․wYK †e‡Mi e‡M©i  RoZvi åvgK m¤úwK©Z Dccv`¨ 2wU|
mgvbycvwZK GKK †K․wYK †e‡M N~Y©biZ e¯‧i MwZZ RoZvi åvgK MwZkw³i i. mgvšÍivj Aÿ Dccv`¨|
wØ¸Y| ii. j¤^ Aÿ Dccv`¨|
 fi‡eM 100% e„w× Ki‡j MwZkw³i cwieZ©b n‡e 300%|
 F = ma
 mg  euvav = ma [euvav †Ìqv _vK‡j GB m~Î]
ej msµvšÍ 2
dv v  u v2  u2 v 2s s s
 a= = = = [hLb u = 0] = 2 [hLb u = 0] = 2 1
dt t 2s 2s t t2  t1
 jwä Z¡iY, g = g + a  jwä Z¡iY, g = g – a
 a Z¡i‡b wjdU Dc‡i DVv‡j, F = m(g+ a);  a Z¡i‡b wjdU wb‡P bvgv‡j, F = m(g – a)
wjd‡Ui Z¡i‡Yi  a g›`‡b Dc‡i DV‡j, F = m(g  a)  a g›`‡b wb‡P bvg‡j, F = (g + a)
ZviZg¨ msµvšÍ  Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K mg‡e‡M DVv‡j, F = mg 2h
 Dci n‡Z bvg‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq mgq T 
2h ga
 Dc‡i DVv‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq mgq, T 
ga
mv  mu  v u 
 NvZ ej = F   m   ma = fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi nvi
NvZ ej I e‡ji t  t 
NvZ msµvšÍ  e‡ji NvZ, J  F.t  mv ~ mu = P = fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b
 ‡eMØq wecixZ gyLx n‡j e‡ji NvZ J = m (v + u)  ‡eMØq GKB w`‡K n‡j e‡ji NvZ J = m(v  u)
F f(s)(max) f(k) Fk Fk
 w¯wZ Nl©Y ¸YvsK, s= Rs Ges R=mg,s = FN
 k= ,  = , =
FN k R k mg
Nl©Y msµvšÍ
Fk ma a 1
 MZxq Nl©Y ¸bvsK, k= = =  wbðj †KvY, f = tan (s)
R mg g
 m1 f‡ii GKwU e¯‧ u1 †e‡M Pj‡Q| Gi fi cwieZ©b n‡q m2 n‡j, hw` bZzb †eM u2 nq Z‡e, m1u1 = m2u2
 m f‡ii e¯‧ av°vi ci m1, m2, m3 f‡ii wZbwU UzKivq cwiYZ n‡q, u1, u2, u3 f‡ii wZbwU UzKivq cwiYZ n‡q u1, u2, u3 †e‡M Pj‡j
G‡ì cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki fi‡eM mgvb n‡e| A_©vr m1u1 = m2u2 = m3u3
m1u1 + m2u2
 m1 I m2 f‡ii `ywU e¯‧ h_vµ‡g u1 I u2 †e‡M GKB w`‡K MwZkxj n‡j wgwjZ e¯‧i †eM, v =
m1 + m2
fi‡e‡Mi msi¶Y m1u1  m2u2
 m1 I m2 f‡ii `ywU e¯‧ h_vµ‡g u1 I u2 †e‡M wecixZ w`‡K Pj‡Q| e¯‧Øq wgwjZ nIqvi ci †eM,v=
m~Î msµvšÍ m1 + m2
m1u1
 m1 f‡ii GKwU e¯‧ u1 †e‡M m2 f‡ii GKwU w¯i e¯‧‡K av°v w`‡j, av°vi ci wgwjZ e¯‧Ø‡qi †eM v=
m1 + m2
 MV = mv (ivB‡dj – ey‡jU, †b․Kv-gvwS-†fjv-gvwS, ‡Kiv‡gi ÷ªvBK-†Kiv‡gi ¸wU) m = †QvU e¯‧i fi,v =†QvU e¯‧ †eM|
mv mv
 e›`y‡Ki cðvr †e‡Mi Rb¨, V  [g‡b ivL‡e]: hw` cðvr †eM bv e‡j e›`y‡Ki †eM V =  M
M
 miæ I mylg `‡Ûi ga¨we›`y w`‡q I Zvi •`‡N©ï Awfj¤^fv‡e AwZµvšÍ A‡¶i mv‡c‡¶ N~Y©vqgvb H `‡Ûi RoZvi åvgK, I = m l2
12
 miæ I mylg `‡Ûi GK cÖvšÍ w`‡q I Zvi •`‡N©ï j¤^fv‡e AwZµvšÍ A‡¶i mv‡c‡¶ Zvi RoZvi åvgK, I = 1 ml2
3
1 2
RoZvi åvgK  wbR A‡¶i PZzw`©‡K N~Y©vqgvb GKwU wb‡iU †Pv‡Oi wmwjÛv‡ii RoZvi åvgK, I = 2mr
2
msµvšÍ  fvi‡K›`ªMvgx I cÖ‡¯i mgvšÍivj A¶ mv‡c‡¶ AvqZvKvi cv‡Zi RoZvi åvgK, I = ml
12
2
 wb‡iU †MvjK ev c„w_exi †¶‡Î RoZvi åvgK, I = mr2
5
 K PµMwZi e¨vmva© n‡j RoZvi åvgK, I = mK2
1 2 L2 2N 2
†K․wYK †eM, •iwLK  Ek= I = ,  = =  L = I = mr2 = mvr = rp
2 2I t T
†eM Gi m¤úK© I 
 
†K․wYK MwZkw³  L = r  P = rp sin  v = .r  s = r  a = r
msµvšÍ g    3g
 evjwZ n‡Z cvwb co‡e bv, v = gr   =   = r ×F   = I  n `‡Ûi •`N¨© KZ n‡j,  =
L
r
MEx 01 30kg f‡ii GKwU e¯‘i Dci KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j 1 wgwb‡U Gi †eM MEx 07 10,000kg R¡vjvbxmn GKwU i‡K‡Ui fi 15000kg| R¡vjvbx hw` 200 kg/s nv‡i cy‡o
36kmh1 e„w× cv‡e| i‡K‡Ui mv‡c‡¶ 2000m/s †e‡M wbM©Z nq, Zvn‡j i‡K‡Ui Dci cÖhy³ av°v ev _ªvó KZ?
36 dm
Solve †eM e„w× = vu = 36km/h =  10ms 1 Solve F = dt . vr = 200 × 2000 = 4 × 105N
3.6 –1
MEx 08 10g fi Gi GKwU ey‡jU 3 kg f‡ii GKwU e›`yK †_‡K 300 ms
(v  u ) 10
F m = 30   5N †e‡M †ei n‡j e›`y‡Ki cðvr †eM-
t 60 Solve e›`y‡Ki †¶‡Î, MV + mv = 0
MEx 02 10kg f‡ii GKwU e¯‘i Dci 2F gv‡bi ej cÖ‡qvM Kivi d‡j mv 0.01  300
2
e¯‘wUi Z¡iY nq 60 m/s | M f‡ii GKwU e¯‘i Dci 5F gv‡bi ej  e›`y‡Ki cðvr †eM, V = = = 1ms–1
M 3
cÖ‡qvM Kivi d‡j hw` e¯‘wUi Z¡iY 50m/s2 nq, Z‡e fi M KZ? –1
MEx 09 5 †gwUªK Ub f‡ii evjy †evSvB GKwU UªvK 20 ms †e‡M PjwQj| PjšÍ Ae¯’vq
Solve Avgiv Rvwb, ej = fi  Z¡iY 2F = 10  60 cÖwZ wgwb‡U Uªv‡Ki wQ`ª w`‡q 20kg evjy wb‡P c‡o hvq| 5 min ci Uªv‡Ki †eM KZ?
 F = 300N Avevi, 5F = M  50 M  50 Solve 5 wgwb‡U evjy c‡o hv‡e = 5  20 = 100 kg P~ovšÍ fi n‡e, m
 M = 30 kg = 5000 – 100 = 4900 kg
MEx 03 5 †KwR f‡ii GKwU ej †mvRv wb‡Pi w`‡K co‡Q| evZv‡mi euvav 4 MV 5 1000  20
wbDUb n‡j H ejwUi Z¡iY KZ?  mv = MV ev, v =   20.4m / s
m 4900
Solve mg  Fk = ma MEx 10 2kg f‡ii GKwU cv_i‡K 9.8m `xN© GKwU myZvi mvnv‡h¨ †e‡a
5  9.8  4 2 Avbyf~wgK Z‡j Nyiv‡bv n‡”Q| myZvwU m‡ev”©P 19.6N Uvb mn¨ Ki‡Z cv‡i|
a= = 9 ms
5
2
myZv bv wQ‡o cv_iwU‡K m‡ev”P© KZ `yªwZ‡Z Nyiv‡bv †h‡Z cv‡i|
MEx 04 GKwU wjdU 2m/s Z¡i‡Y wb‡P bvg‡Q| wjd‡Ui †g‡Si 1m Dci
mv 2 Fr 19 .6  9.8
†_‡K GKwU ej‡K w¯’i Ae¯’v †_‡K Qvov nj| g = 10m/s2 aiv n‡j Solve F = or v =   9.8ms 1
r m 2
wjd‡Ui †g‡S ¯úk© Ki‡Z ejwUi mgq jvM‡e-
MEx 11 fi †K›`ªMvgx Ges Z‡ji mwnZ j¤^ eivei A¶ mv‡c‡¶ GKwU AvqZvKvi
2h 2 1 2 1
Solve t     = 0.5 sec. cv‡Zi RoZvi åvgK 5 kgm2| cvZwUi cÖ¯’ 1m Ges fi 12 kg n‡j •`N©¨ KZ?
ga 10  2 8 2
-1
MEx 05 Avbyf~wgK w`‡K MwZkxj 2kg f‡ii GKwU †j․n †MvjK 5ms ‡e‡M Solve I 
M 2
12

  b2  ev, 5 
12 2
12

l  12 
-1
GKwU †`qv‡j j¤^fv‡e av°v †L‡q 3ms ‡e‡M wecixZ w`‡K wd‡i †Mj|
ev, 5  l 2  1 ev, l 2  5  1 ev, l  2 m
e‡ji NvZ-
MEx 12 GKwU •e`y¨wZK cvLv wgwb‡U 1500 evi †Nv‡i| myBP eÜ Kivi 4
Solve e‡ji NvZ, J = m(v + u)
wgwbU ci eÜ n‡q hvq| †_‡g hvevi c~‡e© cvLvwU KZevi Nyi‡e?
(‡eMØq wecixZ w`‡K) = 2(5 + 3) =2  8 =16kgms–1
1 + 2 1500  2
MEx 06 3kg f‡ii GKwU eøK‡K GKwU Avbyf~wgK Z‡ji Dci w`‡q KZ e‡j Solve  =  2 t =  240 = 6000
  602
Uvb‡j e¯‘wU mg‡e‡M Pj‡e? (MZxq Nl©Y ¸YvsK = 0.1)

Solve F   mg  0.1 9.8  3  2.94 N N= = 3000 rev/evi
s 2
KvR, kw³ I ÿgZv

 wefe kw³: Ae¯v‡bi cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ †h kw³ (D”PZvi Rb¨)  Ae¯vb mv‡c‡ÿ GK Pµ cwigv‡Y Mo MwZkw³ K.E. = 3  ‡gvU kw³|
 w¯’wZ kw³: e¯‧i AvK„wZ cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ †h kw³ (w¯cÖs, †dvg) 2
 †Kvb h‡š¿i Kg©`¶Zv ej‡Z Kvh©Kix kw³ I cÖ`Ë ‡gvU kw³i AbycvZ‡K  Kv‡Ri cwigvY me‡P‡q †ekx nq hLb cÖhy³ej I mi‡Yi g‡a¨ †Kv‡Yi gvb nq- 0
†evSvq (Gi †Kvb GKK †bB)  MwZkxj e¯‧ hZ wb‡P bv‡g Gi wefe kw³ n«vm cvq wKš‧ MwZkw³ e„w× cvq|
 †eM, Z¡iY, ej, KvR, ¶gZv I kw³i gvÎv h_vµ‡g-  e‡ji Øviv KvR n‡j MwZkw³ e„w× Ges w¯wZ kw³ n«vm cvq Ges e¯‧i Z¡iY
1 2 2 2 2
LT , LT , MLT , ML T , ML T , ML T
2 –3 2 –2 m„wó nq|
 m f‡ii GKwU e¯‧ mg‡e‡M (mij •iwLK) Pjgvb| hw` e¯‧wUi †eM wØ¸b  GK Ak¦ ¶gZv: cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 746 J KvR Kivi ¶gZv‡K GK Ak¦
Kiv nq Z‡e Gi MwZkw³i wK cwieZ©b n‡e?  e¯‧wUi MwZkw³ c~‡e©i ¶gZv e‡j|
MwZkw³i Pvi¸Y  1 Ak^ ÿgZv (HP) = 746W
= 746 Js–1 = 550 ftlbs–1
 KvR I kw³i GKK GKB hv  Ryj
1
 ¶gZvi GKK- Ryj/†m‡KÛ  1W = Ak^ ÿgZv
746
 B‡jKUªb †fvë (eV) wK‡mi GKK?  kw³ ev Kv‡Ri GKK 1000
 ej I mi‡bi gaëZx© †Kv‡bi gvb KZ n‡j Kv‡Ri cwigvb k~b¨ nq- 90  1kW = 746 = 1.34 Ak^ ÿgZv|
 GK †gMv B‡jKUªb †fvë mgvb- 1.6  1013 Ryj  wmuwo †e‡q Dc‡i DV‡Z Kó nq KviY- AwfKl© e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR nq|
Kv‡Ri cÖK…wZ †Kvb  cos  K…ZKvR,W Kv‡Ri AwfKl©xq GKK †KwR-wgUvi|
m‡e©v”P KvR 0 cos0 = 1 W = Fs = Wmax  •e`y¨wZK ev‡j¦i gva¨‡g •e`y¨wZK kw³ Av‡jvK kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq|
abvZ¥K KvR π 1  cos  > 0 Wmax W > 0 AwfKl©xq e‡ji wecixZ KvR W  h.
0<  e¯‧i fi I †eM DfqB wØ¸Y n‡j MwZkw³ c~‡e©i 8 ¸Y nq| †K›`ªgywL ej
2
k~b¨ KvR π π W = 0 (Null Work) Øviv KvR k~b¨ nq|
cos =0
2 2  GKwU w¯úªs‡K msKzwPZ Ki‡j Zv‡Z w¯wZkw³ mwÂZ _v‡K w¯wZ¯vcK e‡ji
FYvZ¥K KvR π 0 > cos  1 0 > W  Wmin weiæ‡× KvR W  x2.
<π
2  GKwU e¯‧‡K f‚wg n‡Z Djø¤^fv‡e Dc‡i wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡jv| h D”PZvq D‡V
me©wb¤œ KvR π cosπ = – 1 W = – Fs = Wmin Avevi f~wg‡Z cwZZ n‡jv cv‡ki †jLwPÎ (K) Bnv wb‡`©k K‡i| MwZkw³
 MwZkxj e¯‧ hZ wb‡P bv‡g Gi wefe kw³ n«vm cvq wKš‧ MwZkw³ e„w× cvq| m‡e©v”P I me©wb¤œ gvb ebvg mgq †jLwPÎ (L)-G †`Lv‡bv n‡jv|
 GK gvby‡li Mo ÿgZv = 110 watt ev 0.147 HP
K.E. K.E.
 msiÿYkxj ej Øviv K„ZKvR k~Y¨| D`vniYt AwfKl©xq ej, •e`y¨wZK ej,
Zwor ej, †P․¤^K ej, gnvKl© ej, Av`k© w¯cÖs Gi weK…wZ cÖwZ‡ivax ej|
 msiÿYkxj e‡ji †ÿ‡Î- (1) c~Y©P‡µ †gvU KvR k~b¨ nq (2) Kv‡Ri cwigvY
KYvi MwZc‡_i Dci wbf©i K‡i bv (3) kw³ wbZ¨Zvi m~Î cvwjZ nq (4) h s t
KvR cybiæ×vi Kiv hvq| GB e‡ji D`vniY- AwfKl©xq ej, •e`y¨wZK ej, (K) (L)
w¯úªs-G weK…wZ cÖwZ‡ivaKvix ej|  w¯i Ae¯vi GKwU e¯‧‡K GKwU w¯i gv‡bi ej wµqv Kivq e¯‧wU Pj‡Z ïiæ
 AmsiÿYkxj, ej Øviv K„ZKvR k~Y¨ nq bv| D`vt mv›`ª I Nl©b ej| K‡i| Nl©Y‡K we‡ePbv bv Ki‡j cv‡ki †jLwPÎ e¯‧i ÿgZv cÖKvk K‡i|
 AmsiÿYkxi e‡ji †ÿ‡Î- (1) c~Y©P‡µ †gvU KvR k~b¨ nq bv (2) Kv‡Ri †K›`ªgywL ej Øviv K…Z KvR k~b¨ nq|
cwigvY KYvi MwZc‡_i Dci wbf©i K‡i (3) kw³i wbZ¨Zv cvwjZ nq bv (4) P
KvR m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c cybiæ×vi Kiv hvq bv| GB e‡ji D`vniY n‡jv- Nl©Y ej,
mv›`ª ej| t
 mgvb fi‡e‡Mi fvix e¯‧i †P‡q nvjKv e¯‧i MwZkw³ †ekx|  e¯‧i fi‡e‡Mi gvb Dnvi MwZkw³i mgvb n‡j e¯‧wUi †eM 2ms1 nq|
 mgvb MwZkw³i nvjKv e¯‧i †P‡q fvix e¯‧i fi‡eM †ekx|  wmuwo †e‡q Dc‡i DVv FYvZ¥K KvR| Avi wb‡P bvgv abvZ¥K KvR| kw³i
 UªvÝdg©vi = Bnv wef‡ei gvb evovq ev Kgvq,‡Rbv‡iUi I Wvqbv‡gv Bnv Zwor gvÎv [ML2T2]
Drcbœ K‡i Ges hvwš¿K kw³‡K we`y¨r kw³‡Z iæcvšÍwiZ K‡i|  mgvb MwZkw³m¤úbœ 9g Ges 4g f‡ii `ywU e¯‧ A I B Gi •iwLK fi‡e‡Mi
 †K›`ªgyLx ej Øviv K…Z KvR k~b¨| AbycvZ n‡e 3 : 2|
 ej I mi‡Yi gaëZx© †KvY =900 n‡j KvR ïb¨ 00| n‡j, m‡ev©”P 1800  †Kv‡bv e¯‧i fi‡eM 100% e„w× Ki‡j MwZkw³ 300% e„w× cvq|
n‡j me©wb¤œ|  e¯‧i AvKvi cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ w¯wZkw³ jvf K‡i- aby‡K Zxi jvwM‡q Uvb‡j,
 KvR I kw³i GKK I gvÎv GKB| avZe cvZ‡K euvKv‡j|
 wc÷b I wmwjÛv‡ii g‡a¨ Nl©Y Av‡Q|  GKwU fvix e¯‧‡K gv_vq K‡i AbyfwgK eivei iv¯Ívi Dci w`‡q GK ¯vb n‡Z
 GKwU KuvPv †jvnvi Dci AšÍwiZ Zvgvi Zvi Rwo‡q we`y¨r Pvjbv Ki‡j Ab¨ ¯v‡b miv‡bv n‡jv- (1) Nl©Y e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR nq (2) Awfjw¤^K
we`y¨rkw³ Pz¤^Kkw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡e| cÖwZwµqv Øviv KvR k~b¨|
 `ywU e¯‧KYvi ga¨Kvi `~iZ¡ e„w× Ki‡j Ñ C D
†eM
(i) gnvKl© ej Øviv K…Z KvR FYvZ¥K| 
(ii) evwn¨K ej Øviv K…Z KvR abvZ¥K A
B
(iii) gnvKl© ej Øviv K…Z KvR `~i‡Z¡i Avw` I P‚ovšÍ gv‡bi Dci wbf©i
mgq O
Ki‡e| gaëZ©x †Kv‡bv gv‡bi Dci bq| gnvKl© wefe (v) I cÖvej¨ (E) Gi (i) wPÎ Abyhvqx CD As‡ki fi‡eM n‡e AB As‡ki fi‡e‡Mi Pvi¸Y|
1
g‡a¨ m¤úK© n‡jv, W = 2 Kx2| A_©vr w¯wZ¯vcK ej Øviv KvR mi‡Yi e‡M©i (ii) CD As‡ki †eM wØ¸Y n‡j MwZkw³ AB As‡ki Pvi¸Y n‡e|
F
mgvbycvwZK|  w¯úªs aªæeK k = , wbf©i K‡i i. w¯úªs Gi •`‡N¨©i Dci
x
 D‡ovRvnvR †_‡K wbwÿß †evgv gvSc‡_ †K‡U †M‡j †gvU fi‡eM Kg‡e|
ii. R¨vwgwZK MV‡bi Dci
AwfKl©xq w¯wZkw³ ej Øviv m„ó mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK| iii. c`v‡_©i w¯wZ¯vcKZvi Dci
e‡ji cÖK…wZ •iwLK MwZ (r  miY) ‡K․wYK MwZ (r  e¨mva©)

 
aªæe ej W = F. r = Frcos W =  .  =  cos
cwieZ©bkxj ej r2   2  
W =
r1 F.d r W=
1  .d  [W =  = Fr =  (2πN)]
KvR msµvšÍ KvR = e¨wqZ kw³i cwigvY = MwZkw³i cwieZ©b ev w¯’wZkw³i cwieZ©b:

 W = F. s = Fs cos = mgs cos: (i) W = Fs (cos1 – cos2) (miY Avbyf~wgK eivei);
(ii) W = mgs sin  Abyf~wgi mv‡_ †KvY m„wó Ki‡j| (iii) W = mgs cos  †`qv‡ji mv‡_ †KvY m„wó Ki‡j|
n(n1)
 n msL¨K BU w`‡q ¯§„wZdjK •Zwi Ki‡Z K…ZKvR, W = mgh [m = B‡Ui fi, h = GKwU B‡Ui D”PZv, n = B‡Ui msL¨v]
2
h h=0
 cvwb c~Y© Kzqv Lvwj Kivi †ÿ‡Î W = mg h = mg h/4
2 3h/4
h/2
h/2
3h h h
 Aa© cvwb c~Y© Kzqv Lvwj Kivi †ÿ‡Î W = mg [ h = + =3h/4] h/4
Kzqv msµvšÍ 4 2 4 h=h
m cvwb c~Y©D”PZv
 K…ZKvR, W = mg h = r2h  g  h ; cvwbi NbZ¡  = V ; h = cvwb k~b¨ D”PZv +
2
m = V = r2h, GLv‡b, h cÖK…Z D”PZv, Ges h n‡jv Mo D”PZv
2
 MwZkw³, Ek = 1 mv2 = P ; Ek  v2  v  EK; v2 = n v1 [n = MwZkw³i ¸b, v2 = P~ovšÍ †eM]; EkP2 ev P EK ; P = 2Ek
2 2m v
(i) f~wg ¯úk© Kivi gyû‡Z©, Ek = Ep = mgh;
(ii) 1/2 mv2 = Fs;
kw³ msµvšÍ (iii) KvR-kw³ Dccv`¨, K…ZKvR = MwZkw³i cwieZ©b, W = 1 m (v12  v22) (`ywU †e‡Mi †¶‡Î)
2
 †h †Kvb mg‡qi wefekw³, E p  mgh ; EP  h (i) kw³i AcPq, E = mg(h  x); (ii) mgh = Fs
2
 w¯cÖs Gi Rb¨, F = kx  mg = kx; W = 1 2 kx2 = F [x  ms‡KvPb ev cÖmviY, k  w¯cÖs aªæeK]
2k
 †Kvb e¯‧‡K h D”PZv n‡Z †Q‡o w`‡j hvÎv c‡_i †Kvb we›`y‡Z, Ep = mgx, Ek = mg(h – x)
1
 MwZkw³i cwieZ©b = K…ZKvR; W = 2 m (v22  v12)
kw³ I 1 2
W =  (2  1); Ek = I
K…ZKvR 2
1 1 1
 Ek = mv2 + I2   mg2 (2t  1)
2 2 2
1 1 1
 w¯úªs Gi †ÿ‡Î, F = kx2; Ek = 2 k (A2  x2); Ep = 2kx2, E = Ep + Ek = 2 KA2
w¯úªs msµvšÍ
1 1 1
w¯úªs ej Øviv K…ZKvR, W =  2 KA2; w¯úªs ej weiæ‡× K…ZKvR W = 2 k (x22  x12); U = 2 mgL
1 2
KvR W EP mgh Ek 2 mv Fs
¶gZv  ¶gZv = mgq = t = t = t = t = t = t = Fv [†µ‡bi ÿgZv PvB‡jB, P = Fv = mgv]
msµvšÍ mgh
cÖvß ÿgZv t
 `¶Zv,  = ‡gvU ÿgZv = P =
P P
n(n  1)
 m f‡ii h D”PZv wewkó n msL¨K BU mvwR‡q DPz ¯Í¤¢ •Zwi Ki‡j, K…ZKvR W = mgh
2
 cvwb †g‡N cwiYZ n‡Z K…ZKvR, W = mgh = Vgh = Atgh
ASPECT
mg (h + s)
SPECIAL  AwfK‡l©i cÖfv‡e h D”PZv †_‡K e¯‧ gy³fv‡e Kv`vq ci‡j, Kv`vi Dci cÖhy³ ej, F =
s
1 2
 m f‡ii †Kvb ey‡jU v †e‡M †`qv‡j/Z³vq cÖ‡ek Ki‡j mv = Fx
2
   
300 Nm–1 ej aªyeK m¤úbœ GKwU w¯cÖs‡K KZUzKz msKzwPZ Ki‡j 1.5
MEx 01 GKwU KYvi Dci F = (10 i + 10 j + 10k) N ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j MEx 06
    J KvR Kiv n‡e?
KYvwUi miY nq r = (2 i + 2j – 2k) m| ej KZ…K
© m¤úvw`Z KvR KZ
n‡e? 1 2w
      
Solve W = kx2 ev x =
2 k
Solve KvR W = F. r = (10 i + 10 j + 10k)N . (2 i + 2 j – 2k)
= (10  2) + (10  2) – (10  2) = 20J 2  1.5
MEx 02 10m DuPz ¯’vb n‡Z 100gm fi wewkó GKwU ej‡K †d‡j w`‡j hw` ev x = ev x = 0.1m
300
ejwU cybivq 8m DuPz ch©šÍ D‡V Z‡e wK cwigvb kw³ e¨vq nq?
MEx 07 ‣iwLK fi‡eM 60% evo‡j MwZkw³ e„w× cvq-
Solve w  mg(h1  h2 ) = 0.10 × 9.8(10 – 8) 2
P 
= 0.10 × 9.8 × 2 = 1.96J Solve E  P2  E 2 =  2   E1  1.62  E1  2.56 E1
MEx 03 †Kvb Kyqvi MfxiZv 20m n‡j H K~qv Aa© c~Y© Ae¯’vq Lvwj  P1 
Ki‡Z K…ZKvR KZ? (cvwbi fi 600kg)  MwZkw³ e„w×, ΔE = 2.56–1=1.56×100% = 156%
3h 600  9.8  3  20 MEx 08 cÖwZ †m‡KÛ 10litre cvwb 10m Dc‡i †Zvjvi Rb¨ AšÍZ KZ
Solve W = mg =
4
= 88200J ÿgZvi cv¤ú ìKvi?
4
MEx 04 16kg Gi GKwU †evgv we‡ùvwiZ n‡q 4kg I 12kg Gi `ywU LÛ nj| W mgh 10  9.8  10
-1
Solve P = t = t = 1
= 980W
12kg f‡ii †eM 4ms n‡j Ab¨ UzKivwUi MwZ kw³ KZ?
MEx 09 100m Mfxi GKwU Kzqv †_‡K BwÄ‡bi mvnv‡h¨ 1 wgwbU 10 †m‡K‡Û 100
Solve m1v1  m2v2
kg cvwb DVvb nq, hw` BwÄ‡bi ¶gZv 30% bó nq| Zvn‡j Gi †gvU ¶gZv
m2  v2 12  4 wbY©q Ki|
ev, v1    12 ms 1
m1 4 mgh 100  9.8  100
P=
Solve P = = 2000 W
1 1
 Ek  m1v1   4  (12)  288 J
2 2   t 70
 70
1
2 2 100
MEx 05 30m D”PZv †_‡K GKwU e¯‘‡K webv evavq co‡Z w`‡j †Kvb D”PZvq MEx 10 110 lb f‡ii GK e¨w³ †`․‡o 5 †m‡K‡Û 10 ft DuPz wmuwo †e‡q Dc‡i
MwZkw³ wefekw³i wØ¸Y n‡e? D‡V| †jvKwUi Ak¦ ¶gZv KZ?
30 mgh 110 × 32 × 10
Solve x = 2 + 1 = 10m Solve †jvKwUi Ak¦ ¶gZv, P = = = 12.8 HP
t 5 × 550
gnvKl© I AwfKl©
 evqy‡Z GK ev· Zyjvi IRb Ges 4wU †jvnvi e‡ji IRb cÖwZ †¶‡Î wVK  c„w_exi †K‡›`ª gnvKlx©q Z¡ib KZ?  k~b¨
1 Kg-†`Lv †M‡j: Zzjvi fi I †jvnvi ej¸‡jvi fi mgvb  f~-c„‡ô †Kvb e¯‧i fi 1 kg c„w_exi †K‡›`ª Bnvi fi - 1kg
 c„w_exi N~Y©b nVvr †_‡g †M‡j †giæwe›`y‡Z e¯‧mg~‡ni fi n‡e- the same
 DcMÖn gnvk~‡b¨ †Kvb bxwZ †g‡b P‡j?  wbDU‡bi Z…Zxq m~Î
as before
 AwfKl© aªæeK G Gi gvÎv- M–1L3T–2  mgy`ª mgZ‡j 45 Aÿvs‡k g Gi gvb‡K Av`k© gvb aiv nq|
 c¨vivmyU w`‡q GK wegvb‡mbv 5km D”PZv †_‡K †b‡g Avm‡jv| f~wg ¯ú‡k©i  mylg e„‡Ëi AwfKl© †K›`ª R¨vwgwZK †K‡›`ª Aew¯Z|
mgq Zvi Z¡iY n‡e- 0
gR 2
 c„w_exi gyw³‡eM = VE, Pv‡` gyw³‡eM = VM, c„w_exi AwfKl©R Z¡iY Pv‡ì  c„w_exi f‡ii mwVK mgxKiY M =
G
AwfKl©R Z¡i‡bi †P‡q †ekx A_©vr gE > gM  VE>VM
2
gR  f‚-c„‡ô g Gi gvb me‡P‡q †ewk
 G I g Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK© G =
M  c„w_exi c„ô n‡Z Dc‡i ev Af¨šÍ‡i †M‡j g Gi gvb Kg‡Z _v‡K
 AwfKl© Z¡i‡Yi Dci `ªvwNgv cÖfve †bB|  c„w_exi †K‡›`ª g Gi gvb k~b¨
 †Kcjv‡ii Z…Zxq m~‡Îi Aci bvg AveZ©bKv‡ji m~Î| 1
 c„w_exi AwfKl©R Z¡ib g n‡j P‡›`ª g
 MÖ‡ni AveZ©bKvj Gi f‡ii Dci wbf©i K‡i bv| 6
 m~h© †_‡K MÖ‡ni Mo `~iZ¡ hZ Kg nq A_©vr MÖn m~‡h©i hZ wbK‡U _v‡K Gi  (i) MÖ ‡ ni AveZ© b Kvj Gi f‡ii Dci wbf©i K‡i bv|
AveZ©bKvj ZZ Kg nq| (ii) m~ h © †_‡K MÖ ‡ ni Mo `~ i Z¡ hZ Kg nq A_©vr MÖn m~‡h©i hZ wbK‡U _v‡K Gi
 wbDU‡bi m~Î n‡Z †Kcjv‡ii m~Î cÖwZcv`b Kiv hvq| AveZ©bKvj ZZ Kg nq|
 m~h© n‡Z c„w_exi `~iZ¡ A‡a©K n‡Z 129 w`‡b eQi n‡e|  f~w¯i DcMÖ‡ni ch©vqKvj 24 N›Uv|
 c„w_exi †K‡›`ª e¯‧i IRb k~b¨|
 g½jMÖ‡n 691 w`‡b eQi nq|
 gyw³‡eM e¯‧i f‡ii Dci wbf©i K‡i bv|
 wef‡ei gvÎv mgxKib  [L2T– 2]
 gnvKl©xq cÖvej¨ AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi mgvb, A_©vr (E = g)
 c„w_exi †K›`ª †_‡K c„w_ex‡K wN‡i N~Y©vqgvb GKwU DcMÖ‡ni `~iZ¡ wØ¸b Kiv  f‚-w¯i DcMÖ‡ni Kÿc_‡K cvwK©s Kÿ c_ e‡j|
n‡j Zvi MwZ‡eM- 2 ¸b Kg‡e|  7.92kms1 †e‡M Pj‡j IRbnxbZv Abyfe Ki‡e, IRbnxbZvi †ÿ‡Î,
 c„w_exi †K‡›`ª e¯‧i IRb k~b¨| V= gR
 gyw³‡eM e¯‧i f‡ii Dci wbf©i K‡i bv| Ve2
 v2 > A_©vr v =7.88 kms–1 n‡Z 11.2kms–1 nq Zvn‡j GwU c„w_ex‡K
 gnvKl©xq cÖvej¨ AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi mgvb, A_©vr (E = g) 2
 f~w¯i DcMÖ‡ni ch©vqKvj 24 N›Uv| f‚-w¯i DcMÖ‡ni Kÿc_‡K cvwK©s Kÿ GKwU †dvKv‡m †i‡L Zv Dce„ËvKvi c‡_ c„w_ex‡K cÖ`wÿY Ki‡Z _vK‡e|
c_ e‡j|  v = ve n‡j A_v©r v = 11.2 kms–1 nq Zvn‡j e¯‧wU Awae„Ë c‡_ c„w_ex
 DcMÖn gnvk~‡b¨ †Kvb bxwZ †g‡b P‡j?  wbDU‡bi Z…Zxq m~Î †Q‡o P‡j hv‡e|
 gnvKl© ej e¯‧Ø‡qi gva¨‡gi cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i bv  v > ve n‡j A_©vr hw` Dr‡ÿcb †eM (Ve) gyw³‡eM A‡cÿv †ekx nq Zvn‡j
 wewfbœ ¯’v‡b g Gi gvb: e¯‧ cive„Ë c‡_ c„w_ex †Q‡o P‡j hv‡e|
 †Kcjv‡ii m~Î mg~n:
AÂj gvb AÂj gvb
 Dce„ËvKvi m~Î (cÖ_g m~Î): m~h©‡K GKwU ‡dvKv‡m ‡i‡L cÖ‡Z¨KwU MÖn
9.80665 ms–2/
†giæ AÂj 9.83217 ms–2 45 Aÿvs‡k Dce„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyi‡Q|
9.81 ms–2
 †¶Îd‡ji m~Î (wØZxq m~Î): cÖ‡Z¨KwU MÖn Ggb fv‡e Nyi‡Q †h, m~h© I
welyexq AÂj 9.78039 ms–2 g½j MÖ‡n 3.8ms–2
MÖ‡ni †K‡›`ªi ms‡hvRK KvíwbK †iLv mgvb mg‡q mgvb †¶Îdj AwZµg
µvšÍxq AÂj 9.78918 ms–2 e„n¯úwZ MÖ‡n 25.92ms–2
K‡i|
XvKvq 9.7835 ms–2 Puv‡` 1.95ms–2  mg‡qi m~Î (Z…Zxq m~Î): m~‡h©i Pviw`‡K cÖwZwU MÖ‡ni AveZ©b Kv‡ji eM©
ivRkvnx‡Z 9.790 ms–2 c„w_exi †K‡›`ª 0 ms2 Zv‡ì Mo `~i‡Z¡i Nb d‡ji mgvbycvwZK| T2  R3
 wewfbœ MÖ‡n gyw³‡e‡Mi gvb:  †Kcjv‡ii m~Î g‡b ivLvi †K․kj: EAT
MÖ‡ni bvg gyw³ †e‡Mi gvb E A T
c„w_ex –1 –1
11.2kms /7miles /25000mileh –1
  
g½j MÖn 5.1kms–1 [Zcb m¨vi] /4.77kms–1 [Avgxi m¨vi] Ellipse law Area Law Time Law
(Dce„‡Ëi m~Î) (†ÿÎd‡ji m~Î) (mg‡qi m~Î)
eya 7.1kms–1
e„n¯úwZ 6.02104ms–1
2
1 F d  m1m2 Mm GMm
01. gnvKl© ej, Fm1m2, F 2 ; 1   2  ; F 2 ; F  G 2 gnvKl©xq wefekw³, U = R
d F2  d1  d d
wbDU‡bi gnvKl© m~Î
U = GMm  – 
1 1
msµvšÍ e„Ëxq MwZ: e„Ë c‡_i MwZ; (†K›`ªgyLx ej = gnvKl© ej) r1 r2
GMm mv 2 GM gR 2 GM
02. 2
= v = = ( g = 2
or, GM = gR2)
d d d d R
GM
01. AwfKl©R Z¡iY (†h †Kvb MÖn, DcMÖn I b¶‡Îi Rb¨) g 
R2
AwfKl©R Z¡iY msµvšÍ 4
4 GM G. 3R 3  4
02. AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi mv‡_ Nb‡Z¡i m¤úK©, g = R G [g = = = R G]
3 R2 R2 3
R 2
03. h D”PZvq gh =   g = 1    g [h << R]
2h
R + h  R
i. h D”PZvq g f~c„‡ôi x% n‡j, h   10  x  R
 x 

1
ii. h D”PZvq g f~c„‡ôi Ask n‡j h = ( n –1) R
n
04. d MfxiZvq, gd= 1    g
d
 R
1 n 1
i. d MfxiZvq g f~c„‡ôi Ask n‡j d = ×g
n n
(e¨vmv‡a©i ¸Y)2
05. gm = f‡ii ¸Y × ge [AbycvZ ev fMœvsk bv n‡j]
f‡ii ¸Y
gm = (e¨vmv‡a©i ¸Y)2 × ge [AbycvZ ev fMœvsk n‡j]
2GM 8
gyw³‡eM msµvšÍ gyw³‡eM, ve = 2gR = =R πpG
R 3
†Kcjv‡ii m~Î msµvšÍ †Kcjv‡ii Z…Zxq m~Î, T2  R3
MEx 01 k~b¨ gva¨‡g `yBwU B‡jKUª‡bi ga¨Kvi Kzj¤^ ej FE Ges gnvKl© ej MEx 06 c„w_exi e¨vmva© GKwU MÖ‡ni e¨vmv‡a©i wØ¸Y| wKš‘ MÖ‡ni c„‡ôi AwfKl©R
FG Gi AbycvZ n‡e? Z¡iY c„w_exi AwfKl©R Z¡iY AvU¸Y| D³ MÖ‡ni gyw³‡eM c„w_exi gyw³‡e‡Mi-
qq V gpR p
Solve vpp 
1 2
FE K d2 9  109  (1.6  10–19)2
Solve F = m m = = 4.2  1042 Ve
Ue geR e
G 1 2 6.673  10-11(9.1  10–31)2
G
d2
81
[K¨vjKy‡jk‡bi Rb¨ ïay 10 Gi cvIqvi wn‡m‡e Ki‡jB n‡e] = = 4 = 2 ev, Vp = 2Ve
12
MEx 02 `ywU e¯‘i g‡a¨ ‡h `~iZ¡ Av‡Q Zv A‡a©‡K †b‡g Avm‡j gnvKl© ej- MEx 07 f~-c„ô n‡Z R D”PZvq GKwU K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni †eM KZ?
1 1 gR2
Solve F  d2  F2 = 2 F1 = 4F1 Solve DcMÖ‡ni †eM, v =
gR 2
= =
gR
 
1 Rh R+R 2
2
GMm
MEx 03 c„w_exi e¨vmva© 4000 gvBj n‡j AvbygvwbK KZ D”PZvq ga¨vKl©Y ej MEx 08 m~‡h©i gnvKl© e‡ji Kvi‡b MÖn¸‡jv m~h©‡K cÖ`w¶Y K‡i
r2
c„w_ex c„‡ôi ga¨vKl©b e‡ji 1% n‡e? Mv2
r
| kwbMÖ‡ni e¨vmva© c„w_exi e¨vmv‡a©i 3 ¸b n‡j m~h©‡K GKevi cÖ`w¶Y
1
Solve 1% ev 100 n‡j, h = ( n – 1)R = ( 100 – 1)R = 9R = 36000 miles
Ki‡Z kwbMÖ‡ni KZ eQi mgq jvM‡e?
2 3
1 1  T1  R 
MEx 04 P‡›`ªi fi c„w_exi f‡ii fvM| P‡›`ªi e¨vmva© c„w_exi e¨vmv‡a©i 4 fvM| Solve     1 
80
T 2   R2 
c„w_ex c„‡ô AwfKlx©q Z¡i‡Yi gvb 9.8ms2 n‡j P›`ª c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb KZ? 2 3
T  R 
f‡ii ¸Y   s    s 
Solve gm = (e¨vmv‡a©i ¸Y)2  ge [AbycvZ fMœvsk n‡j]  e  Re 
T
3
3
 2
1  TS   RS  .Te =  32 =
  .1 27 = 5.1 eQi
80  E
R 1
=  9.8 = 1.96ms2 [Puv‡` AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb me`©v 1.96ms2 ]
12 MEx 09 m~‡h©i Pvwiw`‡K ïµ I c„w_exi K¶ c‡_i e¨vmv‡a©i AbycvZ 54:75
4 c„w_ex‡Z 365 w`‡b GK eQi n‡j ïµ‡Z KZ w`‡b GK eQi n‡e?
MEx 05 c„w_ex c„ô n‡Z KZ Mfx‡i †M‡j g Gi gvb f~-c„‡ôi gv‡bi A‡a©K n‡e- 2 3
Solve  Tm  R  3
   m  ev, Tm   54 
2
n1
Solve MfxiZv d =  n R T
 e   e
R 365  
75
2  1 R 6.4106 ev, Tm
 0.611 Tm  223day
= 6
 2 R= 2 = 2 = 3.210 365
[†R‡b ivLv fvj †h, ïµMÖ‡n 223 w`‡b 1 eQi]
c`v‡_©i MvVwbK ag©

 GKwU Zvi ej cÖ‡qv‡M m¤cÖmvwiZ Ki‡j, ZviwUi GKK AvqZb mwÂZ kw³i cxob
1  û‡Ki m~ Î , weK…wZ = aªæeK
ivwk: 2 cxob  weK…wZ
cvk¦© weK…wZ
 AwaKvsk avZe c`v‡_©i †¶‡Î cqm‡bi Abycv‡Zi gvb 0.3  cqm‡bi AbycvZ = ‣`N©¨ weK…wZ
 ZjUv‡bi gvÎv- [MT–2]  B¯úvZ Ges ivev‡ii g‡a¨ B¯úvZ †ewk w¯wZ¯vcK|
 mv›`ªZv mnM () Gi gvÎv- [ML–1T–1] Amn fvi F
 c„ôUv‡bi gvÎv- [MT–2]  Amn fvi Ges Amn cxob: Amn cxob = ‡¶Îdj =
A
 mv›`ªZv ¸bvs‡Ki gvÎv mgxKib- [ML–1T–1]  weK…wZ: †Kvb GKwU e¯‧i Dci ej cÖ‡qv‡M Gi GKK gvÎvq †h cwieZ©b N‡U
 c„ô Uv‡bi GKK Nm–1 Zv‡K weK…wZ e‡j|
 e¯‧i †Kvb a‡g©i Rb¨ Kuv‡Pi Mv‡q cvwbi †dvUv †j‡M _v‡K- AvmÄb  weK…wZ †¯‥jvi ivwk|  gvÎv I GKK †bB|
 B¯úvZ †jvn A‡cÿv †ekx w¯wZ¯vcK  cxob: ‡Kvb GKwU e¯‧i GKK †¶Îd‡ji Dci wµqvg~jK ev cÖwZwµqvg~jK
 Zij c`v‡_©i we‡kl ag©- c„óUvb, mv›`ªZv F
 mv›`ªZv Zij I M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i mvaviY ag© e‡ji gvb‡K cxob e‡j| cxob = A
 mv›`ªZv: ‡h a‡g©i ìæb ‡Kvb cÖevnxi wewfbœ ¯Í‡ii Av‡cw¶K MwZ‡Z evavi  ZvcgvÎv e„w×i mv‡_ mv‡_ M¨v‡mi mv›`ªZv- e„w× cvq
m„wó nq Zv‡K H cÖevnxi mv›`ªZv e‡j|  ZvcgvÎv e„w×i mv‡_ Zi‡ji mv›`ªZv- n«vm cvq
 †Zj, `ya I AvjKvZivi g‡a¨ AvjKvZivi mv›`ªZv me‡P‡q ‡ekx  PK I †ev‡W©i Abyi g‡a¨ AvKl©b ej- AvmÄb ej
 cvwbi Zzjbvq gayi mv›`ªZv †ekx  K¶ ZvcgvÎvq wMømvwi‡bi mv›`ªZv mnM cvwbi †P‡q 103 †ekx|
 mv›`ªZv µg: AvjKvZiv > †Zj > `ya Ges gay > cvwb|  c„óUv‡bi Kvi‡b Zij Zj msKzwPZ nIqvi ‡Póv K‡i|
 iæcvi Bqs Gi ¸YvsK 7.9×1011GKK|
 mv›`ªZv: Bnv c`v‡_©i we‡kl ag©| GwU Zij I evqexq c`v‡_©i mvaviY ag©|
 Zi‡ji c„ôUv‡bi Rb¨ mskw³ ej `vqx|
 mv›`ªZv ¸Yvs‡Ki GKK: 1. Nsm–2, 2. kgms–1, (1Nsm–2 = 10poise)
 e„wói GKwU eo †duvUv †f‡½ A‡bK¸‡jv †QvU †duvUvq cwiYZ n‡j †duvUv¸wji
 Pv‡ci cÖfve: Pvc e„w× †c‡j Zij c`v‡_©i mv›`ªZvsK e„w× cvq| M¨v‡mi me©‡gvU- †ÿÎdj e„w× cvq|
mv›`ªZvsK Pv‡ci Dci wbf©ikxj bq|  wcZ‡ji w¯wZ¯vcK ¸Yv¼- 91011Nm–2
 mv›`ªZv I ZvcgvÎvi g‡a¨ m¤úK© nj-   T (M¨v‡mi †¶‡Î)  msKU ZvcgvÎvq Zi‡ji c„ôUvb- k~b¨
1  AvqwbK I mg‡hvRx eÜ‡bi Zzjbvq avZe eÜb- `~e©j|
 Zi‡ji †¶‡Î mv›`ªZvi mn‡Mi m‡½ ZvcgvÎvi m¤úK© n‡”Q-  
T  me©cÖ_g AvbweK Z‡Ë¡i mvnv‡h¨ c„ôUv‡bi e¨vL¨v †`b j¨vcøvm|
 ¯úk© †KvY: mskw³ ej I AvmÄb e‡ji mw¤§wjZ wµqvq m„ó †KvY‡K ¯úk©  KuvP I weï× cvi‡ì †ejvq ¯úk©‡Kv‡Yi gvb- 139/140|
†KvY e‡j (†KvY m„wó nq)|  mskw³ ej hZ †ekx n‡e ¯úk© †KvY ZZ †ekx n‡e|
 ¯úk© †Kv‡Yi cÖKvi‡f`:  e¯‧i †Kvb a‡g©i Rb¨ Kuv‡Pi Mv‡q cvwbi †dvUv †j‡M _v‡K- AvmÄb|
 m~² ¯úk© †KvY 00 <<900 Zi‡ji gy³ Zj AeZj nq  Amg Abyi Mo MwZkw³ Dnvi- ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK|
 ¯~j ¯úk© †KvY 90<<180 Zi‡ji gy³ Zj DËj nq|
0
 B¯úvZ †jvn A‡cÿv †ekx w¯wZ¯vcK|
 Zij KwVb‡K wfRv‡j (cvwb I KuvP) ¯úk©‡KvY m~²‡KvY nq A_©vr 0 <  <  B¯úvZ Ges ivev‡ii g‡a¨ B¯úvZ †ewk w¯wZ¯vcK|
90 Ges Zij KwVb‡K bv wfRv‡j (cvi` I KuvP) ¯úk© †KvY ¯~j †KvY nq  cvi` I Kv‡Pi ga¨Kvi ¯úk© †Kvb nq- ¯~j‡KvY|
A_©vr 90 <  < 180| r e¨vmv‡a©i Ges h D”PZvi dvcv †Pv‡½i †¶Îdj- 2r h
2

 ïaygvÎ ZvcgvÎv n«vm †c‡j Ges A‣Re c`v_© `ªexf~Z _vK‡j c„ôUvb ev‡o|  Avgv‡ì kix‡i agbx‡Z i³ mÂvjb cÖevn GKwU aviv‡iL cÖevn|
ZvQvov me‡ÿ‡Î c„ôUvb K‡g|  KwVb c`v‡_©i we‡kl ag©: ZviZv, cøeZv, f½yiZv, `„pZv
 msmw³ ej (Cohesive Force): GKB c`v‡_©i wewfbœ AYyi g‡a¨ cvi¯úwiK
cxob
AvKl©Y ej‡K mskw³ ej e‡j|  û‡Ki m~Î, weK…wZ = aªæeK
 AvmÄb ej (Adhesive Force): wewfbœ c`v‡_©i AYyi †fZi cvi¯úwiK
 AvšÍtAvYweK ej 2 cÖKvi:
AvKl©Y ej‡K AvmÄb ej e‡j|
 msmw³ ej (Cohesive Force)
 Kj‡gi wb‡ei Kvwji cÖevn c„ôUv‡bi D`vniY| dvD‡›Ub †cb Kvwji mv›`ªZv
 AvmÄb ej (Adhesive Force)
a‡g©i Dci wfwË K‡i cÖ¯‧Z Kiv nq|
 c`v‡_©i Amsbg¨Zvi µg Ñ KwVb > Zij > M¨vm
 c`v‡_©i Amsbg¨Zvi µg- KwVb > Zij > M¨vm
 Bqs Gi ¸YvsK Y Gi gvÎv [ML–1T–2]: 2r2 ( – )g
 †÷vKm&& Gi cÖvwšÍK †e‡Mi mgxKiY: v =
l 9 
 weK…wZ: †¯‥jvi iwk ( L), GKK: GKK bvB
 GKwU Zvi ej cÖ‡qv‡M m¤cÖmvwiZ Ki‡j, ZviwUi GKK AvqZb mwÂZ kw³i
 cxob: †¯‥jvi ivwk (F/A),
ivwk- GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ kw³ = 1 = cxob  weK…wZ
 GKK: Nm–2 ev c¨vm‡Kj, gvÎv: ML–1T–2 2
 GKwU KuvP c„‡ôi Dci cvwb Xvj‡j Zv hZUv Qovq `ya ZZUv Qovq bv mv›`ªZv 1
  Gi gvb: –1 <  < 2 ; cÖK…Zc‡ÿ  Gi gvb 0.2 †_‡K 0.4 Gi
I c„ôUvb Gi Rb¨|
 c„ôUv‡bi AvYweK ZË¡: weÁvbx j¨vcjvm me© cÖ_g AvYweK Z‡Ë¡i mvnv‡h¨
g‡a¨ _v‡K| cqm‡bi Abycv‡Zi GKK bvB|
Zi‡ji c„ôUvb e¨vL¨v K‡ib|  †ewki fvM avZe c`v‡_©i †ÿ‡Î G gvb mvaviYZ 0.3 n‡q _v‡K| avZe
1
cvk¦© weK…wZ c`v‡_©i †ÿ‡Î GB cqm‡bi Abycv‡Zi mxgv aiv nq 0    2|
 cqm‡bi AbycvZ = ‣`N©¨ weK…wZ
ej F mg
 cxob = †ÿÎdj = A = A [m f‡ii e¯‧‡K Szwj‡q w`‡j]
Amn ej (Amn IRb)
cxob I weK…wZ  Amn cxob = †ÿÎdj
msµvšÍ
 Amn fvi = Amn fi  AwfKl©R Z¡iY
cwieZ©b •`N©¨ e„w× l †ÿÎdj e„w× a AvqZb e„w× v
 weK…wZ = = Avw` = L[‣`N©¨ weK…wZ] = Avw` †ÿÎdj = A [†ÿÎdj ev K…šÍb weK…wZ] = Avw` AvqZb =V [AvqZb weK…wZ]
Avw`
F / A FL mgL l
 Y=   ; cÖhy³ ej F  Y . A. ;
 / L A r 2 L
F FV 1
`„pZvi ¸YvsK,  = ; AvqZb ¸YvsK, k = ; msbg¨Zv, B =
Av k
A
Bqs Gi ¸bvsK Yx x
 i. •`N©¨ x% evo‡j cxob = | x% =
msµvšÍ 100 100
YAx YAx
ii. •`N©¨ x% evo‡j ej = | l=
100 L
iii. •`N©¨ n ¸Y evo‡j cxob = Y(n  1)
iv. •`N©¨ n ¸Y evo‡j ej = YA(n  1)
cqm‡bi AbycvZ cvk¦© weK…wZ r / R d / D 1
cqm‡bi AbycvZ:  = ‣`N©¨ weK…wZ =  , (–1 <  < )
2
msµvšÍ l/L l/L
(cxob)2 1
K…ZKvR I GKK  GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ kw³ = 1 × cxob  weK…wZ = =  Y  (weK…wZ)2
2 2Y 2
AvqZ‡b mwÂZ 2
1 1 YAl YAl
kw³ msµvšÍ  K…ZKvR ev wefe kw³ = Fl =  l=
2 2 L 2L
2
MEx 01 GKwU Zv‡ii •`N©¨ 4m cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj 0.003m , Amncxob MEx 03 GKB Dcv`v‡bi •Zwi wØZxq Zv‡ii •`N¨© cÖ_g Zv‡ii •`‡N¨©i wØ¸Y
3.267  105Nm2| ZviwUi Amn fi KZ? wKš‘ e¨vmva© cÖ_g Zv‡ii A‡a©K n‡j Ges mgvb fvi cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j wØZxq
Solve Amn IRb = Amncxob  cÖ¯‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj = 3.267  10 5 Zvi I cÖ_g Zv‡ii •`N¨© cÖmvi‡Yi AbycvZ KZ?
FL
 0.003 = 9.8  102N Solve Bqs-Gi ¸YvsK, Y =
Amn IRb A
 Amn fi = AwfKl©R Z¡iY FL L
 •`‡N©ï cwieZ©b, ℓ = ; ℓ 2
Yr 2
r
9.8  102
= = 102kg  2 L 2  r1  2
9.8 = 
   = 24 = 8
–2  1 L 1  r2 
MEx 02 GKwU Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Bqs Gi ¸bvsK 2  10 Nm ZviwUi •`N©¨
11
MEx 04 ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j GKwU Zv‡ii •`N©¨ 1%cwieZ©b n‡j Gi e¨vm

15% e„w× Ki‡Z cÖhy³ cxob KZ?
kZKiv KZ fvM cwiewZ©Z n‡e? cqm‡bi AbycvZ 0.2|
Solve •`N©¨ x% evo‡j cxob
cvk¦© weK…wZ
Yx 2  1011  15 Solve d = •`N©¨ weK…wZ
= =
100 100
= 3  1010 Nm2 ev, 0.2 = d ev, d = 0.002 = 0.2%
0.01
2 -4
MEx 05 2m `xN© Ges 0.01cm cÖ¯’‡”Q` wewkó GKwU Zvi †U‡b 1mm cÖmvwiZ MEx 07 cÖwZwU 10 m e¨vm wewkó cvwbi 1000 ¶z`ª †duvUv wg‡j GKwU e„nr
Kiv n‡jv| hw` Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Bqs Gi ¸bvsK Y=2x1011Nm2 nq Z‡e †duvUv •Zix Kij| e„nr †duvUvi e¨vmva© KZ?
ZviwU cÖmvwiZ Ki‡Z m¤úvw`Z Kv‡Ri cwigvY KZ? Solve R  3 n r
2
 = 3 1000  0.5  104 = 510-4m
Solve W 1 YA
2 L MEx 08 †Kvb cÖev‡ni ZvcgvÎv GK-PZz_©vsk Kiv n‡j Gi mv›`ªZv ¸YvsK
1 (1  10 -3 ) 2 KZ¸Y n‡e|
= 210110.01104  0 .05 J Solve   T
2 2
–3 –1 1
MEx 06 GKwU •KwkK b‡ji e¨vm 0.2mm G‡K 7210 Nm c„ôUvb Ges 
4
103kgm–3 Nb‡Z¡i cvwb‡Z Wyev‡j b‡ji KZ D”PZvq cvwb DV‡e- [g = 10ms2] 1
hrg ev, h = 2T = 2  72  103  A_©vr A‡a©K n‡e|
Solve T  2
2 rg 0.1  103  103  10
 h = 144  103 = 0.144m
ch©ve„Ë MwZ
 mij Qw›`Z MwZ msµvšÍ †jLwPÎ :  mij †`vj‡Ki m~Îvejx:
welq †jLwP‡Îi aib  1g m~Î- mgKvj m~Î: †Kvb GK ¯v‡b wbw`©ó •`N©¨ wewkó †Kvb GKwU mij
miY-mgq †jLwPÎ sin m`„k †`vj‡Ki we¯Ívi 40 Gi g‡a¨ _vK‡j cÖwZwU †`vj‡Ki Rb¨ mgvb mgq
†eM-mgq †jLwPÎ cos m`„k jvM‡e| L, g w¯i _vK‡j cÖwZwU †`vj‡Ki Rb¨ T GKB ev aªæeK|
Z¡iY-mgq †jLwPÎ FYvZ¥K sin m`„k  2q m~Î- •`‡N©ï m~Î: we¯Ívi 4 Gi g‡a¨ _vK‡j †Kvb wbw`©ó ¯v‡b mij
L–T2 †jLwPÎ g~jwe›`yMvgx GKwU mij‡iLv †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj Zvi •`‡N©ï eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK| T  L
g – T2 †jLwPÎ AvqZvKvi Awae„Ë  3q m~Î- Z¡i‡Yi m~Î: we¯Ívi 4 Gi g‡a¨ _vK‡j wbw`©ó •`N©¨ wewkó †Kvb
mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjb Kvj H ¯v‡bi AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi eM©g~‡ji
1
T2 – †jLwPÎ g~jwe›`yMvgx GKwU mij‡iLv 1
g e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK| T  g
2 2
 †jLwPÎ: g-T †jLwPÎ Awae„Ë n‡e, L-T †jLwPÎ mij‡iLv n‡e,
 4_© m~Î- f‡ii m~Î: we¯Ívi 4 Gi g‡a¨ Ges Kvh©Ki •`N©¨ w¯i _vK‡j
1
T2 – †jLwPÎ mij‡iLv n‡e| †Kvb ¯v‡b mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj †`vjK wc‡Ûi fi, AvK…wZ ev
g
Dcv`v‡bi Dci wbf©i K‡i bv|
T2
g L  †K․wYK we¯Ívi 4 Gi †ewk n‡j- T = 2 Lg m~Î cÖ‡hvR¨ nq bv, KviY-
 e‡eiMwZ mij •iwLK n‡e bv
1  Z¡iY mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK nq bv
T2 T2 g
 mij †`vj‡Ki mij Qw›`Z MwZ m¤úbœ nq bv|
 †m‡KÛ †`vj‡Ki ¸iæZ¡c~Y© Z_¨mg~n:
 mij †`vjbMwZi eënvi:
 †`vjbKvj = 2s  K¤úvsK = 0.5Hz
 GKwU Aa©‡`vjb Kvj = 1s  AwfKl©R Z¡iY wbY©q|
 Kvh©Ki •`N©¨ = 0.993m. = 99.3 cm = 3.36ft  cvnv‡oi D”PZv wbY©q|
 sin, cos ... wfZ‡i  Gi gvb 1800 nq|  mgq wbY©q Kiv|
 GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjKwc‡Ûi m‡e©v”P Z¡ib nq - m‡e©v”P we¯Ívi we›`y‡Z  mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjb Kvj:
 GKwU †m‡KÛ †`vj‡Ki •`N¨© AwfKl©R Z¡i‡bi- mgvbycvwZK A. †`vjbKvj evo‡e A_©vr †`vjK ax‡i Pj‡e:
 Kvh©Ki •`N©¨ evo‡j  ‡`vjK P›`ª c„‡ô wb‡j  ZvcgvÎv e„w× †c‡j
 hw` GKwU †`vj‡Ki ch©vqKvj T Ges ‣`N©¨ L nq Zvn‡j, T  L
(avZz wbwg©Z †MvjK)  mgZ¡i‡Y wjdU bx‡Pi w`‡K bvg‡j (Kvh©Ki Z¡iY
2 2 (g–a)  †`vjK wcÛ Lwb‡Z ev cvnv‡oi Dci wb‡j  ‡`vjK Nwo
 `kv cv_©K¨ I c_ cv_©K¨: `kv cv_©K¨ =  c_ cv_©K¨ ev,  = x
  MÖx®§Kv‡j Av‡¯Í P‡j (Slow nq)  †`vjK wcÛ, cvi` Øviv Aa©c~Y© Kiv
 mij‡`vj‡Ki †ÿ‡Î mvg¨ve¯vq †eM me©vwaK, Z¡iY k~b¨ Ges cÖv‡šÍ †eM k~b¨, n‡j (e„w× cvq)  †`vjK Nwo‡K ‡giæ AÂj †_‡K welye AÂ‡j wb‡j|
Z¡iY me©vwaK|
B. †`vjbKvj Kg‡e A_©vr †`vjK `ªæZ Pj‡e:
 DaŸ©Mvgx wjd‡U †`vjK `ªæZ Pj‡e|
 Kvh©Ki •`N©¨ Kgv‡j  ‡`vjK welye AÂj n‡Z †giæ AÂ‡j wb‡j
 wewfbœ cÖKvi MwZ:  kxZKv‡j ev ZvcgvÎv Kg‡j Nwo `ªæZ P‡j  mgZ¡i‡Y Dc‡ii w`‡K
K) ch©vqe„Ë MwZ: m~‡h©i Pviw`‡K MÖ‡ni MwZ, Nwoi KuvUvi MwZ, gvbe PjšÍ wjd‡U †`vjK wb‡j (Kvh©Ki Z¡iY = g + a)|
ü`wc‡Ûi ¯ú›`b, miY †`vj‡Ki MwZ BZ¨vw`|
C. †`vjbKvj Amxg n‡e:
L) ¯ú›`b ev †`vj MwZ: mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ, kã mÂvj‡bi MwZ, mgq evqy  †`vjK‡K c„w_exi †K‡›`ª wb‡j
KYvi MwZ, †`qvj Nwoi †`vj‡Ki MwZ BZ¨vw`|  †`vjK‡K N~Y©vqgvb K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni g‡a¨ wb‡j|
D. †`vjbKvj AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡e:  mylg e„ËvKvi MwZ‡K mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b MwZ wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv Kiv hvq| GKwU †`vjK
 †`vjK duvcvbv n‡q wb‡iU n‡j  †`vjK‡K mg‡e‡M PjšÍ wjd‡U wb‡j  Nwo‡K cvnv‡oi P~ovq wb‡j ax‡i Pj‡e| KviY †mLv‡b g Gi gvb Kg|
dvcv †`vjK wcÛ‡K cvi` Øviv c~Y© Kiv n‡j  mxmvi †`vjK wc‡Ûi cwie‡Z©  ‡m‡KÛ †`vj‡Ki •`N¨© AwfKl©R Z¡iY g Gi mgvbycvwZK| c„w_exi 45
wcZ‡ji †`vjK wcÛ n‡j (e‡ei c`v‡_©i cwieZ©b Ki‡j)| Aÿvs‡k AwfKl©R Z¡iY‡K Av`k© gvb aiv nq|
 wjdU mg‡e‡M _vK‡j †`vjbKv‡ji †Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv|  e‡ei fi †ewk n‡j †`vjbKvj AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡e| mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`biZ KYvi
†eM (i) ga¨ we›`y‡Z m‡ev©”P (ii) m‡ev©”P mi‡Y k~b¨ (iii) mvg¨ve¯vq me©wb¤œ|
 mij †`vjK m¤ú‡K© ÁvZe¨ welq:
 mij †`vj‡Ki •`N¨© L, fi M, K¤úv¼ f| Gi K¤úv¼ 2f Kiv n‡j •`N¨© n«vm
 Zijc~Y© ee bx‡P wQ`ª Ki‡j 1g Kvh©Ki ‣`N©¨ e„w× cvq, †`vjbKvj e„w×
L
cvq, Nwo †¯øv n‡e Ges c‡i Kvh©Ki •`N©¨ n«vm cv‡e, †`vjb Kvj n«vm cv‡e, K‡i 4 Ki‡Z n‡e|
Nwo `ªæZ (FAST) Pj‡e| 2d2x
 P‡›`ª g Gi gvb Kg Ges T ‡ekx ZvB Nwo †¯øv Pj‡e|  + 32x = 0 n‡j Gi †K․wYK K¤úv¼ n‡e 4 rads–1| GKwU †m‡KÛ
dt2
 wmwjÛv‡ii g‡a¨ wc÷‡bi MwZ GKwU ch©ve„Ë MwZ| †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix •`N¨© 0.993m|
 jvwU‡gi MwZ GKwU Pjb-N~Y©b MwZ|  mij †`vj‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ wbY©q Kiv hvq cvnv‡oi D”PZv I AwfKl©R Z¡iY|
 mijQw›`Z ¯ú›`b: * ch©vqe„Ë MwZ * ej/Z¡iY mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK|  ‡`vjbKv‡ji AbycvZ 2 : 3 n‡j Kvh©Ki •`‡N¨©i AbycvZ n‡e 4 : 9|
 mij‡`vj‡Ki †ÿ‡Î mvg¨ve¯vq †eM me©vwaK, Z¡iY k~b¨ Ges cÖv‡šÍ †eM k~b¨,  mij †`vjb MwZm¤úbœ KYvi miY I Z¡i‡Yi `kv cv_©K¨ 180 ev |
Z¡iY me©vwaK|  w¯úªs mshy³ GKwU KYv mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡b ¯úw›`Z n‡”Q,
 DaŸ©Mvgx wjd‡U †`vjK `ªæZ Pj‡e| x=
A 3
Ae¯v‡b †eM 2 vmax|
 GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki we¯Ívi wØ¸Y Ki‡j Gi †`vjbKv‡ji Ae¯v -AcwiewZ©Z| 2
1  †Kv‡bv mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡Ki ch©vqKvj 10 sec n‡j Z¡iY a Ges miY x Gi
 mij †`vj MwZm¤úbœ KYvi †ÿ‡Î 2KA2 n‡”Q Ñ 
ga¨Kvi m¤úK© n‡jv a = – 5 x|
2
(i) m‡ev©”P MwZkw³, (ii) m‡ev©”P w¯wZkw³, (iii) †gvU kw³|  

 ch©vqKvj 2 ¸Y Kiv n‡j †`vj‡Ki •`N¨© 4 ¸Y Ki‡Z n‡e| c„w_exi †K‡›`ª  mij Qw›`Z MwZm¤úbœ †Kv‡bv KYvi hvwš¿K kw³ we¯Ív‡ii e‡M©i mgvbycvwZK|
mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj Amxg nq| T = L  GKwU w¯úªs Gi mwÂZ kw³ ebvg cÖmvi‡Yi †jLwPÎ n‡e c¨viv‡evjv|
2
dx  x = 0 Ae¯v‡b †gvU kw³ x = A Ae¯v‡b †gvU kw³ = mgq|
 mij †`vjb MwZm¤úbœ †Kv‡bv KYvi AšÍiK mgxKiY, dt2 + 2x = 0| 1 1
 x = 0 Ae¯v‡b MwZkw³ x = A Ae¯v‡b w¯wZkw³i mgvb = m2A2 = Kx2
2A 2 2
 mij †`vjb MwZm¤úbœ KYvi †`vjbKvj T, we¯Ívi A Gi m‡ev©”P †eM n‡jv, T |  mvg¨ve¯vb †_‡K miY †hLv‡b we¯Ív‡ii A‡a©K †mLv‡b MwZkw³ I wefekw³
 mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡Ki †ÿ‡Î ch©vqKvj Ges cÖZ¨vqbx e‡ji gvb AcwiewZ©Z _v‡K| mgvb n‡e|
d2x d2x k
 mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi eëKjbxq mgxKiY 2
+ ω 2
x = 0  2
+ x=0
dt dt m
 ω2 = k m ω = k m ; f = 1  k 1
; T = = 2 
m
2 m f k
 mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b m¤úbœ KYvi:
 miY, x = a sint
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b V =  A2 – x2 [A = KYvi we¯Ívi]
 †eM,
KYvi miY, †eM I 2A
 x = 0 n‡j, Vmax = A = = 2fA[x = KYvi miY]
Z¡iY msµvšÍ T
2
 †K․wYK †eM,  = = 2f
T
 Z¡iY, a = –  x ; amax = – A (x = A) ; |amax| =  A
2 2 2
 mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b m¤úbœ KYvi mgxKib, x = A sin (t + )

A = we¯Ívi hvnv KLbI FYvZ¥K n‡e bv;  = Avw` `kv; (ωt + ) = `kv, t = 0 mg‡q `kv = 
dx dv
 = v = ωA cosωt  = a = – ω2A sinωt = –2x
dt dt
 †`vjbKvj: T = 2 L ; T = t ; t  †gvU mgq , N  †gvU †`vjb msL¨v
mij †`vjK g N
msµvšÍ i)
T
1 
L
1  R
T
ii) 1 
g
2
T L Rh T g
2 2 2 1
T Me we
iii) m  Rm iv) = ge
T Re Mm wh gh
e
Aspect Special: Kvh©Kix •`N©¨ n ¸Y e„w× ‡c‡j †`vjb Kvj T2 = n  2; †`vjbKvj n ¸Y e„w× †c‡j •`N©¨, L2 = n2L1
Note: f~-†K›`ª, gnvKvk, K…wÎg DcMÖn GB wZb ¯’v‡b g = 0, T = , f = 0Hz
mg
 ej, F=kx; k= ej aªæeK; mg=kx  w¯úªs/ejaªæeK, k=
x
 †`vjbKvj, T = 2 e g [e = w¯úªs cÖmviY]
 K…ZKvR ev w¯wZkw³, W = 1 kx2 = 1 m2x2

w¯úªs msµvšÍ 2 2
1 1
 w¯úªs Gi MwZkw³, EK = K (A – x ) = m (A – x )
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
1 1
 w¯úªs Gi †gvUkw³, E = KA = m A
2 2 2
2 2
1
 
 K…ZKvR, W = k x f  x i [xi , xf `ywU Avw` Ae¯vb n‡Z gvc‡Z n‡e] [xi= w¯úªs Gi Avw` Ae¯vb; xf = w¯úªs Gi †kl Ae¯vb]
2
2 2
1 1 1 1 1
Ek = mv2 = K(A2 – x2) = m2(A2–x2) = kA2cos2(t + ) = m2A2cos2(t + )
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 1 1
kw³ EP = U = kx = m2x2 = kA2sin2(t + ) = m2A2sin2(t + )
2 2 2 2
1 2 1
E = EK + EP = kA = m2A2
2 2
 a=–x
2
 mg = ke g
  =
2
g L k
  =   =
2 2
e L m
mij †`vjK e  T = 2 
g m
 2  T = 2
g L k
 mg = kx   [wjd‡U] (+) (–)
g  a
T2 L2 g1 L2 R
 =     
T1 L1 g2 L1 R+h
2 2
g 4 2 T
 L = 2 [‡m‡KÛ †`vj‡Ki †ÿ‡Î]; g = 2 = 4 /Slope [Slope = ]
 T /L L
ch©vqKvj I
L1 L2 GM GM
cvnv‡oi D”PZv  cvnv‡oi D”PZv wbY©‡q, T1 = 2   g = ;g =
g1  g2 1 R2 2 (R+h)2
T2 g1 L1 R T2 g1 L1 h
 f~c„ô n‡Z h D”PZvq, =   ; f~c„ô n‡Z MfxiZvq, =  –
T1 g2 L2 R + h T1 g2 L2 R
1 T g
T  ; g2 = ng1 n‡j, T2 = 1 ; T2 = nT1, n‡j, g2 = 12
g n n
1 1 1 1
 w¯úªs Gi mgevq, †kÖwY mgev‡q, = + + ............. + ;
KS K1 K2 Kn
mgvšÍivj mgev‡q, KP = K1 + K2 + .......... + Kn
w¯úªs mgevq
 ‡Kvb w¯úªs‡K mgvb n msL¨K L‡Û wef³ Ki‡j, k = nk
 ‡Kvb w¯úªs‡K m:n Abycv‡Z wef³ Ki‡j, km = 

m+n m + n
 m  k k n = n  k
T f‡ii ¸Y v L g w
 mij †`vj‡Ki †ÿ‡Î, Tm = e¨vmv‡a©i ¸Y  T = 2 amax  L1 = g1 = w1 [W = IRb]
e max 2 2 2
mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj X% e„w× Ki‡Z n‡j Kvh©Ki •`N¨© L = 1 + 100 Ki‡Z n‡e
x
ASPECT 
SPECIAL
RX
 wVK mgq †`qv †m‡KÛ †`vjK cvnv‡o wb‡q †M‡j hw` Zv X †m‡KÛ wa‡i P‡j Z‡e cvnv‡oi D”PZv, h = 86400
100
 Puv‡` †m‡KÛ †`vj‡Ki e‡ei IRb X% n«vm †c‡j, Tm = e ‡hLv‡b, Te = 2
100 – x
MEx 01 GKwU e¯‘ m‡e©v”P we¯Ívi 5.0 m Ges 8.0 s †`vjbKv‡j mij Qw›`Z Solve T2 = nT1
MwZ m¤úbœ| e¯‘wUi m‡ev©”P †eM KZ?  T2= 3 2  4.24 s
2 23.145
Solve Vmax = A = T .A, ; Vmax = = 3.93m/s MEx 05 GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki ‡`vjbKvj 41% evov‡Z Gi Kvh©Ki •`N©¨
8
KZUzKz cwieZ©b Ki‡Z n‡e?
d2x
MEx 02 2  25 x  0 mgxKiYwU GKwU mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b eY©bv K‡i| Solve 41% evov‡j T2 = 1.41 T1
dt
 L2 = n2L1
GB ¯ú›`‡bi †K․wYK K¤úvsK KZ?
 L2 = ( 2)2L1
d2x d2x  L2 = 2L1
Solve +25x = 0  + 25x= 0
dt 2 dt 2 MEx 06 25 N ej †Kvb w¯cÖs‡K †U‡b 10 cm e„w× K‡i| w¯cÖswU‡K 6 cm
d2x cÖmvwiZ Kiv n‡j K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvY-
 By compare with 2 +2x = 0; 2 = 25   = 5 rad s1
dt F 25
MEx 03 GKwU Zv‡ii wfZi w`‡q mvB‡bv‡mvBWvj Zi½ cÖevwnZ n‡j Zv‡ii KYvi Solve 4.F  Kx ev, K    250
x 0.1
m‡e©v”P `ªæwZ VS| Zv‡ii GKwU KYvi miY we¯Ív‡ii A‡a©K n‡j H KYvi `ªæwZ n‡jv? 1 2 1 2
Solve Vmax = A  W  Kx   250  (. 06 )  0.45 joule
2 2
A2 –1
Avevi, v =  A2 – x2 =  A2 –  2  =  A2 – 4 = A MEx 07 k = 100 Nm w¯cÖswU‡K 10cm cÖmvwiZ Ae¯’v n‡Z AviI 5cm
A 2
cÖmvwiZ Ki‡Z K…ZKvR KZ?
3 3 1 1
2
= Vmax
2 Solve W = 2 k(xf2  xi2)  2  100{(.15)2 – (.1)2}
MEx 04 GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki •`N©¨ AciwUi wØ¸Y| cÖ_g mij †`vj‡Ki = .625J [xi = 10cm, xf = 15cm]
†`vjbKvj 3s n‡j wØZxqwUi †`vjbKvj KZ?
Av`k© M¨vm I M¨v‡mi MwZZË¡

 †Kvb e¯‧‡K Mig Ki‡j Bnvi KYvmg~‡ni MwZkw³ e„w× cvq|  GK evqygÛjxq Pv‡ci mgvb n‡jv  102 kPa
 Av`k© M¨v‡mi w¯wZkw³  k~b¨|  cÖgvY Pvc 1atm = 1.01310 N/m =1.01310 Pa = 1.013  10
5 2 5 2
 evqy 184 Ges nvB‡Wªv‡Rb- 269C ZvcgvÎvq Zij nq| KPa = 0.76m-HgP = 76 cm-HgP = 760mm-HgP
 cigk~b¨ ZvcgvÎvq AvqZb, Pvc I MwZkw³ k~b¨ nq|  mve©Rbxb M¨vm aªæeK: R=8.314JK–1 mol–1/R = 0.0821 Latmmol-1k–1
 M¨v‡mi AYy¸‡jvi †gvU MwZkw³ ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK| (†evëR&g¨vb aªæeK K = 1.38110–23Jk–1)
 M¨v‡mi RMS †eM cig ZvcgvÎvi eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK|  †Kvb e¨w³ ce©‡Zi cvwb dzUv‡Z PvB‡j cvwbi cvÎ‡K †h ZvcgvÎvq DËß
Ki‡Z n‡e Zv  Lower than 100°C
 cÖwZwU AYyi Mo gy³ c_ mgvb|
 cvwbi •Îawe›`y: i. ZvcgvÎv = 273.16 k ev 0.16C ev 32.018F
 •iwLK MwZi ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv wZb|
ii. Pvc = 4.58 mm-Hg
 AveZ©biZ KYvi ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv cvuP|
 25C ZvcgvÎvi GKwU cix¶vMv‡i GKB AvK…wZi 4wU cv‡Î h_vµ‡g 600C,
3
 cÖ‡Z¨K AYyi ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎvi †gvU kw³i cwigvb KT| 700C, 800C Ges 900C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb ivLv Av‡Q| †Kvb cvÎwUi cvwb Zvc
2
nviv‡e?  900C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb| Kvib GLv‡b ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ †ekx|
 e¯‧i k„•Lj Ae¯v n‡Z wek„•Lj Ae¯vi m„wó n‡j GbUªwc  ev‡o|
 †h _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ 5000C Gi AwaK ZvcgvÎv cwigvc Kiv hvq Zv‡K
 Pv‡ci GKK  c¨vm‡Kj|
e‡j  cvB‡ivwgUvi|
 m¤ú„³ ev¯úPvc AvqZ‡bi Dci wbf©i K‡i bv|
 A¨v‡fvM¨v‡Wªvi m~Î  GKB ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c mgvb AvqZ‡bi mKj M¨v‡m
 AvenvIqvi c~e©vfvm: wm³ I ï®‥ evj¦ nvB‡MÖvwgUvi cvV †_‡K AvenvIqvi mgvb msL¨K Aby _v‡K|
c~e©vfvm m¤ú‡K© Rvbv hvq-  1 K¨vjwi Zvc‡K m¤ú~Y© Kv‡R iæcvšÍwiZ Ki‡j KZ Ryj KvR m¤úbœ
_v‡g©vwgUviØ‡qi cv‡Vi eëavb: n‡e?  4.2 J|
 †ekx n‡j eyS‡Z n‡e evqy Z_v AvenvIqv ï®‥  GKwU wØ-cigvYyK M¨vm AYyi ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv msL¨v cvuP|
 Kg n‡j eyS‡Z n‡e evqy Av`ª© A_©vr AvenvIqv wm³  0C ZvcgvÎvq evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM 332ms–1|
 ax‡i ax‡i Kg‡Z _vK‡j eyS‡Z n‡e e„wói m¤¢vebv Av‡Q  M¨v‡mi AvqZb 273C ZvcgvÎv A_ev 0K ZvcgvÎvq M¨v‡mi k~b¨ nq|
 nVvr K‡g †M‡j eyS‡Z n‡e So n‡Z cv‡i|  V  P–1 m¤úK©wU e‡q‡ji m~Î‡K wb‡`©k K‡i|
 evqygÛ‡j ev®ú Nbxf~Z nIqvi dj:  wkwki (Dew)  wb¤œPvc I D”P ZvcgvÎvq ev¯Íe M¨vm Av`k© M¨v‡mi mgxKiY AbymiY K‡i|
 Kzqvkv (Fog)  †gN: DaŸ©vKv‡ki KzqvkvB †gN  e„wó  evqy 184 Ges nvB‡Wªv‡Rb- 269C ZvcgvÎvq Zij nq|
 wKQz gvb:  cÖgvY ev ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv = 0C ev, 273.16K  M¨v‡mi AYy¸‡jvi †gvU MwZkw³ ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK|
 cigk~b¨ ZvcgvÎv: –273.16C ev 0K  AveZ©biZ KYvi ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv cvuP|
 Zv‡ci gvÎv mgxKib [ML2 T–2]  Av`k© M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv T n‡Z e„w× †c‡q 2T n‡j AYy¸‡jvi MwZkw³I wØ¸Y nq|
 †Kvb e¯‧‡K Mig Ki‡j Bnvi Kbvmg~‡ni MwZkw³ e„w× cvq
 ‡Kv‡bv M¨v‡mi GKK AvqZ‡b AYy¸‡jvi MwZkw³ 1.52  105J n‡j M¨v‡mi
 Av`k© M¨v‡mi w¯wZkw³  k~b¨
 cÖwZwU AYyi Mo gy³ c_ mgvb| Pvc n‡e 1atm| Rjxq ev‡®úi msKU ZvcgvÎv 361C| GKB ZvcgvÎvq
 †Kvb e¨w³ ce©‡Zi cvwb dzUv‡Z PvB‡j cvwbi cvÎ‡K †h ZvcgvÎvq DËß wewfbœ M¨v‡mi AYy¸‡jvi MwZkw³ mgvb|
Ki‡Z n‡e Zv  Lower than 100°C|  Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv 100% n‡j wkwkiv¼ evqyi ZvcgvÎvi mgvb n‡e?
 †h _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ 5000C Gi AwaK ZvcgvÎv cwigvc Kiv hvq Zv‡K  30C ZvcgvÎvq GKwU M¨vm‡K w¯i Pv‡c DËß K‡i AvqZb wZb¸Y Kiv n‡j
e‡j  cvB‡ivwgUvi| M¨vmwUi P~ovšÍ ZvcgvÎv 636C Ges Bnv Pvj©‡mi m~Î †g‡b P‡j| AYyi †eM
 O2, H2, N2, Cl2 Gi  = 1.41| e›Ub fi I ZvcgvÎvi Dci wbf©i K‡i|
3  Mo gy³c_ Ñ
 cÖ‡Z¨K AYyi ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎvi †gvU kw³i cwigvY 2KT|
(K) GKK AvqZ‡b M¨v‡mi AYyi msL¨vi mgvbycvwZK
 Pv‡ci GKK  c¨vm‡Kj| (L) cÖwZwU AYyi e¨v‡mi e‡M©i eë¯ÍvbycvwZK|
 m¤ú„³ ev®úPvc AvqZ‡bi Dci wbf©i K‡i bv| (M) M¨v‡mi Nb‡Z¡i e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK (N) ZvcgvÎvi eë¯ÍvbycvwZK|
 m¤ú„³ ev®ú Pv‡ci ZvwjKv •Zwi K‡i- weÁvbx †i‡bv|  Am¤ú„³ ev®ú Pv‡ci †ÿ‡Î (K) e‡q‡ji I Pvj©‡mi m~Î †g‡b P‡j (L) VvÛv Ki‡Z _vK‡j
 k‡ãi †e‡Mi Dci Pv‡ci cÖfve: w¯i ZvcgvÎvq k‡ãi †e‡Mi Dci M¨v‡mi
ax‡i ax‡i Pvc K‡g| Mo gy³c_ Nb‡Z¡i eë¯ÍvbycvwZK Ges AYyi e¨v‡mi e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK|
Pv‡ci †Kvb cÖfve †bB|
 k‡ãi †e‡Mi Dci ZvcgvÎvi cÖfve: M¨v‡m k‡ãi †eM M¨v‡mi †Kjwfb  ce©‡Zi P~ovq evqyi Pvc Kg, cvwbi ùzUbv¼ Kg ZvB ivbœv Kiv KwVb| Crms  T|
ZvcgvÎvi eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK| A_©vr v  T  Av`k© M¨v‡mi •ewkó¨ n‡jv Ñ
 k‡ãi †e‡Mi Dci Av`ª©Zvi cÖfve: Av`ª© evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM ï®‥ evqy‡Z k‡ãi (K) M¨v‡mi MwZZ‡Ë¡i †g․wjK ¯^xKvh© †g‡b P‡j;
†e‡Mi †P‡q †ewk| (L) AYymg~‡ni g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv AvKl©Y I weKl©Y †bB;
 k‡ãi †e‡Mi Dci Nb‡Z¡ cÖfve: M¨vm gva¨‡g k‡ãi †eM Gi Nb‡Z¡i (M) †h‡Kv‡bv ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c PV = nRT mgxKiY †g‡b P‡j|
1 1
eM©g~‡ji e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| A_©vr v   Av`k© M¨v‡mi Pvc, P = 3c2| wb¤œPvc I D”P ZvcgvÎvq ev¯Íe M¨vm Av`k©

 e‡q‡ji m~Î m‡gvò cÖwµqv †g‡b P‡j| Av`k© M¨v‡mi mgxKiY PV = nRT| M¨v‡mi b¨vq AvPiY K‡i|
 27C ZvcgvÎvq 4g Aw·‡R‡bi †gvU MwZkw³ 46778| PV
 = aªæeK, GB m~ÎwU mZ¨ hLb cÖwµqvwU m‡gvò bq ev iƒ×Zvcxq cÖwµqv bq|
 M¨v‡mi Pjivwk n‡jv ZvcgvÎv, AvqZb I Pvc| Av`ª©Zv ¸Yv‡¼i GKK Nsm–2| T
 Am¤ú„³ ev®úPvc f Ges m¤ú„³ ev®úPvc F n‡j f < F nq| Mo †eM g~j Mo PV
 = RT, M¨vm mgxKi‡Y V wb‡`©k K‡i 2 mole M¨v‡mi AvqZb| Mo
2
eM©‡eM A‡cÿv wKQz Kg|
 wØcigvYy M¨vm AYyi ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv 5, evqygÛ‡ji Rjxq ev®ú Nbxfe‡bi Rb¨ gy³c_  cig ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK (  T)| Rjxq ev®ú hZ †ewk n‡e
So nq| evqyi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv Kg n‡j ev®úvqb n‡e `ªæZMwZ‡Z| evqygÛ‡j NbZ¡ ZZ Kg‡e, ev®úvvqb ZZ Kg n‡e|
Dcw¯Z Rjxq ev‡®úi †P‡q m¤ú„³ ev®ú KZLvwb ZvB Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv| nvév  Rjxq ev‡®úi Nb‡Z¡i mv‡_ evqyi Pv‡ci m¤úK© n‡jv   P| ZvcgvÎv e„w×
AYy¸‡jvi g~j Mo eM©‡eM fvix AYyi g~j Mo eM©‡eM A‡cÿv †ewk| †c‡j Avevi Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc †e‡o hvq|
(n  1)P
 eyèy‡ì AvqZ‡bi ¸b †Ìqv _vK‡j: Rjvk‡qi MfxiZv h = = (n  1)  10.2 GLv‡b, n = AvqZb hZ ¸b|
g
n«‡ì MfxiZv (n2  1)P
 eyèy‡ì c„ôZ‡ji †ÿÎd‡ji ¸Y †Ìqv _vK‡j: h = = (n2  1)  10.2 GLv‡b, n = †ÿÎdj hZ ¸Y nq|
wbY©q msµvšÍ g
(n3  1)P
 eyèy‡ì e¨v‡mi/e¨vmv‡a©i ¸b †Ìqv _vK‡j: h = = (n3  1)  10.2 GLv‡b, n = e¨vm/ e¨vmva©/cwiwa hZ ¸b|
g
g~j Mo 2RT 2KT
 m¤¢ve¨ Zg †eM: Cp = M
=
m
eM©‡eM
(RMS) C12 + C22+..........Cn2 3RT 3PV 3P 3KT
 g~j Mo eM©‡eM:Crms = = = = =
msµvšÍ n M M  m
V1 V 2
 P1V1 = P2V2 (ZvcgvÎv w¯i);   (Pvc w¯i)
e‡qj, Pvj©m T1 T2
I Pv‡ci m~Î
msµvšÍ P1 P2
  (AvqZb w¯i);  P1V1 = P2V2 [mgš^q m~Î]
T1 T2 T1 T2
f M¨v‡mi cigvYy msL¨v ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv (f)
 n †gvj M¨v‡mi MwZkw³, Ek = nRT; n = †gvj msL¨v
2
M¨v‡mi 1 3
f nRT f R f
MwZkw³  1wU M¨vm AYyi MwZkw³ = = = T = KT 2 5
2 nNA 2 NA 2
msµvšÍ 3 6
f
 1 †gvj M¨v‡mi MwZkw³, Ek = RT; n =1 †gvj|
2
 (– ) = G(1 – 2) [1 = ï®‥ ev‡j¦i ZvcgvÎv/evqyi ZvcgvÎv; 2 = wm³ ev‡j¦i ZvcgvÎv,  = wkwkiv¼]
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq wbw`©ó AvqZ‡bi evqy‡Z Dcw¯Z Rjxqev‡®úi fi
 Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv = evqyi ZvcgvÎvq H evqy‡K m¤ú„³ Ki‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq Rjxqev‡®úi fi
Av‡cw¶K
Av`ª©Zv msµvšÍ wkwkiv‡¼ m¤ú„³ Rjxqev‡®úi Pvc
= evqyi ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxqev‡®úi Pvc
f Pf mf f
 R=  100% =  100% =  100% =  100%
F PF mF E
MEx 01 †Kvb n«‡ì Zj‡`k †_‡K cvwbi DcwiZ‡j Avmvi mgq evZv‡mi MEx 04 †Kvb Av`k© M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv †Kjwfb †¯‥‡j wØ¸Y Kiv n‡j, Zvi
eyèy` AvqZ‡b cvuP ¸b nq| evqygÛ‡ji Pvc 105Nm–2 n‡j, n«‡ì AYy¸‡jvi rms †eM KZ ¸Y e„w× cvq?
MfxiZv KZ? 3RT
Solve eM©g~j Mo eM©‡eM, C =
Solve h = (5 - 1)  10 5
M
 40.82m
1000  9.8  C  T ; C2= 2 C1=1.41 ¸Y
Or, h = (5 –1) 10.2 = 40.8m 0
MEx 05 w¯’i Pv‡c 27 C ZvcgvÎvi 2 Litre evZv‡mi AvqZb 4 Litre Ki‡Z
MEx 02 †Kvb n«‡ì Zj‡`k †_‡K c„‡ô Avmvi d‡j GKwU evZv‡mi eyèy‡ì
n‡j DËß K‡i †h ZvcgvÎvq wb‡Z n‡e-
e¨vm wZb¸b n‡q hvq| e¨v‡ivwgUv‡i cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZv 75cm n‡j n«‡ì
V V
MfxiZv KZ? (cvi‡ì NbZ¡ 13596kgm3) 2 4
Solve 1  2 ev,  ev, T  600 K  327 C
3
(3 - 1) T T 300 T 2
1 2 2
Solve h = GLv‡b, e¨vm n = hZ ¸b|
g 0
MEx 06 27 C ZvcgvÎvq cÖwZ †gvj wnwjqv‡gi MwZkw³ KZ?
Solve Ek = 1.5  8.314  300 = 3741.3 J
(33 - 1) 10 5
h=  19.51 MEx 07 27C ZvcgvÎvq 2gm bvB‡Uªv‡R‡bi MwZkw³ wbY©q Ki|
13596  9.8 5 m 5 2
1 -1
MEx 03 †Kvb M¨v‡mi wZbwU AYyi †eM h_vµ‡g 15 ms , 20 ms Ges 25 Solve EK = 2  M RT = 2  28  8.31  300 = 445.4J
ms-1 n‡j M¨vmwUi Mo eM©‡eM KZ? MEx 08 †Kvb ¯’v‡b GKwU wbw`©ó mg‡q evqyi ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi
152 + 202 + 252 Pvc 16mm cvi` Ges wkwkivs‡K m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc 12mm cvi`
Solve Crms = 3 n‡j H ¯’v‡b evZv‡mi Av‡cw¶K Av`ª©Zv KZ?
= 20.41ms–1 Small Number ×100%
Aspect Exclusive: †Kvb M¨v‡mi wZbwU AYyi †eM µgvbymv‡i †Ìqv Solve RH =
L arg e Number
_vK‡j gv‡Si †eMwUi gv‡bi †P‡q mvgvb¨Zg †ewk n‡e|
12
A_©vr DËi n‡e A. 20.41ms-1| =  100%  75%
16
K…wl (¸”Q) wek¦we`¨vjq fwZ© cixÿv_©x‡ì c~Y©v½ cÖ¯‘wZi Rb¨ M„nwkÿ‡Ki weKí GKgvÎ mnvwqKv...
¸”Q †bUIqvK© 4.0 kU© mv‡Rkb c`v_©weÁvb wØZxq cÎ
ZvcMwZwe`¨v
 DòZvwgwZK c`v_©: †h me c`v‡_©i DòZvwgwZK ag© eënvi K‡i _v‡g©vwgUvi PV
•Zwi Kiv nq| AvB‡mv_vg©vj †iLv AvB‡mv_vg©vj †iLv
V P
 ZvcgvÎv cwigv‡ci hš¿  _v‡g©vwgUvi (Thermometer) [AvqZvKvi Awae„Ë]
 Zvc cwigv‡ci hš¿  K¨vjwiwgUvi (Calorimeter) P
1
1 P
 ZvcMwZwe`¨vi k~b¨Zg m~Î: [V  ]; [PV =
P
aªæeK] P V Xvj = – V
 m~‡Îi wee„wZ: `ywU e¯‧ hw` Z…Zxq †Kvb e¯‧i mv‡_ Zvcxq mvg¨ve¯vq  iƒ×Zvcxq cwieZ©b: †h cÖwµqvq wm‡÷g Zvckw³ MÖnY ev eR©b K‡i bv|
_v‡K, Z‡e cÖ_‡gv³ e¯‧ `ywU ci®ú‡ii mv‡_ Zvcxq mvg¨ve¯vq _vK‡e|  m‡gvò I iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨:
 cÖ‡qvM: GB m~‡Îi Dci wfwË K‡i _v‡g©vwgUvi •Zix Kiv n‡q‡Q| m‡gvò (dT = 0) iæ×Zvcxq (dQ = 0)
 D”PZi ZvcgvÎv wewKiY cvB‡ivwgUv‡i DËß e¯‧i wewKiY ag© Kv‡R jvwM‡q ZvcgvÎv w¯i _v‡K| ZvcgvÎv cwieZ©b nq|
500°C Gi D‡aŸ© ZvcgvÎv cwigvc Kiv nq| axi cÖwµqv `ªæZ cÖwµqv
 ZvcgvÎvi wewfbœ †¯‥j: PV = aªæeK; e‡q‡ji m~Î †g‡b PV = aªæeK; e‡q‡ji m~Î †g‡b P‡j
ZvcgvÎv †¯‥j wb¤œ w¯i we›`y EaŸ© w¯i we›`y †g․wjK eëavb P‡j| bv|
†mjwmqvm (mve©Rbxb) 0C 100C 100 †jLwPÎ Kg Lvov †jLwPÎ †ewk Lvov
†Kjwfb 273K 373K 100  GKwU Mvwo Pj‡Z _vK‡j Zvi Uvqv‡ii wfZi mgAvqZb cÖwµqv P‡j| Uvqvi
dv‡ibnvBU (Wv³vwi 32F 212F 180 †d‡U †M‡j iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqv|
_v‡g©vwgUvi)  GKwU Av`k© M¨v‡mi Cp Ges Cv Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK©: Cp – Cv = R
i¨vswKb †¯‥j 492 672 180 Cp > Cv; CP = CV
†ivgvi †¯‥j 0 80 80 †gvjvi M¨vm aªæeK: R = 8.314 Jmole–1K–1
 wb¤œ w¯i we›`y: †h ZvcgvÎvq cÖgvY Pv‡c weï× eid cvwbi mv‡_ mvgë¯vq A_ev, R = 0.0821 Latm mol–1k-1
_v‡K Zv‡K wb¤œ w¯i we›`y/Mjbv¼/ Melting point e‡j|  w¯i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi †gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc Cp Ges w¯i AvqZ‡b M¨v‡mi †gvjvi
 EaŸ© w¯i we›`y: †h ZvcgvÎvq cÖgvY Pv‡c weï× cvwb Rjxq ev‡®úi mv‡_ C
Av‡cwÿK Zvc CV Gi AbycvZ‡K  Øviv m~wPZ Kiv nq; A_©vr  = Cp
mvgë¯vq _v‡K Zv‡K EaŸ© w¯i we›`y/ùyUbv¼/Boiling Point e‡j| v
 •Îawe›`y: †h ZvcgvÎvq wbw`©ó Pv‡c cvwb KwVb, Zij I ev®úxq Ae¯vq GKB M¨v‡mi MwZZ‡Ë¡i mvnv‡h¨ GK cvigvYweK M¨v‡mi †ÿ‡Î cvIqv hvq,
mvg¨ve¯vq Ae¯vb K‡i| •Îa we›`yi ZvcgvÎv Ttr = 273.16K Ges •Îa 3
Cv = R
5
 Cp = R
we›`y‡Z cvwbi ev®ú Pvc 4.58mm cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZvi mgvb| 2 2
 ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î: 5 7
wØcvigvYweK M¨v‡mi Rb¨, Cv = 2R  Cp = 2R
 Ry‡ji gZev`: hLb KvR m¤ú~Y© fv‡e Zv‡c ev Zvc m¤ú~Y© fv‡e Kv‡R
iƒcvšÍwiZ nq ZLb KvR I Zvc ci®ú‡ii mgvbycvwZK nq| eûcvigvYweK M¨v‡mi Rb¨, Cv = 3R Ges Cp = 4R
A_©vr W  H  = 1.5 n‡j Cv = 2R Ges Cp = 3R
 GK cigvYyK M¨v‡mi †¶‡Î:  = 1.66 (He, Ar)
 W = JH Zv‡ci hvwš¿K mgZvÿgZv/Ry j ZzKj¨vsK
/ hvwš¿ vsK
Zzj¨vsK
 wØ-cigvYyK M¨v‡mi †¶‡Î:  = 1.4(O2, N2, X2)
W  eû-cigvYyK M¨v‡mi †¶‡Î:  = 1.33 (CO2, NH3, C2H6)
J=  J Gi GKK Jcal–1
H  wKQz ejv bv _vK‡j  Gi gvb 1.4 eënvi Ki‡Z n‡e|
Gm AvB GK‡K J Gi GKK bvB; W I H Df‡qiB GKK Joule  iƒ×Zvcxq cÖmviY cÖwµqvi †¶‡Î, Af¨šÍixb kw³ n«vm cvq + ZvcgvÎv n«vm
 K¬wmqv‡mi gZev`: hLb †Kvb eë¯vq Zvc mieivn Kiv nq ev eë¯v cvq (dU = – dW)|
KZ…K© Zvc M„nxZ nq, ZLb Zvi wKq`vsk Af¨šÍixY kw³ e„w× Ki‡Z  aªæe AvqZb cÖwµqvi †¶‡Î, AšÍt¯ kw³i e„w× mieivnK…Z Zvckw³i mgvb
A_©vr ZvcgvÎv e„w× Ki‡Z Ges Aewkó Ask evwn¨K KvR m¤úv`‡b (dQ = dU)|
eëüZ nq|  ZvcgvÎv w¯i _vK‡j AšÍt¯ kw³ cwiewZ©Z nq bv|
 m~‡Îi cÖKvk: dQ = dU + dW [dQ = M„nxZ ev ewR©Z Zvc kw³;  gvby‡li kix‡ii mvavib ZvcgvÎv 98.4°F Ges †mjwmqvm †¯‥‡j GB ZvcgvÎv
dU = Af¨šÍixY kw³i cwieZ©b; dW = PV K…Z KvR] 36.9°C/37°C|
 ZvcMZxq cwieZ©b Pvi cÖKvi:  M¨vm Øviv KvR m¤úvw`Z n‡j, AšÍt¯ kw³ n«vm cvq;
 mgPvcxq cwieZ©b  Pvc w¯i, P = 0 iæ×Zvcxq †iLvi Xvj
 iƒ×Zvcxq †iLv m‡gvò †iLv A‡c¶v  ¸Y Lvov, m‡gvò †iLvi Xvj = 
 mgAvqZb cwieZ©b  AvqZb w¯i, V = 0
 ev¯Íe M¨vm mg~n ïaygvÎ D”P ZvcgvÎvq I wbgœ Pv‡c Av`k© M¨v‡mi b¨vq AvPiY K‡i|
 m‡gvò cwieZ©b DòZv/ ZvcgvÎv w¯i, T = 0  M¨v‡mi †gvjvi Av‡cw¶K Zvc: †Kvb e¯‧i GK †gv‡ji ZvcgvÎv GK †Kjwfb
e„w× Ki‡Z †h cwigvY Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nq, Zv‡K M¨v‡mi †gvjvi Av‡cwÿK
 iæ×Zvcxq cwieZ©b  Zvckw³ w¯i, Q = 0
dQ
1 Zvc e‡j| C = ndT|
 m‡gvò cwieZ©b: ZvcgvÎv w¯i _vK‡j V  A_©vr e‡q‡ji m~Î †g‡b P‡j|
P  †gqv‡ii cÖKí: Ò†Kvb wbw`©ó cwigvY M¨v‡mi Af¨šÍixY kw³ ïaygvÎ Gi
e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK m¤úK© myZivs †jLwPÎ nvBcvi‡evjv/Awae„ËvKvi n‡e| ZvcgvÎvi Dci wbf©i K‡i, Pvc ev AvqZ‡bi Dci bq|Ó
 2q m~‡Îi wfwË (mvw` Kv‡b©vi wm×všÍ): Zvckw³‡K KL‡bvB m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c Kv‡R dQ mL
 w¯i ZvcgvÎvq GbUªwci cwieZ©b, ds = dT = T
cwibZ Kiv hvq bv|
 K¬wmqv‡mi g‡Z, ÒevB‡ii †Kvb kw³i mvnvh¨ Qvov, †Kvb ¯^qswµq h‡š¿i c‡¶ wbgœ eid Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myß Zvc = 336000 J/K
ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb e¯‧ n‡Z, D”P ZvcgvÎvi e¯‧‡Z Zv‡ci ¯vbvšÍi m¤¢e bq|Ó cvwbi ev®úxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK myß Zvc = 2268000 J/K
cwiewZ©Z ZvcgvÎvq GbUªwci cwieZ©b ds = ms ln T2,
 ‡Kjwf‡bi g‡Z, Ò‡Kvb e¯‧‡K Zvi cvwicv‡k¦©i kxZjZg Ask n‡Z AwaKZi T

1
kxZj K‡i kw³i Aweivg mieivn cvIqv m¤¢e bq|Ó
T2 = †kl ZvcgvÎv; T1 = Avw` ZvcgvÎv|
 cøvsK Gi g‡Z, Ò‡Kvb Zvc Drm n‡Z AbeiZ Zvc †kvlY Ki‡e Ges Zv
 eid = 2100 Jkg1K1
m¤ú~Y© Kv‡R cwibZ n‡e, Giƒc GKwU Zvc BwÄb •Zix Kiv m¤¢e bq|Ó
S = Av‡cwÿK Zvc  cvwb = 4200 Jkg1K 1
 Kv‡b©vi g‡Z, Ò‡Kvb wbw`©ó cwigvY Zvckw³ m¤ú~b©fv‡e hvwš¿K kw³‡Z
iƒcvšÍi Kivi gZ hš¿ •Zix m¤¢e bq|Ó  ev®ú = 2000 Jkg1K 1
 cÖZ¨veZ©x I AcÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqvi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨:  c`v‡_©i D”PZvcxq Ae¯v n‡jv cøvRgv|
 1 K¨vjwi = 4.2 Ryj; 1 Ryj = 0.24 K¨vjwi, 1 Ryj = 107 erg
cÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqv AcÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqv
 wb¤œ ùzUvbv‡¼i †Kv‡bv Zij cwicvk^© n‡Z jxbZvc ev myßZvc MÖnY K‡i
GwU AwZ axi cÖwµqv GwU `ªæZ cÖwµqv
cwicvk^©‡K kxZj K‡i Zv‡K wngvqK e‡j|
¯^ZtùzZ© cÖwµqv bq ¯^ZtùzZ© cÖwµqv
 †h cÖwµqvq wm‡÷g †_‡K Zvc evB‡i hvq bv ev evB‡i †_‡K Zvc wm‡÷‡g
D`vnviY: ax‡i ax‡i msNwUZ m‡gvò D`vnviY: •e`y¨wZK †iv‡ai ga¨ w`‡q Av‡m bv Zv‡K iƒ×Zvcxq cÖwµqv cÖwµqv e‡j|
Ges iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqv, w¯úªs Gi we`y¨r cÖev‡ni d‡j m„ó Zvc, e›`yK  M¨v‡mi Af¨šÍixb kw³ wbf©i K‡i ZvcgvÎvi Dci| weÁvbx wMwj© Zv‡ci
ms‡KvPb I cÖmvi‡Y K…ZKvR Ges n‡Z ¸wj †Qvo‡j eviæ‡ì we‡ùviY, hvwš¿K mgZv wbY©‡qi c×wZ Avwe®‥vi K‡ib|
eid cvwb‡Z A_ev cvwb ei‡d e¨vcb, cwiPvjb Ges wewKiY| 0
 cvwbi wngv¼ 0 C ev, 32F|
iƒcvšÍi|  weKxY© Zvc P‡j Av‡jvi †e‡M|
 Zvc BwÄb: †h hvwš¿K eë¯v Zvc kw³‡K hvwš¿K kw³‡Z cwiYZ K‡i Zv‡K  M¨vm Øviv KvR m¤úvw`Z n‡j, AšÍt¯ kw³ n«vm cvq|
Zvc BwÄb ejv nq|  cvi` _v‡g©vwgUv‡i ZvcgvÎvi cwimi  –39C – 357C|
 hw` wm‡÷g Q1 cwigvY kw³ †kvlY K‡i, Q2 cwigvY kw³ Z¨vM K‡i Zvn‡j  Av‡jvKxq cvB‡ivwgUv‡i ZvcgvÎvi cwimi  600C – 1500C|
KvR W = Q1 – Q2  hw` †Kvb Zvc BwÄb †_‡K †Kvb Zvc †ei bv nq Z‡e BwÄ‡bi `ÿZv 100%|
Q1 – Q2  Pvc, AvqZb, †iva cÖf…wZ DòZvwgwZK c`v_©|
=
Q2
 100% = 1 –  100%
 1 
Q Q1 Aspect Special: m~‡h©i c„‡ôi ZvcgvÎv wd·W 5800K| ZvB GwU g‡b
[ev¯Í‡e mKj Zvc BwÄb AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvq P‡j Ges GUvB mKj ivL‡j AsK Kivi cÖ‡qvRb †bB|
AcÖZ¨vMvgx Zvc BwÄ‡bi Kg©`ÿZvi mgxKiY]  e× wm‡÷g cwi‡e‡ki mv‡_ ïay kw³ wewbgq K‡i|
Kv‡b©vi Av`k© Zvc BwÄb cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvq P‡j a‡i wb‡j, Q  T  cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvq G›Uªwc w¯i _v‡K|
 w¯wZ¯vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ w¯úªs‡K msKzwPZ I cÖmvwiZ Kiv GKwU cÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqv|
T1 – T2
=
T2 Q1 T 1
 T1   100% = 1 – T1  100% ; Q2 = T2  ZvcMwZwe`¨vi k~b¨Zg m~Î‡K wfwË K‡i _v‡g©vwgUvi •Zwi Kiv nq|
 G›Uªwc msiÿYkxjZvi m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv|
 †h‡nZz T1  (T1 – T2), Kv‡RB BwÄ‡bi `ÿZv KLbB 100% n‡Z cv‡i bv|  m‡gvò cÖwµqvq kZ© n‡jv- (K) M¨v‡mi msbbgb I cÖmviY Lye ax‡i ax‡i msNwUZ
 Kv‡b©v Pµ GKwU cÖZ¨vMvgx Pµ| n‡e (L) cv‡Îi Pvicv‡ki gva¨‡gi ZvcaviY ÿgZv †ewk n‡Z n‡e|
 GKwU †c‡Uªvj BwÄ‡bi Kg©`¶Zv 30%  iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqv msNU‡bi Rb¨ kZ© n‡jvÑ
 †h h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ cwi‡ek A‡c¶v Kg ZvcgvÎv m„wó Kiv hvq Ges GB (K) M¨v‡mi cvÎ Kycwievnx n‡Z n‡e|
ZvcgvÎv me©`v w¯i Ae¯vq ivLv hvq Zv‡K †iwd«Rv‡iUi ejv nq| (L) Pvicv‡ki gva¨‡gi ZvcaviY ÿgZv Kg n‡Z n‡e|
g~jbxwZ: †iwd«Rv‡iUi wbgœ ZvcgvÎvi Drm n‡Z Zvc MÖnb ev Acmvib K‡i I (M) Q = 0|
D”P ZvcgvÎvi Avav‡i eR©b K‡i| K‡¤cÖmi GB hvwš¿K KvR K‡i| GLb, (N) Pv‡ci cwieZ©b Lye `ªæZ msNwUZ n‡Z n‡e|
†iwd«Rv‡iU‡ii ev®úxfeb KzÛjx n‡Z AcmvwiZ Zvc Q2, K‡¤úªmi KZ…©K  Zvc GK cÖKvi kw³ hv †Kv‡bv e¯‧i Dci cÖ‡qvM Ki‡jÑ
mieivnK…Z KvR W Ges Nbxfeb KzÛjx‡Z ewR©Z Zvc Q1 n‡j, kw³i (1) e¯‧i EòZv e„w× cvq
wbZ¨Zv m~Î Abymv‡i cvIqv hvq, Q1 = Q2 + W (2) e¯‧i AvqZb e„w× cvq
AcmvwiZ Zvc Q2 Q2 (3) AYyi MwZkw³ e„w× cvq|
 W = Q1 – Q2 ; Kvh©K…Z mnM, K = mieivnK…Z Zvc = =
Q1 – Q2 W  evqyi ga¨ w`‡q kã mÂvjb GKwU iƒ×Zvcxq cÖwµqv|
K = Kvh©wbe©vnx mnM A_ev C.O.P. (Co-efficient of Performance) Gi  ZvcMwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~Î‡K Kv‡R jvwM‡q Zvcxq BwÄb I †iwd«Rv‡iUi •Zwi Kiv nq|
gvb 2 †_‡K 6 Gi g‡a¨ nq|  Nl©‡Yi d‡j Zvc Drcv`b GKwU AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv| Avevi Pv‡qi Kv‡c wPwb
 GbUªwc: iƒ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq e¯‧i †h Zvcxq ag© w¯i _v‡K Zv‡K GbUªwc e‡j| †gkv‡bv GKwU AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv|
GbUªwc n‡”Q kw³i †mB iƒc hv‡K Avi KL‡bv Kv‡R iƒcvšÍi Kiv hv‡e bv|
 AšÍ¯ kw³i cwieZ©b = w¯i AvqZ‡b M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc  cig ZvcgvÎv|
 cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvq †h †Kvb ms¯vi GbUªwc w¯i _v‡K|
 GKwU Kv‡bv© P‡µ ‡gvU GbUªwci cwieZ©b k~b¨|
 AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvq GbUªwc e„w× cvq|
 BwÄ‡bi `ÿZv A‡a©K Ki‡Z n‡j D”P ZvcgvÎv n«vm Ki‡Z n‡e Ges wb¤œ
 mvg¨ve¯vq GbUªwci gvb m‡e©v”P
 GKK JK
–1 ZvcgvÎv e„w× Ki‡Z n‡e|
C F-32 K-273 Rn-492 Rn C F K R R m


5
=
9
=
5
=
9
= ; cv_©‡Kï †ÿ‡Î ZvcgvÎvi wewfbœ †¯‥‡ji g‡a¨ m¤úK©:
4   = =
5 9 5 9 4
C F-32 K-273 R-492 Xt  Xice
 †¯‥‡ji mv‡_ µwUc~Y© _v‡g©vwgUvi Gi m¤úK©: 100 = 180 = 100 = 180 = X  X
steam ice
x   x ice
ZvcgvÎv  c   100 C
x steam  x ice
i †¯‥j
msµvšÍ  dv‡ibnvBU I †Kjwfb †¯‥‡j GKB cvV  574.25F  574.25 K
 †mw›U‡MÖW I dv‡ibnvBU †¯‥‡j GKB cvV  40C or 40F
 †mw›U‡MÖW I †Kjwfb †¯‥j  KLbB mgvb n‡e bv|
xT
 T =  273 K [x = P, V, E, R, L BZ¨vw`]
xtr
 1C e„w× = 1K e„w× = 1.8F e„w×|
Zvc Øviv  dW = PdV

W = JH; ZvcMwZ we`¨vi 1g m~Î: (kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~Î)
K…ZKvR
1 2
msµvšÍ  W = JH = mgh = mv  dQ = dU + dW:
2
Zvc Q
 C= ; dQ = nCpdT; dU = nCdT; dW = PdV; dQ = dU + dW
aviY nT
ÿgZv
 m‡gvò cÖwµqv, P1V1 = P2V2;
 †Kvb As‡K nVvr kãwU D‡jøL _vK‡j m~‡Î  (Mvgv) eënvi Ki‡Z n‡e, KviY cÖwµqvwU iy×Zvcxq|
 †Kvb As‡K ax‡i ax‡i kãwU D‡jøL Kiv _vK‡j H As‡Ki m~‡Î  eënvi Kiv hv‡e bv| KviY cÖwµqvwU m‡gvò|
m‡gvò cÖwµqvq, W = nRT ln V2 = nRT ln P1
V P
ZvcMZxq 1 2
cÖwµqv  iæ× Zvcxq cÖwµqv, P1V1 = P2V2; T1P11–/ = T2P21–/; T1V1–1 = T2V2–1
msµvšÍ [GK cigvYyK M¨v‡mi Rb¨  = 1.66; wØcigvYyK M¨v‡mi Rb¨  = 1.41; eû cigvYyK M¨v‡mi Rb¨  = 1.33,
Note: †Kv‡bv M¨v‡mi K_v D‡jøL bv _vK‡j,  = 1.41 a‡i wb‡Z n‡e|]
iæ× Zvcxq M¨vm aªæeK,  = CVP ;
C

†gvjvi M¨vm aªæeK, R = Cp – Cv ; Cp = R = 2 + 1R ; Cv =

f R f
 = R
1 –1 2
T1  T2 Q1  Q2
 =  100% =  100%  W = Q1  100%
T1 Q1
`¶Zvi cv_©K¨  MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv   T2
BwÄb  ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b = ev, T =
(1-1g `¶Zv) (1-2q `¶Zv) (1  1 )(1  2 )
KZ©„K
T2
Kv‡Ri  Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv T1  ; MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv T2  T1 (1  ) ,  = `¶Zv
1 
cwigvY,
Q Q2
ZvcgvÎv  BwÄ‡bi †ÿ‡Î I †iwd«Rv‡iU‡ii †ÿ‡Î, W = Q1 – Q2; Q1 > Q2; Kvh© m¤úv`b mnM, k = W2 =
Q1  Q 2
I `¶Zv
Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv Dr‡mi M„nxZ Zvc
msµvšÍ
T1  T2 → MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv Q1  Q2 → MÖvn‡K ewR©Z Zvc
Q1 T1
 Kv‡b©v BwÄ‡bi `¶Zv wbY©‡qi †¶‡Î T1 > T2; Q1 > Q2 ; 
Q 2 T2
GbUªwci dQ mL mL T
 w¯i ZvcgvÎvi †¶‡Î GbUªwc, dS = T ; dS = T f; dS = T v  ZvcgvÎv T1 †_‡K T2 †Z cwiewZ©Z n‡j, GbUªwc, dS  ms n 2
cwieZ©b T1
e¯‧‡Z
Zvc
0 0
MEx 01 †Kvb wm‡÷g 1500 J Zvc †kvlY K‡i Ges 82J KvR m¤úv`b K‡i| MEx 07 †Kvb GKwU †iva _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii †iva 0 C Ges 100 C ZvcgvÎvq
wm‡÷‡gi AšÍt¯ kw³i cwieZ©b n‡e h_vµ‡g 12 Ges 24| _v‡g©vwgUviwU‡K GKwU Mig †Z‡ji mv‡_ ¯vcb
Solve dU = dQ – dW = 1500 – 82 = 1418 J Ki‡j †iva 36 nq| †Z‡ji ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Ki?
3
MEx 02 GK evqygÛjxq Pv‡c GKwU Av`k© M¨vm‡K DËß K‡i 0.01m AvqZb
Solve  
R  R0 36  12
100   100  200 0 C
e„w× Kiv nj| G‡Z m¤úvw`Z Kv‡Ri cwigvY KZ? R1oo  Ro 24  12
Solve dW = PdV  dW = 105  0.01 = 1  103J MEx 08 GKwU Kv‡b©v BwÄb cvwbi wngv¼ I ùzUbvs‡Ki g‡a¨ Kvh©iZ Av‡Q|
MEx 03 GKwU RjcÖcv‡Zi cvwb 4200m Dci n‡Z wb‡P cwZZ nq| BwÄbwUi `¶Zv KZ?
Rjvk‡qi kxl©‡`k I Zj‡`‡k cvwbi ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ KZ? T T 100  0
Solve   1 2  100 %   100 %  26.8 %
h 4200 T 373
Solve  = = = 9.8 K 1
428.6 428.6 MEx 09 GKwU Kv‡b©v BwÄ‡bi `ÿZv 60%| hw` Zvc Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv 450K
–1
MEx 04 126 ms ‡eM cÖvß GKwU mxmvi ey‡jU †Kv_vI _vwg‡q †`qvi d‡j Z‡e Zvc MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv KZ?
mg¯Í MwZkw³ Zv‡c cwibZ nj| ey‡jUwUi ZvcgvÎv KZ e„w× cv‡e?
Solve GLv‡b Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv T1 = 450K;  = 1 – 450  100%
T2
(mxmvi Av‡cw¶K Zvc 126 J kg–1 k–1)
1 v2 (126 ) 2 60  T2  T2 T2
mv 2  ms  ev    = 1–  0.6 = 1 –  = 1 – 0.6
Solve   63k 100  450 450 450
2 2S 2  126
 T2 = 0.4  450  T2 = 180K MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv 180K
MEx 05 ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c wKQz cwigvY ï®‥ evqy‡K m‡gvò cÖwµqvq
Aspect Special: T2 = (1  1)  T1 = 0.4  450 = 180K
A‡a©K AvqZ‡b msbwgZ Kiv nj| P~ovšÍ Pvc KZ?
MEx 10 GKwU Kv‡b©v BwÄb hLb 270C DòZvi ZvcMÖvn‡K _v‡K ZLb Kg©`¶Zv
Solve AvqZb 1/2 n‡j Pvc wØ¸Y n‡e| P2 = 1.01 x 105 x 2 = 2.02 x
50%| G‡K 60% `¶ Ki‡Z n‡j Gi D³ ZvcgvÎvi wK cwieZ©b Avb‡Z n‡e|
105 Nm-2 A_ev, P1V1 = P2V2
T 0.10  300
Solve T =
 P2  1.01  10  2V  2.02  10 5
5 = = 150K
(1 – 1)(1 – 2) (1 – 0.5) (1 – 0.6)
V
MEx 11 100C Gi 2kg cvwb‡K 100C ZvcgvÎvi ev‡®ú cwiYZ Ki‡Z
MEx 06 bx‡Pi †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq †mw›U‡MÖW I dv‡ibnvBU †¯‥j GKB cvV †`q? GbUªwci cwieZ©b KZ n‡e?
x x  32
dS = mLv  2  2.26  10  1.21  10 4 J / k
6
Solve  ev, 9x  5x  5  32 ev, 4x  5  32 ev, x  40 C
0
Solve G›Uª wci cwieZ© b,
5 9 T 373
w¯’i Zwor
 Kzj‡¤î m~Î: Ò†Kvb GKwU wbw`©ó gva¨‡g `ywU we›`y Pv‡R©i g‡a¨ wµqvkxj  mgwefe Z‡ji c„‡ô Aew¯Z GK we›`y †_‡K Aci †Kvb we›`y‡Z GKwU
AvKl©Y ev weKl©Y e‡ji gvb PvR© `ywUi ¸Yd‡ji mgvbycvwZK, PvR© `ywUi PvR© mwi‡q wb‡Z †Kvb Kv‡Ri cÖ‡qvRb nq bv|
gaëZ©x `~i‡Z¡i e‡M©i e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK Ges G ej PvR© `ywUi ms‡hvRK †iLv 
qq  Zwor †ÿ‡Îi cÖvej¨ mgwefe Z‡ji mv‡_ 90 ev 2 †Kv‡Y Ae¯vb K‡i|
eivei wµqv K‡i| GB m~Îvbymv‡i, F  d1 2 2
 Zwor †¶Î: †Kvb GKwU PvwR©Z e¯‧i Pviw`‡K †h AÂje¨vcx Zvi cÖfve
 we›`yPvR©: †h mKj ZwoZvwnZ e¯‧i AvKvi Zv‡ì AšÍeZ©x `~i‡Z¡i Zzjbvq we¯Ívi K‡i, Zv‡K H PvwR©Z e¯‧i Zwor †¶Î e‡j|
bMb¨, Zv‡ì‡K we›`yPvR© e‡j|  GKK: wbDUb/Kzj¤^ (NC–1) A_ev †fvë/wgUvi (Vm–1)
 mgag©x Avavb ci®úi‡K weKl©Y K‡i Ges wecixZ ag©x Avavb ci®úi‡K
 Zwor †¶Î GKwU †f±i ivwk|
AvKl©Y K‡i|  Zwor cÖvej¨: •e`y¨wZK †ÿ‡Îi †Kvb we›`y‡Z cÖwZ GKK abvZ¥K Pv‡R©i Dci †h
 `ywU Pv‡R©i ga¨Kvi AvKl©Y I weKl©Y e‡ji gvb 3wU k‡Z©i Dci wbf©i K‡i| ej wµqv K‡i Zv‡K H we›`yi Zwor cÖvej¨ e‡j| Zwor cÖvej¨ †f±i ivwk|
 PvR©`ywUi cwigvY  PvR©`ywUi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡  PvR©`ywUi gaëZ©x gva¨g  wbw®…q we›`y: †h we›`y‡Z wecixZgyLx cÖvej¨Ø‡qi gvb mgvb/ jwä cÖve‡jï gvb
 Pv‡R©i Ae¯vb me©`vB e¯‧i evB‡ii c„‡ô| k~b¨|
 Pv‡R©i GKK: S.I. c×wZ‡Z  Kzj¤^| 1 C = 1 A  1 S  Zwor d¬v·:
 `ywU mggv‡bi PvR© k~b¨ gva¨‡g 1 m `~‡i Ae¯vb K‡i ci¯ú‡ii Dci  Zj/c„‡ôi ga¨ w`‡q hZ¸‡jv Zwor ej‡iLv AwZµg K‡i, ZvB Zwor d¬v·|
9  109N ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j, H PvR© `ywUi cÖ‡Z¨K‡K GK Kzj¤^ e‡j|  
 Kzj‡¤î m~Î †KejgvÎ we›`y Pv‡R©i Rb¨ cÖ‡hvR¨|  cÖKvk: E = E.A = EA cos [E = Zwor cÖvej¨, A = †ÿÎdj]
 F Gi gvb abvZ¥K ivwk n‡j  ej weKl©Y g~jK|
 Zwor †¶Î I Z‡ji Awfj¤^ mgvšÍiv‡j  Zwor d¬v· me©vwaK|
1 q1q2  Zwor †¶Î I Z‡ji Awfj¤^ mg‡Kv‡Y  Zwor d¬v· k~b¨|
F0 = F = 2
 Zwor cÖvej¨: Zwor †¶‡Îi †Kvb we›`y‡Z GKK abvZ¥K ¯vcb Ki‡j GwU
40 r
2
†h ej Abyfe K‡i Zv‡K H †¶‡Îi H we›`y‡Z cÖvej¨ e‡j|
 0 = 8.85410–12 Kzj¤^2/(wbDUb-wgUvi)2 N.m2 Ges
c 1
= 9109
40 dV
2 –2 2 –2  GKK: Vm–1 A_ev NC–1, E= – dr
wbDUb-wgUvi /Kzj¤^ / [8.99  10 Nm C ] / [8.9874  10 Nm C ]
2 2 9 9
 †h Z‡ji Dci cÖ‡Z¨KwU we›`yi Zwor wefe mgvb, Zv‡K mgwefe Zj e‡j|
 cÖvej¨ 5.5710–11NC–1 n‡j, GKwU B‡jKUªb Zvi IR‡bi mgvb ej  m~Î: ÒGKwU w¯i Zwor †¶‡Îi †Kvb e× Z‡ji Dci, †gvU Awfj¤^ Av‡ek ev
Abyfe K‡i| d¬v·, H Zj Øviv †ewóZ †gvU Pv‡R©i 1 ¸Y|
 Zwor wefe: o
 Amxg †_‡K GKwU abvZ¡K Avavb‡K Zwor †¶‡Î Avb‡Z †h KvR Ki‡Z nq|  
 MvwYwZK cÖKvk: 00 E.dS = q hw`, q = 0 nq Z‡e Zwor d¬v·
W KvR  
 cÖKvk: V = Q = PvR© | GwU †¯‥jvi ivwk|  = 0 Ed.S = 0
 PvR© me©`v cwievnxi evB‡ii c„‡ô Ae¯vb K‡i|
 GKK: †fvë ev Ryj/Kzj¤^|
 DËj c„‡ô PvR© me‡P‡q †ewk|
 mgwefe Zj: †h Z‡ji mKj we›`y‡Z wef‡ei gvb mgvb, †mUvB mgwefe Zj|
 Zwor e‡ji GKK- wbDUb|
 mgwefe Z‡ji •ewkó¨:
 Nl©Y cwienb I Av‡ek Dcv‡q c`v_©‡K PvwR©Z Kiv hvq|
 ZwoZvwnZ cwievnxi Zj me©`v mgwefe Zj| GB Z‡ji Dci Zwor  Av‡cwÿK †f`b‡hvM¨Zv me‡P‡q †ewk- A‡åi|
Avavb¸wj w¯i _v‡K|  Pv‡R©i ZjgvwÎK NbZ¡ Gi ‡ÿÎd‡ji e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK| GKK: Cm-2
 Zwor ej‡iLv mgwefe Zj‡K mg‡Kv‡Y †Q` K‡i|  †MvjvKvi cwievnxi wfZ‡i cÖvej¨ k~b¨|
 Zwor aviKZ¡: †Kvb cwievnxi Zwor wefe GK-GKK e„w× Ki‡Z Gi g‡a¨ †h  †MvjvKvi cwievnxi wfZ‡ii wefe c„‡ôi wef‡ei mgvb|
cwigvY PvR© cÖ`vb Ki‡Z nq, Zv‡K H cwievnxi aviKZ¡ e‡j|  eZ©bx‡Z A¨vwgUvi †kªYx‡Z ms‡hvM Ki‡Z nq Ges †fvë wgUv‡i mgvšÍiv‡j
 mgxKiY: C=Q/V; GKK aviK‡Z¡i GKK d¨vivW| ms‡hvM Ki‡Z nq|
 †MvjKxq cwievnxi aviKZ¡: C = 4 0 Kr ev, C = 4  r  †Kvb cwievnxi •`N©¨ I cÖ¯‡”Q‡ì †¶Îdj GKB _vK‡j ZvcgvÎv e„w×i d‡j
 mgvšÍivj cvZ avi‡Ki aviKZ¡: C  0 A ev, C  K 0 A Gi †iva e„w× cv‡e|
d d  •e`y¨wZK wnUv‡i †h avZe Zv‡ii KzÛjx eëüZ nq Zvi bvg wK? → bvB‡µvg|
 civ‣e`y¨wZK aªæeK ev Zwor gva¨gvsK ev Av‡cw¶K †f`¨Zv:  GKwU cwievnxi e¨vmva© 2 ¸b e„ w × Kiv n‡j Zvi Av‡cw¶K †iva e„ w ×
 F0 cvq  4 ¸b|
Er   , Er  c
0 Fr c0  cwievnxi PvR© w¯i †i‡L cv‡Zi †ÿÎdj evo‡j aviKZ¡ evo‡e|
 WªvB B‡jKwUªK c`v_©: B‡evbvBU, A¨v¤^vi, ivevi, •Zj, †gvg|  •e`y¨wZK eZ©bx‡Z ¯úvwK©s Kiv nq|
 Zwor wØ‡giæi †ÿ‡Î cÖvej¨ I wef‡ei mgxKiY:  w¯i we`y¨rh‡š¿ ÔmÂvqKÕ wn‡m‡e eënvi nq|
1 P  Zwor †ÿ‡Î †hLv‡b ej‡iLvi NbZ¡ †ewk †mLv‡b Zwor cÖvej¨ †ewk †hLv‡b
E=  3; ej‡iLvi NbZ¡ Kg †mLv‡b Zwor cÖvejÏ Kg|
4o r
1 P  Zwor ej †iLv PvwR©Z cwievnxi c„‡ôi mv‡_ 90 †Kv‡b Ae¯vb K‡i|
vp = . 2
4o r  Zwor †ÿÎ I Z‡ji Awfj¤^ mgvšÍiv‡j  Zwor d¬v· me©vwaK|
 MvD‡mi m~Î:  Zwor †ÿÎ I Z‡ji Awfj¤^ mg‡Kv‡Y  Zwor d¬v· k~b¨|
q1q2 qq
9 1 2  1
Kzj‡¤î m~Î msµvšÍ  Zwor ej, F = 1 = 9109
F
2 = 910 ;  E =  F = qE = mg
40 r r2 40  q
 jwä wefe, V= V1 + V2 + ..... = 9  109  + + ...............

1 q q q1 q2
 Zwor wefe, V = = 9  109
40 r r  r1 r2 
wefe msµvšÍ  eM©‡ÿ‡Îi †K‡›`ª wefe, V=
1
×
1
×(q1+q2+q3+q4) [e„‡Ëi †K›`ª n‡Z c„ô ch©šÍ †h †Kv‡bv we›`yi wefe c„‡ôi wef‡ei mgvb]
4 0 r / 2
 V = Ed
1 q 9 q 9  109 q
 Zwor cÖvej¨, E = 2 = 9  10 2 =
40 r r K r2
 PvR©Øq wecixZ ag©x n‡j ga¨we›`y‡Z cÖvej¨, E  9  10

9 1
2
q1  q2  (r1 = ga¨we›`yi `~iZ¡)
r1
F mg V
 E= = =
cÖvej¨ I Pv‡R©i q q d
ZjgvwÎK NbZ¡ d
msµvšÍ  q1 PvR© n‡Z x wgUvi `~‡i jwä cÖvej¨ k~b¨ n‡j, x =
q2
1
q1
Q Q
 Pv‡R©i ZjgvwÎK NbZ¡ ev Avavb NbZ¡,  = = [A = 4r2 (†Mvj‡Ki †ÿ‡Î) †MvjvKvi cwievnx‡Z PvR© me©`v c„‡ô _v‡K|]
A 4r 2

 E=
0
Q It
 aviKZ¡, C = =
V V
K 0 A
 K civ‣e`y¨wZK wewkó mgvšÍivj cvZ avi‡Ki aviKZ¡: C 
aviK I avi‡Ki d
mgevq msµvšÍ  †MvjKxq cwievnxi aviKZ¡: C = 4 0 Kr
1 1 1 1 1 C

wmwiR/†kªYx mgev‡q Zyj¨ aviKZ¡ C  C  C  C          C ; Cs = n ; Cs:CP = 1 : n2
s 1 2 3 n
 mgvšÍivj mgev‡q Zzj¨ aviKZ¡: Cp = C1+C2+C3 + ------ + Cn; Cp = nC

1 1 Q2 1
 avi‡Ki mwÂZ kw³/K…ZKvR, E = CV2 = = QV
avi‡Ki mwÂZ 2 2 C 2
kw³  mwÂZ kw³ n ¸b n‡j, PzovšÍ wefe, V2 = n .V1
 wefe n ¸Y n‡j P~ovšÍ mwÂZ kw³, W2 = n .W1
2
MEx 01 `ywU mgvb Pv‡R©i gaëZx© `~iZ¡ A‡a©K Kiv n‡j Ges PvR© `ywUi gvb d d 4d
Solve x = = =
Kwg‡q A‡a©K Kiv n‡j e‡ji gvb- q2 1 5
1 1
1 q1q 2 q1 16
Solve Kzj‡¤î m~Îvbymv‡i, F 
4 o r 2 MEx 06 `ywU wcZ‡ji e‡ji e¨vm h_vµ‡g 0.03m Ges 0.06m| ej `ywU‡Z
q
q 2  r  h_vµ‡g 2.5×10–9C Ges 5×10–9C PvR© †`qv n‡jv| G‡ì Pv‡R©i
2
q1q2 1 1
F 2  F   1
    F   2 F  F
2
ZjgvwÎK Nb‡Z¡i Zzjbv Ki|
r q1 q 2  
r  2 2
-19
MEx 02 GKwU †Uwjwfkb wUD‡ei †Kvb GK we›`y‡Z 1.610 C Pv‡R©i GKwU 1 Q1 ( r2 ) 2 2.5  10 9 (0.06) 2 2
Solve = = =
-14
B‡j±ª‡bi Dci 810 Newton ej Abyfe nq| H we›`y‡Z •e`ÿwZK †¶‡Îi  2 Q 2 (r1 ) 2 5  10 9  (0.03) 2 1
ZxeªZv KZ?  1 : 2 = 2:1
14 MEx 07 `ywU mgvb aviK‡Z¡i aviK‡K cÖ_‡g †kªYx‡Z I c‡i mgvšÍiv‡j mshy³
F 8  10
Solve F  qE  E   19
 5  105 N / C Kiv nj| †kªYx I mgvšÍivj ms‡hv‡M Zzj¨ aviK‡Z¡i AbycvZ|
q 1.6  10
Solve Cs : Cp = 1 : n2 = 1 : (2)2 = 1 : 4
MEx 03 5.0 cm e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU cwievnx †Mvj‡Ki PvR© 4.0 C| †K›`ª †_‡K
MEx 08 GKwU mgvšÍivj cv‡Z avi‡Ki cvZØ‡qi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡ A‡a©K n«vm I
4.0cm `~i‡Z¡ wefe KZ? cvZØ‡qi †¶Îdj wØ¸b e„w× Ki‡j avi‡Ki aviKZ¡ KZ¸b e„w× cv‡e-
q
Solve V = 9  109 r (r>d) C2 A2 d1 2 2
Solve C = A × d = 1 × 1 = 4
4  106
1 1 2
ev, V = 9109  2 MEx 09 3F aviKZ¡ wewkó GKwU 200 volt aviK‡K GKwU e¨vUvix Øviv c~Y©
5  10
PvwR©Z Kiv nj| avi‡K mwÂZ kw³i cwigvb KZ?
36  10 5
= = 7.2  105 V 1 1
5 Solve EP = 2 C.V2 = 2 ×3× 10–6 × (200)2
–9
MEx 04 2 2 evûwewkó GKwU eM©‡ÿ‡Îi cÖwZwU †Kvbvq 2 × 10 C PvR© 1
¯vcb Kiv n‡jv| eM©‡ÿ‡Îi †K‡›`ªi wefe KZ? =  3  106  4  104 = 6  102 = 0.06 J
2
9 4 × 2 × 10–9 MEx 10 GKwU avi‡Ki `yB cv‡Zi g‡a¨ wefe cv_©K¨ V Ges avi‡Ki mwÂZ kw³
Solve V = 9 × 10 × = 36 Volt
2 2 U| avi‡Ki wefe cv_©K¨ e„w× K‡i 3V Kiv n‡j mwÂZ kw³ e„w× †c‡Z KZ
2 n‡e?
2
MEx 05 `yBwU abvZ¡K we›`y PvR© q1 I q2, d `~i‡Z¡ Ae¯vb Ki‡Q|
q1
 16 U 2  v2   3v  2
Solve   =  
q2 U 1  v1   v 
n‡j q1 n‡Z KZ `~i‡Z¡ Zwor †¶Î cÖve‡jï gvb mgvb n‡e|
 U2 = 9U
Pj Zwor
 Av‡cwÿK †iva nq cwievnxi Dcv`v‡bi| GKB Dcv`v‡bi Av‡cw¶K †iva  1A = 1Cs–1
cwiewZ©Z nq bv|  †iva: cwievnxi ‡h a‡g©i Rb¨ Gi ga¨ w`‡q Zwor cÖevn evav cÖvß nq Zv
 Zwor cÖevn: †Kv‡bv cwievnxi ga¨w`‡q †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó w`‡K gy³ Pv‡R©i cÖevn n‡jv cwievnxi ‡iva|
nj Zwor cÖevn| 1V
Q
 GKK: IÕg (ohm, ) mgxKiY: 1 = 1A = 1VA–1
 cÖKvk: Zwor/we`y¨r cÖevn gvÎv, I = t GKK: Ampere (A)
 cwievwnZv: ‡iv‡ai wecixZ ivwk nj cwievwnZv (conductance) •e`y¨wZK eZ©bxi †h †Kvb `yB we›`yi wefe cv_©K¨ wbb©q Kiv hvq Zv‡K
–1 1 c‡UbwkIwgUvi e‡j|
 cÖKvk: G GKK: simens(s) ev (ohm) mgxKiY: G = R
 ûBU‡÷vb eªxR bxwZ eënvi Kiv nq:
 †ivavsK ev Av‡cw¶K ‡iva: wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq GKK ‣`N©¨ I GKK cÖ¯‡”Q‡ì  wgUvi eªxR (Metre bridge
‡¶Îdj wewkó ‡Kv‡bv cwievnxi ‡iva‡K ‡ivavsK ev Av‡cw¶K ‡iva ejv nq|  ‡cv÷ Awdm e· (Post office box)
L
 mgxKiY: R = A cÖKvk:  GKK:  – m P R
= A_©vr mvg¨ve¯vq M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii Dfq cÖv‡šÍi `yB cv‡k¦© hy³ †iva
Q S
 avZzi g‡a¨ iæcvi †iva me‡P‡q Kg| `ywUi AbycvZ mgvb n‡e|
 ï¯‥ Ae¯vq gvby‡li kix‡ii †iva 50,000  Ges wfRv Ae¯vq 10,000 :  kv‡›Ui †iva k~b¨ n‡j mKj we`y¨r cÖevn kv‡›Ui ga¨ w`‡q hv‡e|
cwievnx Aa©cwievnx  kv‡›Ui †iva Amxg n‡j mKj cÖevn M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q hv‡e|
T evo‡j, R ev‡o, I K‡g T evo‡j, R K‡g, I ev‡o G+S
 †K kv‡›Ui ¸Yb ¶gZv ev kv‡›Ui ¸bK ejv nq|
cwievnx D”P ZvcgvÎvq Aa©cwievn‡Ki D”PZvcgvÎvq Aa©cwievnx S
g‡Zv AvPiY K‡i| cwievnxi g‡Zv AvPiY K‡i|  †cv÷ Awdm e·, wgUvi eªxR I c‡UbwkIwgUv‡i me©`vB M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi
T Kg‡j, R K‡g, I ev‡o T Kg‡j, R ev‡o, I K‡g eënvi Kiv nq|
 DòZv ¸Yv†Ki GKK: (C)–1 ev K–1  A¨vwgUvi (Ameter): eZ©bxi cÖevn gvÎv wbb©‡qi Rb¨ A¨vwgUvi‡K eZ©bxi
 Ry‡ji 3wU m~Î GK‡Î, H  I2Rt mv‡_ †kªYx mgev‡q hy³ Kiv nq|
 H = I2Rt Ryj  H = 0.24I2Rt K¨vjix|  A¨vwgUv‡ii cvjøv e„w×: GKwU ¯^í cvjøvi A¨vwgUvi‡K †ekx cvjøvi A¨vwgUv‡i
 Zvob‡eM: B‡jKUªb cwievnxi †fZ‡i (av°v †L‡Z †L‡Z) †hB Mo‡eM AMÖmi cwibZ Ki‡Z n‡j A¨vwgUv‡ii mv‡_ mgvšÍiv‡j AZ¨šÍ ¯^í gvÎvi †iva hy³
nq, Zv‡K Zvob‡eM e‡j| I = nAVq R
Ki‡Z nq| r 
 Zv‡ci hvwš¿K mgZzj/hvwš¿K mgZv: GKK Zvc Drcbœ Ki‡Z ‡h cwigvY KvR Ki‡Z nq n 1
ev GKK Zvc Øviv ‡h cwigvb KvR Kiv hvq Zv‡K Zv‡ci hvwš¿K mgZzj/mgZv ejv nq|  †fvë wgUvi: G‡K eZ©bx‡Z mgvšÍivj mgev‡q mshy³ Ki‡Z nq|
 cÖKvk: J  †fvë wgUvi n‡”Q GKwU M¨vjfv‡bv wgUvi hvi m‡½ GKwU D”P gv‡bi †iva
 gvb: 4.2J/cal 1 Ryj = 0.24 K¨vjwi 1 K¨vjwi = 4.2 Ryj| †kªYx mgev‡q jvMvb _v‡K|
 •e`y¨wZK kw³, EP = W = VQ = VIt  †fvëwgUv‡ii cvjøv e„w×: S = R(n – 1)|
GKK: Ryj| (1 Ryj = 1 †fvë  1 A¨vw¤úqvi  1 †m‡KÛ)  Avqi‡bi GKwU `‡Ûi ZvcgvÎv evov‡j we`y¨r cwievwnZv n«vm cvq|
W V 2  A¨vwgUvi Gi mvnv‡h¨ we`y¨r cÖevn gvÎv, ‡fvëwgUvi Gi mvnv‡h¨ wefe Ges
 ‣e`y¨wZK ÿgZv, P = t = VI = EI = I2R = R M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ we`y¨r cÖev‡ni Aw¯ÍZ¡ wbY©q Kiv hvq|
Ryj J  wgUvi eªxR, †cvó Awdm e· ûBU‡÷vb eªxR bxwZ‡Z KvR K‡i Ges
GKK: IqvU = †m‡KÛ = s c‡UbwkIwgUvi wefe cZb c×wZ‡Z KvR K‡i|
 1 Hp = 746 watt  Avweó ZworPvjK ej E Gi ivwkgvjvq FYvZ¥K wPýwUi Drm n‡jv- Zwor
 1 kwh = 3.6106J = 1 unit Avav‡bi msiÿY m~Î|
 wK‡jvIqvU N›Uv‡K ‡evW© Ae ‡UªW (B.O.T) GKK ev eëmvwqK GKK ev  ÿgZv wbY©‡q c‡UbwkIwgUvi eëüZ nq|
mvaviYZ BDwbU (unit) ejv nq|  GKwU eZ©bx‡Z A¨vwgUvi‡K †kÖbx mgev‡q Ges †fvë wgUvi‡K mgvšÍivj
 Zwo”PvjK ej: mgev‡q hy³ Ki‡Z nq|
Ryj  j   wm‡gÝ cwievwnZv GKK|
 GKK: ‡fvë (volt) =
Kzj¤^ =  c   ZvcgvÎv e„w× Ki‡j cwievnx c`v‡_©i we`y¨r cwievwnZv n«vm cvq Ges †iva
ev‡o| ZvcgvÎv e„w× Ki‡j Aa©cwievnx c`v‡_©i we`y¨r cwievwnZv e„w× cvq
E
 mgxKiY: E = IR + Ir ev, I = R + r Ges †iva K‡g|
 A¨vwgUvi: †Kvb •e`y¨wZK eZ©bxi we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv mivmwi (A¨vw¤úqv‡i)  mv›U wn‡m‡e mvavibZ 1 A‡cÿv Kg gv‡bi †iva eënvi Kiv nq|
cwigvc Kiv nq|  GKwU Zvgvi Zv‡ii UzK‡ivi †iva 100 ¸b evov‡Z n‡j Zv‡K †U‡b 10 ¸b
 †fvëwgUvi: †Kvb eZ©bxi `yB cÖv‡šÍi ev †h †Kvb As‡ki g‡a¨ wefe
j¤^v Ki‡Z n‡e|
cv_©K¨ mivmwi (†fv‡ë) cwigvc Kiv nq|  †cv÷ Awdm e‡·i mvnv‡h¨ AÁvZ †iv‡ai gvb KZ `kwgK ¯vb ch©šÍ wVK
 gvwëwgUvi: †Kvb eZ©bx‡Z we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv, eZ©bxi `yB cÖv‡šÍi wefe cv_©K¨ fv‡e wbY©q Kiv hvq?  `yB
Ges †Kvb cwievnxi †iva gvcv hvq| AVO Meter bv‡g cwiwPZ|  †iva nq cwievnxi Ges Av‡cwÿK †iva nq cwievnxi Dcv`v‡bi
 M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi: †Kvb cwievnxi we`y¨r cÖev‡ni Aw¯Z¡ I cwigvc Kiv hvq|  GKwU •e`y¨wZK evwZi gva¨‡g we`y¨r kw³‡K iƒcvšÍwiZ K‡i cvIqv hvq 
0
 AwZ cwievnxZv: cvi`: – 269 C ; mxmv: – 266 C;
0 Zvckw³ I Av‡jvK kw³
 B‡jKUªb wbgœ wefe †_‡K D”P wef‡ei w`‡K cÖevwnZ nq;  `ywU wfbœ c`v‡_©i •Zix avZe Zv‡ii `yB cÖvšÍ hy³ K‡i GKwU e× eZ©bx •Zix
 Zwor cÖevn D”P wefe n‡Z wbgœ wef‡ei w`‡K cÖevwnZ nq; K‡i ms‡hvM ¯j `ywU‡K wfbœ ZvcgvÎvq ivL‡j GKwU Zwo”PvjK
 ZvcgvÎv e„w× †c‡j Aa©cwievnxi †iva n«vm cvq| kw³i D™¢e nq Ges eZ©bxi ga¨ w`‡q Zwor cÖevn Pj‡Z _v‡K| G‡K ejv nq
 Zwor eZ©bx‡Z wKk©‡di m~‡Îi eënvi: i. we`y¨r cÖevn I wefe cv_©K¨ wbY©q  mx‡eK wµqv
ii. ûBU‡÷vb eªx‡R wKk©‡di m~‡Îi eënvi  `ywU wfbœ avZzi •Zwi GKwU Zvc we`ÿr hyM‡ji ga¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevn Pvjbv Ki‡j Zvc
 c‡UbwkIwgUvi: †h h‡š¿i Zv‡ii •`N©¨ eivei µgvMZ wefe cZb m„wó Kiv we`y¨r hyM‡ji ms‡hvM ¯‡j Zvc D™¢Z ev †kvwlZ nIqv‡K e‡j  ‡cjwkqvi wµqv
hvq Ges hvi mvnv‡h¨ †Kvb •e`y¨wZK †Kv‡li Zwor PvjK kw³ A_ev †Kvb
 Zwor we‡køl‡Yi eënvwiK cÖ‡qvM n‡”Q-  i. Zwor cÖ‡jcb  GKwU Zv‡ii •`N©¨ wØ¸Y Ki‡j Ges cÖ¯‡”Q` - Gi †ÿÎdj A‡a©K Ki‡j Gi
ii. B‡jK‡UªvUvBwcs iii. avZz wb®‥vkb iv. avZz †kvab| †iva Pvi¸Y n‡e|
 Amgfv‡e DËß †Kvb cwievn‡K Zwor cÖevn Pvjbv Ki‡j cwievn‡Ki †Kv_vI  Av‡cwÿK †iva wbf©i K‡i cwievnxi Dcv`v‡bi Ici Ges ZvcgvÎvi Ici|
Zv‡ci D™¢e nq Ges †Kv_vI Zv‡ci †kvlY nq| G‡K ejv nq-  ZvcgvÎv e„w× Ki‡j cwievnxi cwievnKZ¡ K‡g hvq|
 Ryj _gmb wµqv 1V = 1JC–1  AvqZ‡bi Ici cwievnxi †iva wbf©i K‡i bv|
 cÖevn Ges cwievn‡Ki †iva AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j Zwor cÖev‡ni d‡j D™¢~Z Zvc  ûBU‡÷vb eªxR bxwZi Ici wbf©i K‡i †cv÷ Awdm e· I wgUvi eªxR ‣Zwi
cÖevnKv‡ji mv‡_  mgvbycvwZK| Kiv nq|
 ‣e`y¨wZK ev‡j¦ †h miæ avZe Zvi _v‡K Zv Uvs‡÷b c`v_© w`‡q •Zwi|  †cv‡UbwkIwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ †Kv‡li ZworPvjK kw³ I Af¨šÍixb †iva wbY©q
 ivmvqwbK Zzj¨v¼ (Chemical Equivalent) cvigvYweK fi I †hvR¨Zvi Kiv nq|
AbycvZ| Zwor ivmvqwbK Zzj¨v‡¼i GKK  Kg/C  ûB‡÷vb eªx‡R mg¨ve¯v wewNœZ nevi KviY Ñ (K) hLb cwieZ©b †iv‡ai
 kãkw³‡K Zworkw³‡Z cwieZ©b Kiv hvq gvB‡µv‡dvb h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨| M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi eënvi Kiv nq| (L) hLb Zwor †Kv‡li Zwo”PvjK e‡ji
 †Kvb hš¿ Zwor kw³‡K hvwš¿K kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍi K‡i  ‡gvUi| gvb cwieZ©b nq| (M) hLb M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi I Zwor †Kv‡li Ae¯v‡bi
 cwievnxi †iva Zvi •`‡N©ï mgvbycvwZK| R  L| wewbgq nq|
 cwievnxi Av‡cwÿK †iva Gi Dcv`vb I ZvcgvÎvi Dci wbf©ikxj|  GKwU Zv‡ii †iva r , ZviwU‡K †U‡b •`N©¨ wØ¸b Kiv n‡j Gi †iva n‡e 4 r |
 R †iva wewkó †Kvb cwievnxi wfZi w`‡q t mgqe¨vcx I cwigvY we`y¨r cÖevn  wUb I mxmvi wgkª‡Y wdDR •Zwi Kiv nq|
Pvjbv Ki‡j cwievnx‡Z D™¢~Z Zv‡ci cwigvY  I2Rt|  IÕ‡gi m~‡Îi ¯^vaxb PjK n‡”Q wefe cv_©K¨|
 †Kvb M¨vjfv‡bv wgUvi 45 we‡¶‡c me‡P‡q †ekx my‡e`x|  †P․¤^K †ÿ‡Îi cÖvej¨ evov‡bv hvq – (1) Zwor cÖevn evwo‡q (2) mwjb‡q‡Wi
 A¨vwgUvi I †fvëwgUv‡ii cv_©K¨: c¨vP msL¨v evwo‡q|
A¨vwgUvi †fvëwgUvi  A¨vjywgwbqv‡gi DòZv mnM 3.9  103 (C) 1|
†Kvb eZ©bxi we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv mivmwi †Kvb eZ©bxi `yB we›`yi g‡a¨ wefe  PvR© cÖev‡ni nvi cwigv‡ci GKK A¨vw¤úqvi|
(A¨vw¤úqv‡i) cwigvc Kivi hš¿‡K cv_©K¨ mivmwi (†fv‡ë) cwigvc  wmwjKb c`v‡_©i †iv‡ai DòZv mn‡Mi gvb FYvZ¡K|
A¨vwgUvi e‡j| Kivi hš¿‡K †fvëwgUvi e‡j|  wbw`©ó mgq a‡i wbw`©ó cwievn‡K Zwor cÖevwnZ Ki‡j m„ó Zv‡ci cwigvY n‡e
A¨vwgUvi GKwU Kg †ivawewkó Pj †fvëwgUvi GKwU D”P †iva wewkó Pj cÖevwnZ Zwo‡r Gi e‡M©i e¨¯ÍbycvwZK|
KzÛjx M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi| GKwU Pj KzÛjx M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi| GKwU Pj  e„ËvKvi cÖ¯‡”Q‡ì †Kv‡bv cwievnxi e¨vmva© A‡a©K Kiv n‡j †iva n‡e Pvi¸Y|
KzÛjx M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii mv‡_ KzÛjx M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii mv‡_  wKk©‡di jyc Dccv`¨wU n‡jvkw³i msiÿYkxjZvi bxwZ|
wb¤œgv‡bi †iva mgvšÍiv‡j hy³ K‡i D”Pgv‡bi †iva †kÖYx‡Z hy³ K‡i GwU
GwU •Zwi| •Zix|
 we`y¨r cÖevn, In‡gi m~Î Ges †Kv‡li g‡a¨ cÖevngvÎv-

Q E
I , V = IR, I  E = IR + Ir = V + Ir [Ir-†K bó Volt ev nviv‡bv wefe e‡j]
t Rr
I Q I
†Kv‡li mgev‡q  cÖevn NbZ¡, J = =  I = nAve B‡jKUª‡bi Zvob‡eM v =
A At nAe
cÖevngvÎv msµvšÍ 1 nE
 Zwor cwievnxZv, G = (wm‡gÝ)  n msL¨K †Kvl †kªYx mgev‡q hy³ _vK‡j, I s 
R R  nr
nE
 n msL¨K †Kvl mgvšÍivj mgev‡q hy³ _vK‡j, I p 
nR  r
L 1
Av‡cw¶K †iva I  Av‡cw¶K †iva, R   ; R  L ; R  ; L  A  r2;  Rt = R0 (1 + t) [tC ZvcgvÎvq cwievnxi †iva]
A
†iva msµvšÍ A
. †kªYx mgev‡q Zzj¨ †iva, Rs=R1+R2+R3+----+Rn=Rmax

1 1 1 1 1 1
 mgvšÍivj mgev‡q Zzj¨ †iva,     =
R p R1 R 2 R 3 Rn R min
Zzj¨ †iva I Zwor R

 (i) n msL¨K R gv‡bi †iva‡K mgvšÍiv‡j hy³ Ki‡j Zzj¨‡iva =
n
cÖevn msµvšÍ
(ii) n msL¨K R gv‡bi †iva‡K wmwiR ev †kÖwY‡Z hy³ Ki‡j Zzj¨‡iva = nR
(iii) n msL¨K mggv‡bi †iva mgvšÍiv‡j I †kÖwY‡Z hy³ Ki‡j Rs = n2 Rp ; Rs : Rp= n2:1
†ivaØ‡qi ¸Ydj
(iv) `ywU Amggv‡bi †iva mgvšÍiv‡j hy³ Ki‡j Zzj¨ †iva Rp =
†hvMdj
 G 
M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii g‡a¨ w`‡q cÖevngvÎv, I g  
S 
 I  kv‡›Ui g‡a¨ w`‡q cÖevngvÎv, I s   I ;
S G S G
hZUzKz gvcv ìKvi
 †fvëwgUv‡ii cvjøv e„w×, R  (n  1)r ; n = hZUzKz gvcv hvq ; r = cÖv_wgK †iva; R = ‡h cwigvb †iva †hvM Ki‡Z n‡e
M¨vjfv‡bwgUvi I  A¨vwgUv‡ii cvjøv e„w×, R 
r
[†fvë wgUv‡ii †¶‡Î R †kªYx‡Z; A¨vwgUv‡ii †¶‡Î R mgvšÍiv‡j †hvM Ki‡Z nq|]
mv›U msµvšÍ (n  1)
G
Aspect Special: M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q g~j cÖev‡ni
1 Ask cÖevngvÎv cÖevwnZ n‡j, s  
n n 1
x  M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii †iva
†UKwbK: x% we`y¨r M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q †M‡j mv‡›Ui †iva, S =
100  x
ûBU‡÷vb eªxR, wgUvi ûBU‡÷vb eªxR, wgUvi eªxR, c‡UbwkIwgUvi, c‡UbwkIwWfvBWvi Gi mgxKiY:
eªxR, c‡UbwkIwgUvi P R P L E l l ~l
i.  ii.  iii. 1  1 iv. r  1 2 R
msµvšÍ Q S Q 100  L E2 l2 l2
V2
we`y¨r cÖev‡n Drcbœ  Zwor cÖev‡n Drcbœ Zvc, H  i Rt 2
t  Eit  Vit  Pt ; W = JH=ms
Zvc, KvR, ¶gZv R
msµvšÍ W V2
 Zwor cÖev‡n e¨wqZ ¶gZv, P = t = i2R = R = Ei = Vi
P×T
 B = N × b × day;  N= KWh [GLv‡b P = ÿgZv;
wej wbY©q msµvšÍ 1000
 N = BDwbU; T = N›Uv; B = †gvU we`y¨r wej Ges b = cÖwZ BDwbU we`y¨r LiP]
MEx 01 `ywU Zwor †Kvl hvi cÖ‡Z¨KwU‡Z Zwo”PvjK ej 2 volt, mgvšÍiv‡j MEx 06 †kÖYx I mgvšÍivj mgev‡q `ywU †iv‡ai Zzj¨ †iva h_vµ‡g 25
ms‡hvM K‡i ewnt¯ 4 Ing †iv‡ai wfZi w`‡q Zwor cÖevwnZ Kiv nj| †h I 4| †iva `ywUi gvb KZ?
cwigvb Zwor cÖevwnZ nj Zv n‡”Q- †ivaØ‡qi ¸Ydj
Solve †ivaØ‡qi †hvMdj = 25 Ges †ivaØ‡qi †hvMdj = 4; 20, 5
nE
nE 2222 11
Solve II    = 0.5 Amp MEx 07 †Kvb evwoi †gBb wgUvi 15A, 220v wPwýZ Kiv Av‡Q| KZ¸‡jv
Rnrr 442200 22
Rn
60w Gi KqwU evwZ H evox‡Z wbivcËvi mv‡_ eënvi Kiv hv‡e?
MEx 02 GKwU we`y¨r †Kv‡li we`y¨r PvjK ej 1.55v Ges Af¨šÍixb †iva
v  I 15  220
0.5 Gi mv‡_ KZ Ing †iv‡ai GKwU Zvi hy³ Ki‡j 0.1Amp we`y¨r Solve n = P = 60 = 55wU
cÖevn gvÎv cvIqv hv‡e? †Kv‡li nviv‡bv wefe KZ n‡e? MEx 08 220V, 40W Ges 110V, 40W †jLv `y‡Uv B‡jKwUªK ev‡j¦i †iv‡ai AbycvZ KZ?
E E 1.55 R1 V12 P2 2202 40
Solve I  ev, R   r   0.5 , R = 15 Solve R = V 2  P = 1102  40 = 4:1
Rr I 0.1 2 2 1
MEx 09 100 Iqv‡Ui GKwU •e`y¨wZK evwZ cÖwZw`b 10 N›Uv K‡i R¦‡j| cÖwZ
 †Kv‡li nviv‡bv wefe = Ir = 0.10.5 GKK •e`y¨wZK kw³i g~j¨ 1.50 UvKv n‡j 30 w`‡b LiP KZ n‡e?
= 0.05 v 100  10
MEx 03 GKB †iv‡ai `ywU Zvgvi Zv‡ii •`‡N©ï AbycvZ 1:3 n‡j G‡ì Solve B = N  b  days = 1000  1.5  30 = 45 Tk.
e¨v‡mi AbycvZ KZ n‡e? MEx 10 20 ‡iv‡ai GKwU M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii mv‡_ KZ †iv‡ai GKwU kv›U
 hy³ Ki‡j †gvU Zwor cÖevn gvÎvi 1% M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q hv‡e?
Solve R  ;   A  r 2  d2 ; d   Gx 20 1 20 =0.202
A Solve S  = 
100  x 100  1 99
d l 1
 e¨v‡mi AbycvZ, 1  1   1: 3 MEx 11 100 †iv‡ai GKwU M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi 10mA Zwor wbivc‡` MÖnY Ki‡Z
d2 l2 3 cv‡i| 10 A Zwor cÖevn gvcvi Rb¨ KZ †iv‡ai GKwU kv‡›Ui ìKvi?
MEx 04 5 mm  7 mm cÖ¯‡”Q` wewkó Ges 15 mm `xN© GKwU `‡Ûi Solve n  10
 1000
Av‡cw¶Z †iva n‡”Q 0.105 -m| e¯‧wU‡K †K‡U Gi cÖ¯‡”Q` 3 mm  2 10  10 3
r 100 100
mm Ki‡j Ges •`N©¨ 10 mm Ki‡j Zvi Av‡cw¶K †iva n‡e| R  = = 0.1001
Solve Av‡cwÿK †iva nq cwievnxi Dcv`v‡bi| GKB Dcv`v‡bi (n  1) 1000  1 999
Av‡cw¶K †iva cwiewZ©Z nq bv| MEx 12 GKwU ûBU†÷vb eªx‡Ri PviwU evû‡Z h_vµ‡g 6, 18, 10 Ges 20 †iva hy³ Av‡Q|
PZz_© evû‡Z KZ gv‡bi †iva †kªYx mgev‡q hy³ Ki‡j eªxRwU mvg¨ve¯v cÖvß n‡e?
MEx 05 GKwU 2 K-Ohm Ges GKwU 3 K-Ohm †iva GKwU 10 volt e¨vUvixi
Solve x gv‡bi †iva PZz_© evûi mv‡_ †kªYx mgev‡q mshy³ Ki‡Z n‡e|
mv‡_ †kªYx mgev‡q hy³ Av‡Q| 2 K-Ohm †iv‡ai cÖv‡šÍ wefe cv_©K¨?
P R 6 10
R1 2  ev,  ev, x = 10 
Solve V1  V  10  4V Q sx 18 20  x
R1  R 2 23
†fŠZ Av‡jvKweÁvb
 Zwor‡ÿ‡Î I †P․¤^K‡ÿÎ ci¯úi j¤^fv‡e _v‡K| AwZ †e¸bx iwk¥ 3.9×10–7m ‡_‡K3×10–9m
Eo = C Bo, Eo = Zwor †¶‡Îi we¯Ívi, Bo = ‡P․¤^K †¶‡Îi we¯Ívi G·‡i (X-ray) 5×10–8m ‡_‡K 5  10–15m
 Av‡jvi †eM: wbw`©ó w`‡K Av‡jv GKK mg‡q †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K Mvgv iwk¥ 10–11m ‡_‡K 10–15m
Av‡jvi †eM e‡j|  e¨wZPvi: `ywU mymsMZ Drm n‡Z wbtm„Z Zi½Ø‡qi DcwicvZ‡bi ìæb m„ó
 Av‡jvK el©: GK eQ‡i Av‡jvK iwk¥ †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i, Zv‡K Av‡jvK el© Av‡jvi ZxeªZvi ZviZg¨‡K e¨wZPvi e‡j| e¨wZPvi `yB cÖKvi| h_v
e‡j| Av‡jvK el© `~i‡Z¡i GK cÖKvi GKK|  MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi: DcwicvZ‡bi d‡j D¾¡j we›`y cvIqv †M‡j Zv‡K MVb
1 Av‡jvK el© = Av‡jvi Mo‡eM  1 eQ‡ii †m‡KÛ msL¨v 
= 3 108m/sec  (365  24  60  60) sec = 9.46  1012km g~jK e¨wZPvi e‡j| DcwicvwZZ Zi½ Ø‡qi c_cv_©K¨ 2 Gi hyM¥ †Rvo
 Av‡jvi Zi½ ZË¡: Av‡jvi Zi½ AvKv‡i GK ¯vb n‡Z Ab¨ ¯v‡b hvq| Av‡jv ¸wYZK|
GK ai‡Yi Avo Zi½/Abyc¯ Ö Zi½|  aŸsmvZ¡K e¨wZPvi: DcwicvZ‡bi d‡j AÜKvi we›`y cvIqv †M‡j Zv‡K aŸsmvZ¡K
e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq: cÖwZdjb, cÖwZmib, e¨vwZPvi, AceZ©b, mgeZ©b, cÖwZmvivsK 
wewfbœ gva¨‡g Av‡jvi †eM| Av‡jvi †eM Nb gva¨‡g Kg, nvjKv gva¨‡g †ekx | e¨wZPvi e‡j| DcwicvwZZ Zi½ Ø‡qi c_cv_©K¨ 2Gi AhyM¥ we‡Rvo ¸wYZK|
e¨vL¨v Kiv KóKi : Av‡jv mij c‡_ P‡j|  e¨wZPv‡ii kZ©:
fzj: B_vi bvgK gva¨‡gi Kíbv| cÖK…Z c‡¶ B_vi bvgK †Kvb e¯‧i Aw¯ÍZ¡ †bB|  Av‡jvK Drm `ywU mymsMZ n‡Z n‡e|
 Zwor Pz¤^Kxq Zi½ ZË¡: 1845 mv‡j d¨viv‡W Avwe®‥vi K‡ib| Zwor Pz¤^Kxq  Drm `ywU ¶z`ª I m~² n‡e|
Zi½ k~b¨ gva¨‡g Av‡jvi †e‡M P‡j|  Drm `ywU Lye Kv‡Q n‡Z n‡e|
e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq: Av‡jvi mgeZ©b e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq|  ch©vqµwgK D¾j I AÜKvi we›`yi Rb¨ c_ cv_©K¨ h_vµ‡g Aa©Zi½
e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq bv : Av‡jvi Zwor wµqv e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq bv| •`‡N©ï  hyM¥ I AhyM¥ ¸wbZK n‡e|
* d¨viv‡W wµqv: ÒGKwU cÖej †P․¤^K‡¶‡Îi cªfv‡e mgeZ©b Zj Ny‡i hvqÓ| 2 
* ÒcwieZ©bkxj †P․¤^K †¶Î Øviv Zwor †¶Î Drcbœ nqÓ| d¨viv‡W m~Îvbymv‡i|  ZxeªZvi wbf©ikxjZv:
* m~h© †_‡K Avgiv †h Av‡jvK kw³ cvB, Zv Zwor Pz¤^‡Ki †P․¤^Kxq Zi‡½i  we¯Ívi: ZxeªZv we¯Ív‡ii e‡M©i mgvbycvwZK
gva¨‡g c„w_ex‡Z Av‡m|  Av‡jvi ZxeªZv m‡e©v”P A_©vr D¾¡j nIqvi kZ© n‡jv,
 Zwor Pz¤^Kxq Zi‡½i •ewkó¨: 
i. c_ cv_©K¨ Gi hyM¥ ¸wbZK n‡e
 k~b¨ gva¨‡g Zi‡½i †eM 3  108 ms–1 2
 Zwor z¤^Kxq Zi½ g~jZ †dvUb KYvi mgwó; hvi w¯i fi k~b¨| Z‡e Gi fi‡eM Av‡Q| ii. `kv cv_©K¨:  = 2n
 Av‡jvi ZxeªZv me©wbgœ A_©vr AÜKvi nIqvi kZ© n‡jv,
 Zwor †¶Î ev †P․¤^K †¶Î Øviv Gi †Kvb wePz¨wZ N‡U bv|

hc i. c_ cv_©K¨  Gi AhyM¥ ¸wbZK n‡Z n‡e| x  2n  1
E GLv‡b, E = kw³, h = cøv‡¼i aªæeK, 2 2

ii.  = (2n + 1) 
 = Zi½‣`N©¨ Ges c = Av‡jvi `ªæwZ|  †MªwUs aªæeK ev Dcv`vb †MÖwUs Gi GKwU wP‡ii ïiæ †_‡K cieZ©x wP‡ii ïiæ
 Zwor Pz¤^Kxq Zi½ Pvc cÖ`vb K‡i, hv‡K wewKiY Pvc ejv nq| 1
 †Kvqv›Uvg ZË¡: Av‡jvi kw³i wbtmiY ev †kvlb Ges GKwU ¸”Q ev c¨v‡K‡U ch©šÍ `~iZ¡‡K †MÖwUs aªæeK e‡j| G‡K N Øviv cÖKvk Kiv hvq| N = a + b
wbM©Z nq| G c¨v‡KU‡K †Kvqv›Uvg e‡j| Av‡jv ev †h †Kvb wewKiY AmsL¨  Av‡jvK cÖev‡ni GKK jy‡gb|
c  `xcb ¶gZvi AvšÍR©vwZK GKK K¨v‡Ûjv (Cd)|
†Kvqv›Uvg mgwó| G¸‡jv‡K ejv nq †dvUb| E  h ev E  h  G·-iwk¥, Mvgv-iwk¥, AwZ‡e¸wb-iwk¥ `„k¨gvb Av‡jv, Ae‡jvwnZ-iwk¥,

gvB‡µvI‡qe, †iwWI-I‡qf n‡jv- ZworPz¤^Kxq Zi½|
 Av‡jvK Zi½ KYvag©x 1900 mv‡j weÁvbx cøvsK GB avibv †`b|
 Av‡jvi mij c‡_ Pjb a‡g©i Rb¨ Qvqv •Zwi nq|
 Zwor Pz¤^Kxq Zi½  Zwor Pz¤^Kxq eY©vjx  Bqs‡qi wØwPi cix¶vi mvnv‡h¨ Av‡jvi e¨wZPvi ag© cÖgvY Kiv hvq|
 Zwor Pz¤^Kxq eY©vjxi g‡a¨ Avgv‡ì me‡P‡q cwiwPwZ Ask nj `„k¨gvb
 nvB‡Mbm Av‡jvi Zi½ ZË¡ cÖ`vb K‡ib, †Kvqv›Uvg ZË¡ †`b g¨v· cø¨v¼|
Av‡jvK| Gi e¨vwß mvgvb¨| gvÎ 7.8 10 7 m ‡_‡K 3.9  10 7 m Zwor †P․¤^Kxq ZË¡ g¨v·I‡qj|
Zi½ ‣`‡N©ï 3.8 1014 Hz †_‡K 7.8  1014Hz †_‡K K¤úvs‡Ki ga¨|  †jRvi iwk¥i •ewkó¨:
 †jRvi GK e‡b©i Av‡jv  †jRvi Av‡jv Zxeª I w`KvwfgyLx
 jvj e‡Y©i Av‡jvi Zi½ •`N©¨  7.5 10 7 m †_‡K 7.8  107m|
 †jRvi Av‡jv mymsMZ  †jRvi Av‡jv AZ¨šÍ D¾j|
 †e¸bx e‡b©i Av‡jvi Zi½ ‣`N©¨ = 3.8 10 7 m †_‡K 4.5  107m|  weÁvbx Ugvm Bqs, 1801 mv‡j Av‡jv‡Ki e¨wZPvi Avwe®‥vi K‡ib|
Zi½ cwÆ Zi½ •`‡N©ï cwimi  GKwU Z‡j K¤úgvb Avo Zi½ wewkó Av‡jvK‡K e‡j mgewZ©Z Av‡jvK|
‡eZvi Zi½ 10–4m - 105m  †Uwjwfkb Zi½ †eZvi Zi‡½i DcwefvM bq|
gvB‡µvI‡qf Zi½ 10–1m ‡_‡K 103m 
o
Av‡jvK n‡jv wewKiY †Kvqv›U, †dvUb KYv| †dvU‡bi Zi½‣`N©¨ 3000A Ges
Ae‡jvwnZ iwk¥ 10–3m ‡_‡K 4×10–7m K¤úv¼ 1015HZ |
`„k¨gvb Av‡jv 3.9×10–7m ‡_‡K 7.8×10–7m  nvB‡M‡bi Zi½gyL MV‡bi ZË¡ w`‡q eYv©wji DrcwËi e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq bv|
 `„k¨gvb eY©vwji Zi½‣`‡N©ï cwigvY (4  107 m  7  107 m) Ges kw³  mym½Z Dr‡mi ‡ÿ‡Î (i) Drm `ywU ÿz`ª n‡e (ii) Drm n‡Z mgvb
cvjøv (2  3)eV nq| Zi½‣`‡N©ï Zi½ wbM©Z n‡e (iii) Zi½Øq mg`kvm¤úbœ ev wbw`©ó `kvq
 Av‡jvi K¤úb ej‡Z †evSvq  (i) E 
Gi K¤úb (ii) B
Gi K¤úb (iii) E
I _vK‡e|
  Kv‡P AmgewZ©Z Av‡jv 57`5 ‡Kv‡Y AvcwZZ n‡j cÖwZdwjZ iwk¥ mgewZ©Z nq|
B Gi gaëZ©x †KvY 90|
 wZbwU e‡Y©i Rb¨ R >  > a  †MÖwUs eëüZ nq (i) Av‡jvi Zi½‣`N©¨ wbY©‡q (ii) GKB Zi½‣`‡N©ï `ywU
 e¨wZPvi GK ai‡bi DcwicvZb| kã Zi‡½i †cvjviY m¤¢e bv| eY©vwj †iLv c„_K Ki‡Z (iii) Zi½‣`‡N©ï mv‡c‡ÿ AceZ©b †Kv‡Yi
cwieZ©‡bi nvi wbY©‡q|
 Zi½gy‡L Kbv¸‡jv `kv cv_©K¨ 0| - KYv Zwor‡P․¤^Kxq Zi½ bq|
 Bqs Gi wØ-wPo cixÿvq wPoØ‡qi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡ µgvš^‡q evov‡j †Wviv cÖ¯  e¨wZPv‡ii ‡ÿ‡Î AÜKvi †Wviv m„wó n‡e hLb (i) `kv cv_©K¨  Gi hyM¥
µgvš^‡q Kg‡e| ¸wYZK nq (ii) Zi½ Ø‡qi cÖvej¨ m‡ev©”P nq|
 Av‡jvi e¨wZPv‡ii †ÿ‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨ (i) GKvwaK Zi½gyL (ii) c_ cv_©K¨  e¨wZPv‡ii †ÿ‡Î D¾¡j †Wviv m„wó n‡e hLb (i) `kv cv_©K¨  Gi hyM¥
(iii) mym½Z Av‡jvK Drm| ¸wYZK nq (ii) Zi½Ø‡qi cÖvej¨ m‡ev©”P nq|
5 
 d«b‡nvdvi †kÖwYi AceZ©b m„wói Kiv hvq (i) †MÖwUs Øviv (ii) GKK wPo  GKwU Zi‡½i `ywU we›`yi g‡a¨ c_ cv_©K¨ 4 | we›`yØ‡qi g‡a¨ `kv cv_©K¨ 2|
Øviv (iii) hyM¥ wPo Øviv|
GKwU Avjwc‡bi cÖwZwe¤^ †dj‡j Zx² kx‡l©i cÖwZwe¤^ cvIqv bv hvevi KviY AceZ©b|
 C = f A_ev  = f  k~b¨¯v‡b ZworPz¤^K Zi‡½i †eM, C =

1
 Av‡jvK gva¨g cwieZ©b Ki‡jI K¤úv¼ ( f ) w¯i _v‡K| 
b Ca a  a  1 1
ab = = = =  =  r2
a Cb b  b  2 2
gva¨gØq ¯^”Q n‡j,  r1   r2  1  1
 11 = 22  r1
mvaviY m~Îvejx
2 l r2
 = x; x  ; x = C1 K2
   = = ; K2 > K1 n‡j C2 > C1 n‡e|
C2 r1 K1
2
 K= 1
  Av‡jvK eYv©wji †ÿ‡Î, E  r2
e¨vwZPvi AceZ©b
 Bqs Gi wØ-wPi cwiÿvi †ÿ‡Î,
 c_ cv_©K¨ = n [Pig/MVbg~jK e¨vwZPvi]  GKK wP‡i AceZ©‡bi †ÿ‡Î,
Ae‡gi kZ©t d sin n = n [n = 1,2,3 ... ...]
 c_ cv_©K¨ = n + 2  [Aeg/aŸsmvZ¥K e¨vwZPvi]
1
Pi‡gi kZ© t d sin n = n + 2
1
nD
 ‡Wvivi cÖ¯ , xn = a  ‡MÖwUs KZ©„K AceZ©‡bi †ÿ‡Î,
e¨wZPv‡ii I
D
Ae‡gi kZ©t d sin n = n + 2
1
AceZ©‡bi m~Î  ci ci `ywU AÜKvi A_ev D¾¡j †Wvivi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡, x =
a

MVbg~jK e¨vwZPvi/ D¾¡‡ji kZ©; c_ cv_©K¨, x = 2n 2 = n
Pi‡gi kZ© t d sin n = n

  1 1 1
`kv cv_©K¨:  = 2n  d=a+b= N= =
N d a+b

 aŸsmvZ¥K e¨vwZPvi/AÜKv‡ii kZ©; c_ cv_©K¨, x = (2n + 1) 2
`kv cv_©K¨:  = (2n + 1) 
 1    
(ct  x)  c‡qw›Us †f±i, S =  E  B = E  H
2
 cwieZ©bkxj Zwor †ÿ‡Î,E = Eosin(t  kx) = Eo sin
 o
( ) ( )
Zwor I  cwieZ©bkxj †P․¤^K‡ÿ‡Î, B = Bosin(t  kx)  g¨vjv‡mi m~Î, Ip = Iocos , I1 =
2 Io
2
†P․¤^K‡ÿÎ, 2
B = Bo sin (ct  x)  mgvb, w¯i Ges GKB `kv cv_©‡Kï 2wU Av‡jv‡K Zi½ †Kvb we›`y‡Z

g¨vjv‡mi m~Î wgwjZ n‡j jwä ZxeªZv, I = A2
E Eo
 C = B = Bo ; GLv‡b Bo I Eo nj Zwor‡ÿÎ I †P․¤^K‡ÿ‡Îi

m‡ev©”P gvb| I = 4a2cos
2
MEx 01 0.4mm eëavb wewkó `ywU wPo n‡Z 1m `~i‡Z¡ Aew¯Z c`v©i Dci MEx 05 `yBwU mgvb `xcK †Kvb GKwU c`©v n‡Z h_vµ‡g 40cm I 60cm `~‡i
e¨wZPvi m¾v m„wó nj| eëüZ Av‡jvi Zi½ •`N¨© 5000A n‡j cici wecixZ cv‡k Aew¯Z| c`©vi `ycv‡ki `xcb gvGv Zzjbv Ki|
2 2
`ywU D¾¡j I AÜKvi cwÆi †K‡›`ªi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡ KZ?
Solve I = r  = 40 = 9: 4
I1 r2 60
nD 1 5000  10 10  1 2 1
Solve X n   = 1.2510–3 m MEx 06 cvwb I nxi‡Ki cÖwZmiYv¼ h_vµ‡g 1.33 Ges 2.4 n‡j nxi‡K
2d 4  10  4 Av‡jvi †eM wbY©q Ki| cvwb‡Z Av‡jvi †eM 2.28 × 108ms–1
MEx 02 5000A Zi½ •`‡N©ï †Kvb Av‡jv GKwU wP‡ii Ici cwZZ n‡jv|
Solve cvwbi cÖwZmiYv¼ w = 1.33
AeZ©b c¨vU©v‡bi cÖ_g Aeg (minima) 2m `~i‡Z¡ ¯vwcZ c`v_© †K›`ªxq
nxi‡Ki cÖwZmiYv¼ c = 2.4
Pig (maxima) †_‡K 5m `~i‡Z¡ †`Lv †Mj| wP‡ii cÖ¯‡”Q` KZ n‡e?
cvwb‡Z Av‡jvi †eM Cw = 2.28×108ms-1
nD
Solve Xn  nxiK Av‡jvi †eM Cc = ?
a
C  C
1 5000  10 10  w  c  w ev, c  w
ev, 5  7
 2  2  10 m = 210 cm
–5
Cc  w Cc
a
w
MEx 03 GKwU †MÖwUs G 3cm RvqMvq 15000wU `vM Av‡Q| hw` H †MÖwUs Gi ev, Cc   Cw
c

Dci 6000A Zi½ •`‡N©ï Av‡jv j¤^fv‡e AvcwZZ nq Z‡e me©vwaK KZ
1.33
µ‡gi AceZ©b †`Lv †h‡Z cv‡i? ev, Cc   2.28 10 8  1.26 10 8 ms-1
2.4
15000 sin –4 –1
Solve N = 3 cm–1 = 500  100m–1; again, N = n MEx 07 †Kvb †eZvi Zi‡½i E0 = 2×10 Vm | B0 Gi gvb KZ?
E 0 2 10 4
n=
sin
=
sin90
n=3 Solve B  
3 10 8
0
N 5000  100  6000  10–10 c
MEx 04 GKwU mgZj AceZ©b †MÖwUs G cÖwZ †mw›UwgUv‡i 3000wU †iLv Av‡Q|  B0 = 6.67410–13 Tesla
G †MÖwUs‡K 5.55610 Zi½ •`N©¨ wewkó GKeYx© Av‡jvK iwk¥ w`‡q MEx 08 GKwU Av‡jvK iwk¥i Zi½ •`N©¨ evqy‡Z 360mm n‡j Kuv‡P Zi½‣`N©¨
7
Av‡jvwKZ Kiv n‡jv| Z…Zxq µ‡gi AceZ©b †KvY KZ n‡e? KZ n‡e? Kv‡Pi cÖwZmiv¼,  g  1.5
1 cm 1  102 a
Solve d = 3000 = 3000 Solve g 
g
a
= 3.33  106m; d sin = n  Kuv‡P Av‡jvi Zi½‣`N©¨,

n 3  5.56  107
 sin = a 360  10 3
d 3.33  106 g   g   g = 24010–3m
  
a g 1.5
Avay„wbK c`v_©weÁv‡bi m~Pbv

 cÖm½ KvVv‡gvt `yB ai‡bi| 1. †jRvi GK e‡Y©i Av‡jv
†jRvi iwk¥i
 Ro cÖm½ KvVv‡gv: ‡h cÖm½ KvVv‡gv‡Z RoZvi m~Î Ges wbDU‡bi MwZi 1g 2. ‡jRvi Av‡jv Zxeª I w`KvwfgyLx
•ewkó¨
m~Î cÖ‡hvR¨ nq A_©vr Z¡iY k~b¨ nq Zv‡K Ro cÖm½ KvVv‡gv e‡j| G‡K 3. ‡jRvi Av‡jv mymsMZ 4. ‡jRvi Av‡jv AZ¨šÍ D¾j|
Af¨šÍixb KvVv‡gv ev M¨vwjwjI KvVv‡gvI ejv nq| K¨v‡_vW 1. K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ mij c‡_ Mgb K‡i 2. K¨v‡_vW iwk¥
 ARo cÖm½ KvVv‡gv: †h cÖm½ KvVv‡gv‡Z RoZvi m~Î Ges wbDU‡bi MwZi
iwk¥i ag©: FbvZ¡K PvR© wewkó| PvR© 1.6 10 19 c 3. K¨v‡_vW iwk¥i
cÖ_g m~Î cÖ‡hvR¨ nq bv Zv‡K ARo cÖm½ KvVv‡gv e‡j| KYvi GKwU wbw`©ó fi Av‡Q| GB fi 9. 110-31 Kg
K¨v‡_vW 1. K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ n‡Z B‡jKUª‡bi fi, PvR© wbY©q Kiv hvq|
1. k~b¨ ¯v‡b †dvUb Av‡jvi †e‡M P‡j
iwk¥i cÖ‡qvM 2. Avqb m„wói Kv‡R eëüZ nq|
2. wbðj ev w¯wZ fi (Rest mass) k~b¨| 3. iÄb iwk¥ Drcv`b: K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ KwVb c`v_© Øviv mnmv
†dvUb Gi 3. Zwor wbi‡c¶| evavcÖvß n‡jB iÄb iwk¥ Drcbœ K‡i|
ag© 4. ‡dvU‡bi KYv Zi½ •ØZ iƒc Av‡Q| A_©vr †Kvb mgq GwU 4. AbycÖfv I cÖwZcÖfv iwk¥i m„wó‡Z GwU eëüZ nq|
Kbvi b¨vq Avevi †Kvb mgq Zi‡½i b¨vq AvPib K‡i| G·‡ii ag© 1. mij c‡_ Mgb K‡i 2. AZ¨vwaK †f`b ¶gZv m¤úbœ
5. cÖwZwU †dvU‡bi wbw`©ó kw³ I fi †eM i‡q‡Q| (X-Ray) 3. Zwor I †P․¤^K †¶ÎØviv wePz¨Z nq bv 4. Zi½ •`N©¨ Lye
1. Li, Na cÖf„wZ avZe c`v‡_©i Dci `„k¨gvb Av‡jv †QvU| 10-10 Gi KvQvKvwQ| 5. cÖwZdjb, cÖwZmib,
e¨wZPvi, AceZ©b I †cvjvivqb n‡q _v‡K| 6. d‡UvMÖvwdK
(visible light) co‡jB B‡jKUªb wbM©Z nq|
Av‡jvK Zwor †cø‡Ui Dci cÖwZwµqv Av‡Q| 7. Av‡jvK Zwor wµqv Av‡Q|
2. Dchy³ Zi½ •`‡N©ï Av‡jv †d‡j me avZz‡KB Zwor 8. cÖwZcÖfv m„wó K‡i| 9. M¨vm‡K AvqwbK K‡i| 10. Avavb
wµqv
wµqv m„wó Kiv hvq| ev PvR© wbi‡c¶| 11. K¤úvsK `„k¨gvb Av‡jvi K¤úvsK
3. Av‡jvK Zwor wµqv GKwU Zvr¶wbK NUbv A‡c¶v 100 ¸Y †ekx| 12. G· iwk¥ †dvUb Øviv MwVZ|
 †g․wjK ej: hc 1
 E E
 Ab¨ †Kvb ej †_‡K Drcbœ nq bv  
 Ab¨ mKj e‡ji cÖKvkK  BD‡b‡¯‥v 2005 mvj‡K AvšÍR©vwZK c`v_©weÁvb el© wnmv‡e †NvlYv K‡i‡Q| †h
 cÖKvi‡f`- 1. gnvKl© ej 02. Zwor †P․¤^Kxq ej; c`v_©weÁvbxi cÖwZ m¤§vb cÖ`k©‡bi Rb¨ GB †NvlYv Kiv n‡q‡Q wZwb n‡jb AvBb÷vBb|
03. mej wbDwK¬q ej 04. `~e©j wbDwK¬q ej  A¨vjevU© AvBb÷vBb Av‡jvi Av‡cw¶K ZË¡ Avwe®‥v‡ii Rb¨ †bv‡ej cyi¯‥vi
ej gnvKl© ZworPz¤^Kxq `ye©j wbDwK¬I mej wbDwK¬I jvf K‡ib|
cvjøv Amxg Amxg –16
10 –10 –15
10–15 –10–14  w¯wZ¯vcK ej, AvYweK MVb, ivmvqwbK wewµqv BZ¨vw`‡Z Zwor Pz¤^Kxq
evnK MÖvwfUb †dvUb Intermediate e‡ji cÖKvk N‡U|
†gmb/MøyAb  GKwU Av`k© K…òe¯‧ mKj Zi½‣`‡N©ï Zvckw³ †kvlY Ki‡Z cv‡i|
KYv KYv Vector Bosan
 K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ nj  Electrons|  ZvcgvÎv e„w× †c‡j K…òv¯ n‡Z †gvU weKxY© kw³ e„w× cvq|
 †jRvi iwk¥i •ewkó¨  Monochromatic|  B‡jKUª‡bi †eM (v) Ges cÖhy³ wefe cv_©‡Kï (wbe„wË wefe v) m¤úK© n‡jv:
 Av‡jvK iwk¥i Zi½ •`N©¨  I Gi †dvU‡bi kw³ E Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK© wK?  v=
2eV
|
m
hc 1
E E Av‡jvK Zwor wµqvi •ewkó¨ n‡jv Av‡jvK Zwor cÖevngvÎv AvcwZZ Av‡jvi
  
 Zi½ •`N©¨ eo †_‡K †QvU wnmv‡e mvvRv‡j †KvbwU mwVK  ‡iwWII‡qf, ZxeªZvi mgvbycvwZK|
gvB‡µvI‡qf, Ae‡jvwnZ, `„k¨gvb, AwZ‡e¸bx, G·‡i, Mvgv‡i|  cÖwZ ‡m‡KÛ 1wU †ZRw¯…q fvOb‡K 1 ‡e‡K‡ij e‡j|
 †ZRw¯…q c`v_© n‡Z Kq cÖKvi iwk¥ wbM©Z nq?  wZb|  Xray (i) Zwor †P․¤^K Zi½ (ii) Gi Zi½‣`‡N©ï mxgv 1012 m  108m (iii)
 †jRvi iwk¥i ‣ewkó¨ wK?  GK iOv, m½Z, Zxeª| Av‡jvK Zwor wµqv cÖ`k©b K‡i (iv) Gi †Kvb PvR© †bB (v) cÖwZcÖfv m„wó K‡i|
 Av‡jvK Zwor wµqvi GKwU ev¯Íe D`vniY  †jRvi iwk¥|  Xray Zwor †P․¤^K Zi½ Øviv wewÿß nq Ges GwU mij‡iLv Mgb K‡i|
 †KvbwU †dvU‡bi •ewkó¨ bq?  ‡dvU‡bi †Kvb PvR© †bB|  †dvU‡bi †ÿ‡Î (i) w¯i fi k~b¨
 Mvgv iwk¥i Avavb wK?  wbi‡cÿ| (ii) Gi kw³ E = h, (iii) Gi †eM 3  108 ms1
 we‡kl Av‡cw¶K ZË¡, Abyhvqx GKwU e¯‧KYv Av‡jvi MwZ‡Z Pj‡Z cv‡i bv, (iv) Gi wbw`©ó fi‡eM Av‡Q|
KviY fi Amxg n‡e|  Av‡cwÿKZvi we‡kl ZË¡ AvBb÷vBb KZ©„K 1905 mv‡j cÖKvwkZ nq|
 f‡ii Av‡cw¶K ZË¡ Abymv‡i e¯‧i `ªyZ Av‡jvi `ªywZi KvQvKvwQ †cu․Qv‡j Gi  d‡Uv B‡jKUª‡bi m‡ev©”P MwZkw³ wbf©i K‡i Av‡jvi K¤ú‡bi Dci Ges
fi e„w× †c‡Z _v‡K| avZzi Kvhv©‡cÿ‡Ki Ici|
 nvB‡Rbev‡M©i AwbðqZv m~Î: hw` †Kvb KYvi †Kvb wbw`©ó mg‡q Ae¯v‡bi  cø¨v‡¼i ZË¡ Abymv‡i Kv‡jv e¯‧ n‡Z (i) kw³i wewKiY wew”Qbœfv‡e N‡U|
AwbðqZv x Ges fi‡e‡Mi AwbðqZv p nq, Z‡e G‡ì ¸Ydj cøv‡¼i (ii) kw³ wbM©g‡bi †Kv‡bv avivevwnKZv †bB|
aªye‡Ki mgvb ev eo n‡e| G‡KB nvB‡Rbev‡M©i AwbðqZv m~Î e‡j|  d‡Uv Zwor wµqvi †ÿ‡Î (
ħ h h
 MvwYwZKfv‡e, x.p  [ ħ= ]  x.p  i) d‡Uv Zwor cÖevn Av‡jvi ZxeªZvi Ici wbf©i K‡i|
2 2 4
(ii) d‡Uv B‡KUª‡bi †eM Av‡jvi K¤úv¼ wbf©i|
 `¨ eªMjxi Zi½:
C
 cÖ‡Z¨K Pjgvb c`v_© KYvi mv‡_ GKwU Zi½ hy³ _v‡K| G Zi½‡K wW  ‡eM Pjgvb †Kv‡bv KYvi fi‡eM m0c| †dvU‡bi †ÿ‡Î E = m0c cÖ‡hvR¨
2
eªMjx Zi½ e‡j|
bq| m~Î n‡jv, E0  m0c2 Ges fikv³ mgvKiY n‡jv E = mc2
 wW-eªMjxi mgxKiY,  
h h ; P 2 ; P = fi ‡eM Av‡jvK el© `~i‡Z¡i GKK| E = h m~Î cÖ`vb K‡ib g¨v· cø¨v¼| g¨v· cø¨v¼
 E 
P mv 2m v = ‡eM kw³i ÿz`ª GK‡Ki bvg †`b †Kvqv›Uv|
 cøv¨v‡¼i †Kvqv›Uvg ZË¡:  MwZkxj Nwo wbðj Nwoi †P‡q ax‡i P‡j| †Kv‡bv e¯‧ Av‡jvi ‡eM cÖvß n‡j
 †Kvqv›Uvg ZË¡ Abymv‡i, Av‡jvK iwk¥ ev †h‡Kvb ai‡Yi wewKiYB Gi fi n‡e mmxg|
avivevwnK Zi½ bq, me©ÎB Zv wew”Qbœfv‡e cÖevwnZ n‡”Q| cÖ‡Z¨KwU
3c
†Kvqv›U ev †MvUv GK GKwU AwefvR¨ GKK|  GKwU gnvKvk hvb 2 ‡e‡M Pj‡j Gi •`N©¨ cÖK…Z •`‡N©ï A‡a©K g‡b n‡e|
 h n‡”Q cø¨v‡¼i ayªeK| Gi gvb 6.626  1034 J.s .
 B‡jKUª‡bi MwZkw³i 0 1% G· iwk¥‡Z cwiYZ n‡e|
 Av‡jvK Zwor wµqv †Kvqv›Uvg ZË¡‡K mg_©b K‡i|  K¤úUb wµqvi mvnv‡h¨ †Kvqv›Uvg Z‡Ë¡i e¨vL¨v cÖ`vb Kiv hvq|
 weÁvbx nvB‡Mbm me©cÖ_g Av‡jvi Zi½ZË¡ cÖ`vb K‡ib|
 K¤úUb wµqvi AvcwZZ iwk¥ I wewÿß iwk¥i g‡a¨ Zi½‣`‡N©ï cv_©K¨
 K¨vÝvi I ý`‡ivM wPwKrmvq †iwWI AvB‡mv‡Uvc eënvi Kiv nq|
K¤úUb Zi½‣`‡N©ï mgvb n‡j Zv‡ì gaëZ©x †KvY 90|
 Av‡jvi KYv I Zi½ Dfq ag© Zwor Pz¤^Kxq Z‡Ë¡i mvnv‡h¨ e¨vL¨v Kiv m¤¢e|
 Av‡jvK Zwor wµqv cÖ`k©b K‡i (i) B‡jKUªb Zi½ cÖK…wZ (ii) Av‡jvi
 K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ nj  Electrons
Zi½ cÖK…wZ (iii) Av‡jvi KYv cÖK…wZ|
 †jRvi iwk¥i •ewkó¨  Monochromatic
 FYvZ¥K cvZ n‡Z abvZ¥K cv‡Zi w`‡K GKwU B‡jKUªb Z¡wiZ Ki‡j
 Av‡jvK iwk¥i Zi½ •`N©¨  I Gi †dvU‡bi kw³ E Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK©
B‡jKUª‡bi MwZkw³ n‡e 4eV|
•`N©¨ ms‡KvPb v

2
msµvšÍ  L  L 0 1    [ L0 > L] ; e¯‧ Av‡jvi †e‡M Pj‡j A_©vr v = c n‡j Pjgvb •`N©¨ 0 n‡e|
c
m0 , [m > m0]; e¯‧ Av‡jvi †e‡M Pj‡j A_©vr v = c n‡j Pjgvb fi Amxg n‡e|
 m
fi e„w× msµvšÍ
1 v  c 2
t0
Kvj `xN©vqb  t [t0 <t] ; e¯‧ Av‡jvi †e‡M Pj‡j A_©vr v = c n‡j Pjgvb mgq Amxg n‡e|
2
v
msµvšÍ 1  
c
2
†QvU gvb2
1 1
L0 t m E 1
`ªywZ wbY©q msµvšÍ  L0 = nL, t = nt0, m = nm0, E = nE0  n = = = =  †eM, v = c= c
L t0 m0 E0 n  eo gvb 
v2 v2
 v = 0.6c ev 1.8  108 ms1 n‡j, 1 = 0.8  v = 0.98c n‡j, 1 = 0.2
c  c
v 2 v2
1  = 1
Aspect c 3
 v= n‡j,  v = 0.8c ev 2.4  108 ms1 n‡j, = 0.6
Special 2 c  2 c
v 2 1 v2
1  = 1
c c 2
 v= n‡j,  v= n‡j, =
2 c 2 3 c 3
2
AvBb÷vB‡bi fi- i. w¯wZ kw³, E0 = m0c ii. †gvU kw³, E = mc2
kw³ m¤úK©  E0 
2
msµvšÍ iii. MwZkw³, EK = mc2

– m 0c2
; [m0 = Avw` fi, m = MwZkxj Ae¯vq fi] iv. `ª æwZ, v  1     c [E0 = Avw` kw³, E = MwZkw³]
E  
h hf h
 wW-eªMjxi mgxKiY,  = p =
p= =
m c
ħ ħ = ħ 
kw³, K¤úv¼, c ch ch x.P 
h
ev, x.P   2
Zi½ •`N©¨ I c = 0 f0 0 = = =

4 2  
f0 hf0 W0
fi‡eM, E h h ħ 2hc
E.t  ev, E.t  Vmax =
Kvh©v‡cÿK wbY©q  †dvU‡bi •iwLK fi‡eM, p = c =  4 2 m
msµvšÍ hc
†dvU‡bi kw³, E = hf =
 
h
G·- †i Zi½‣`N©¨,' =  + mc (1  cos ); MwZkw³, k = eV
2 e
B‡jKUª‡bi Av‡cwÿK PvR©, m = 1. 76  1011 CKg1
 eZ©gvb eqm = c~‡e©i eqm + ågYKvj  1
c2

 †Kvb e¯‧KYvi †gvUkw³ Gi wbðjkw³i n ¸Y n‡j,  cøv‡¼i aªæeK, h = 6.626  1034

1  B‡jKUª‡bi Avavb/PvR©, e = 1.6  1019
Aspect Special v=c 1 [E = nE0]
n2
 †Kvb e¯‧KYvi MwZkw³ Gi wbðjkw³i n ¸Y n‡j,
1
1 2
v = c 
n + 1  (n + 1) E0
MEx 01 1 wgUvi •`‡N©ï GKwU †¯‥j Zvi cÖ¯ eivei 0.95c †e‡M Pjgvb n‡j v2
2
1
1
 =
j¨v‡e Gi cwiwgZ •`‡N©ï gvb KZ? c2 2
Solve ch©‡e¶‡Ki mv‡c‡¶ •`N©¨ eivei MwZkxj _vKvi Kvi‡Y †Kv‡bv 3
v= c
`‡Ûi •`N©¨ msKzwPZ nq| GB NUbv‡K •`N©¨ ms‡KvPb e‡j|cÖ¯ eivei 2
Pjgvb nIqvq •`‡N©ï gv‡bi ‡Kvb cwieZ©Y n‡e bv| c
MEx 03 †e‡M Pjgvb †Kvb KYvi fi‡eM-
MEx 02 GKwU †Uªb Av‡jvi `ªæwZi KZ¸Y `ªæwZ‡Z Pj‡j Gi Pjgvb •`N©¨ wbðj 2
m0 c
•`‡N©ï A‡a©K n‡e? Solve P = 
1– 
2 1  2
1  c
L
 2
2
Solve `ªæwZ, v = L0
= m0c
MEx 04 ‣`N©¨ eivei MwZkxj GKwU wgUvi †¯‥‡ji fi Gi w¯i f‡ii 2 ¸Y| MEx 07 evqy k~b¨ ¯v‡b Av‡jvi `ªywZ c| GKwU e¯‧i Pjgvb fi e¯‧wUi wbðj
†¯‥‡ji MwZkxj Ae¯vi •`N¨© wbY©q Ki| f‡ii wØ¸Y n‡Z n‡j Gi `ªywZ KZ n‡e?
Solve `ªæwZ,
Solve V  1  12   C, V   1
1  2   3 10  2.59 10 ms
8 8 1
v
m 
2
1  0   c 
1
2
1     c  0.866 c;
 n   2 
 m  2 MEx 08 5 g f‡ii mgZzj¨ kw³ KZ?
 MwZkxj Ae¯vq •`N©¨, Solve E = mc2
v
2
 0.866 c 
2 = 0.005(3108)2 = 4. 51014 J
L  L0  1     1 1     0.5m -10
MEx 09 663010 m Zi½ •`‡N©ï †dvU‡bi kw³ wbb©q Ki- (h = 6.
c  c 
-34
6310 Js)
MEx 05 GKRb gnvk~b¨Pvix 30 eQi eq‡m 2.4  10 m/s †e‡M MwZkxj
8
hc
GKwU gnvk~b¨ hv‡b P‡o Qvqvc‡_ AbymÜv‡b †M‡jb| c„w_exi eqm wnmv‡e Solve Ek 
50 eQi ci wd‡i G‡j gnvk~b¨Pvixi eqm ZLb KZ? 
t0 6.63  1034  3  108
Solve t   = 3×10–19 J
2 6630  1010
v
1   MEx 10 †Kvb gy³ B‡jKUª‡bi MwZ kw³ wØ¸Y n‡j Gi `¨- eª¨vMwj (de
c Broglie) Zi½ •`N©¨ †h ¸YK Øviv cwiewZ©Z nq Zv nq
2 p2 h
ev, t 0  t 1   v  Solve EK = 2m; P =

c 1 1
= 50  0.6 ev, t = 30 year  P  ; EK  P 2  2
 
 gnvk~b¨Pvixi eqm = 30 + 30 = 60 eQi| 1 2 1
  =
MEx 06 GKwU gnvk~ b ¨hvb KZ `ª æZ ågb Ki‡j gnvk~ ‡ b¨ 2 w`b AwZevnwZ EK 1 2
n‡j c„w_ex‡Z 4 w`b AwZevwnZ n‡e? MEx 11 ‡Kvb avZzi Dci wbe„wË wef‡ei gvb KZ n‡j H avZz n‡Z 2 
108m/s †e‡Mi B‡jKUªb wbM©Z n‡e?
1– c= 1–  c
t0 2 2 2
Solve v = t 4 Solve wbe„wË wefe,
m 2 9.1  1031  (2  108 ) 2
1 –   c
2
1
=   
2 2e 2  1.6  1019
3 ev, V = 11. 39 volt = 11. 40 volt
= c = 2.6  108 ms–1
2
cigvYyi g‡Wj I wbDwK¬qvi c`v_©weÁvb

 cigvYyi e¨vm: 10–10 m. cÖvq †Kvb †ZRw¯…q †g․‡ji cigvYy msL¨v †h mg‡q A‡a©‡K cwiYZ
 cigvYyi wbDwK¬qv‡mi e¨vm: 10 –15
m nq †mB mgq‡K H †ZRw¯…q †g․‡ji Aa©vqy e‡j|
Aa©vqy
 B‡j±ªb, †cÖvUb, wbDUªb wb‡q we¯ÍvwiZ.....
BD‡iwbqv‡gi Aa©vqy : 450 †KvwU eQi| †iW‡bi Aa©vqy :
3.82 w`b
•ewkó¨ B‡jKUªb †cÖvUb wbDUªb
 Avjdv, weUv, Mvgv I X-ray ag© I iwk¥i Zzjbv:
enbKvix Avavb FbvZ¡K abvZ¡K wbi‡c¶
Avwe®‥vi †R. †R. _gmb iv`vi †dvW© P¨vWDBK ag© -iwk¥ -iwk¥ -iwk¥ X-ray iwk¥
I mvj (1897) (1919) (1932) abvZ¥K Avavbhy³ D”P `ªæwZ‡Z
Zwor †P․¤^K Zwor †P․¤^K
fi 9.110 Kg.-31 -27
1.67210 Kg. 1.67510-27 Kg. ‣ewkó¨ wnwjqvg wbDwK¬qvm Pjgvb
Zi½ Zi½
PvR© 1.610-19C 1.610-19C 0C (Kzj¤^)
4
2He
2+ B‡jKUªb
 †ZRw¯…qZv: fi 6.69410-27kg 9.110-31kg finxb finxb
wbDwK¬qvm n‡Z ¯^Ztù~Z©fv‡e †ZRw¯…q KYvi wbM©gb‡K Avav‡bi Avavb †bB Avavb †bB
3.210-27C 1.610–19C
†ZRw¯…qZv e‡j| cwigvY 0C 0C
(i) †h mKj c`v‡_©i cvigvbweK msL¨v 82 Gi †ekx †mme 1.4 – 2.3  10 7 1.101–2.296
†eM 3108ms-1 3108ms-1
msÁv c`v_© †ZRw¯…q| ms-1 108ms-1
(ii) †ZRw¯…q †g․‡ji cvigvbweK fi 206 Gi †ekx|  KwZcq msÁv:
(iii) BDwiwbqvg, †_vwiqvg, †cv‡jvwbqvg, †iwWqvg cÖf„wZ wbDwK¬q wdkb: wbDUªb Øviv AvNvZ K‡i hw` †Kvb fvix cigvYyi wbDwK¬qvm‡K
†ZRw¯…q c`v_©| cÖvq mgfi wewkó `ywU As‡k wef³ Kiv hvq Ges cÖPÛ cvigvbweK kw³i
(i) †ZRw¯…qZv GKwU ¯^vfvweK ¯^Ztù~Z© NUbv| D™¢e nq Zvn‡j wbDwK¬qv‡mi G wefvRb‡K wbDwK¬q wdkb ejv nq| cÖwZwU
•ewkó¨
(ii) †ZRw¯…q c`v_© †_‡K ,  I  iwk¥ wbM©Z nq| wdk‡b cÖvq 200 Mev kw³ Drcbœ nq| cvigvbweK †evgvq wdkb N‡U|
wbDwK¬q wdDkb: GKvwaK nvjKv cigvYyi wbDwK¬qv‡mi mshyw³i d‡j cÖPzi cwigvb  Radio C Øviv eqm wbY©q cyi‡bv KvV ev nvo ev dwm‡j Dcw¯Z 6C14 I
wbDwK¬q kw³ Drcbœ nq| wbDwK¬qv‡mi G ms‡hvM‡K wbDwK¬q wdDkb e‡j| wdDk‡b 6C
12
Gi AbycvZ wbY©q K‡i Rxe I Dw™¢‡ì g„Zzï ci KZ mgq
Drcbœ Zvc 108 C| m~‡h©i Af¨šÍ‡i wdDkb N‡U| nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †evgvq wdDkb N‡U| AwZevwnZ n‡q‡Q Zv wbY©q Kiv|
m~‡h©i Af¨šÍ‡i 35% nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Av‡Q, 1 a.m.u = 931 Mev|
 K‡qKwU †ZRw¯…q c`v‡_©i Aav©qy:
†iwWI AvB‡mv‡Uvc: †h mKj AvB‡mv‡Uv‡c ¯^í mg‡qi Rb¨ K…wÎg  †_vwiqvg (Th)  24 w`b  †iwWqvg ( Ra )  1622 eQi
†ZRw¯…qZv †`Lv hvq|
 †iWb  3.8 w`b|  BD‡iwbqvg (U) 450 ‡KvwU eQi
 ¸iæZ¡c~Y© Z_¨:
 GKK: 1. Kzix (cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 3.71010 cigvYy we‡qvwRZ n‡j 1 Kzix e‡j;
 nvB†Wªv‡Rb wbDwK¬qv‡m wbDUªb bvB|
2. †e‡K‡ij (cÖwZ ‡m‡K‡Û GKwU ‡ZRw¯…q fv½b‡K GK †e‡K‡ij e‡j)
 †ev‡ii K¶ c‡_i e¨vmva© ev nvBWª‡Rb cigvYyi e¨vmva© 0.5340
A_©vr 1BQ = 1 decays–1 †e‡K‡ij †ZRw¯…qZvi S.I. GKK|
ev 0.529  10-10 m
 †f`b ¶gZv:        KYv B‡jKUªb A‡c¶v cÖvq 7000 ¸Y fvix|
 Avqbvqb ¶gZv:       gvbe‡`‡n K¨vÝvi AvµvšÍ Ô†mj‡KÕ aŸsm Ki‡Z Mvgviwk¥ eëüZ nq|
 evsjv‡`‡k cvigvYweK we`y¨r Pzjøx‡Z Drcbœ cvigvYweK eR©¨¸‡jv ivwkqvi cvVv‡bv n‡e|
 cÖwZ wdk‡b M‡o 2.5 msL¨K wbDUªb m„wó nq|
 m~h© †_‡K c„w_ex‡Z Av‡jv Avm‡Z KZ mgq jv‡M 8 wgwbU 20 †m‡KÛ|
 cÖwZ wdk‡b M‡o cÖvq 200 MeV kw³ Drcbœ nq|
 m~‡h©i wfZ‡i †h cÖwµqvq kw³ •Zwi nq †mwU n‡”Q- wdDkb wewµqv|
 wdDkb 108C ZvcgvÎvq msNwUZ nq| G wewµqv‡K Zvc wbDwK¬q wewµqv e‡j|
 bÿ‡Îi wbDK¬qvi wdDkb wewµqv N‡U|
 D`hvb †evgv (Hydrogen Bomb): wdDkb bxwZi Dci wfwË K‡i •Zix n‡q‡Q|
 cigvYy: cigvYy wZbwU †g․wjK KwYKv B‡jKUªb, †cÖvUb I wbDUªb Øviv MwVZ|
 cvigvYweK †evgv: wdkb c×wZi Dci wfwË K‡i •Zix n‡q‡Q|
 cigvYyi e¨vm: 10-10 m cÖvq
 1 BD‡iwbqvg †_‡K wdkb cÖwµqvq 8.2 1010J kw³ Drcbœ nq|
 cigvYyi wbDwK¬qv‡mi e¨vm: 10-15 m.
 1 a.m u = 1.6605710–27kg = 934 MeV.
 wbDwK¬qvm †cÖvUb I wbDUª‡bi mgš^‡q MwVZ
 1 Kzwi = 3.7  1010 †e‡K‡ij = 3.7  1010 decay/s
 wbDwK¬q ej: †cÖvUb I wbDUªb¸‡jv GK cÖKvi AvKl©b e‡j ci®ú‡ii mv‡_ `„p
 Kzwi: †Kvb e¯‧i cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 3.71010 msL¨K cigvYyi fv½b‡K GK Kzix e‡j|
fv‡e Ave× _v‡K| GB ej‡K wbDwK¬q ej e‡j|
 wdDk‡b nvB‡Wªv‡Rb AvB‡mv‡Uvc- wWD‡Uib, wUªwUqvg ev UªvBUvb eënvi Kiv nq|
 nvB†Wªv‡Rb wbDwK¬qv‡m wbDUªb bvB|
 wdDk‡b wegy³ kw³: 17.6 MeV
 †ev‡ii K¶ c‡_i e¨vmva© ev nvBWª‡Rb cigvYyi e¨vmva© 0.5340 ev 0.529  10-10 m
 m~‡h©i Af¨šÍ‡i wdDkvb N‡U|
 †f`b ¶gZv:     
 nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †evgvq wdDkvb N‡U|
 Avqbvqb ¶gZv:     
 ,  I  iwk¥i Avqbvqb ¶gZvi AbycvZ 1000:100:1
0.693 ln2  cÖwZ wdk‡b M‡o 2.5 msL¨K wbDUªb m„wó nq|
 T= Ges T = 0.693 Ges T =
   cÖwZ wdk‡b M‡o cÖvq 200 Mev kw³ Drcbœ nq|
 Mo Avqy: ‡ZRw¯…q cigvYyi Avqyi †gvU †hvMdj‡K, cigvYyi cÖviw¤¢K msL¨v  wdDkb 108C ZvcgvÎvq msNwUZ nq| G wewµqv‡K Zvc wbDwK¬q wewµqv e‡j|
w`‡q fvM Ki‡j †h Avqy cvIqv hvq|  D`hvb †evgv (Hydrogen Bomb): wdDkb bxwZi Dci wfwË K‡i •Zix n‡q‡Q|
 AvB‡mv‡Uvc Gi †k‡l c  cvigvYweK †evgv: wdkb c×wZi Dci wfwË K‡i •Zix n‡q‡Q|
 myZivs †cÖvUb msL¨v mgvb n‡j †mUv AvB‡mv‡Uvc|  1 BD‡iwbqvg †_‡K wdkb cÖwµqvq 8.2 1010J kw³ Drcbœ nq|
 AvB‡mvevi Gi †k‡l evi (fi)
 1 a.m u = 1.6605710–27kg = 934 MeV.
 fi msL¨v mgvb n‡j †mUv AvB‡mvevi|  wdDk‡b nvB‡Wªv‡Rb AvB‡mv‡Uvc- wWD‡Uib, wUªwUqvg ev UªvBUvb eënvi Kiv nq|
 AvB‡mv‡Uvb †k‡l ÔbÕ  wdDk‡b wegy³ kw³: 17.6 MeV
 wbDUªb msL¨v mgvb n‡j †mUv AvB‡mv‡Uvb|  nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †evgvq wdDkvb N‡U|
 Kve©b- 14
6 C Gi Ae¶q eënvi K‡i •Re c`v‡_©i eqm wbY©q Kiv nq|  m~‡h©i Af¨všÍ‡i 35% nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Av‡Q|
 †ZRw¯…q AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci eënvi:  wUªwUqvg cigvYyi wbDwK¬qvm‡K UªvBUvb e‡j|
 wPwKrmv: a. Radio P  wjD‡Kwgqv, gw¯Í‡¯‥i K¨vÝvi aŸs‡m|  ,  I  iwk¥i Avqbvqb ¶gZvi AbycvZ 1000:100:1
b. Radio I  (35I131) MjMÛ †iv‡M| c. Radio Co  K¨vÝvi  Kve©b- 14
6 C Gi Ae¶q eënvi K‡i •Re c`v‡_©i eqm wbY©q Kiv nq|
wPwKrmvq d. Radio Na  wKWbx †ivM wbY©q I wbivgq| e. Radio  †iwWqv‡gi †ZRw¯…qZv BD‡iwbqv‡gi †P‡q `k jÿ ¸Y †ewk|
R.Sr  †ivM wbY©q I wbivgq|  -KYv Øviv Al †K AvNvZ Ki‡j †ZRw¯…q P •Zwi nq|
1
Aa©vqy, Mo Avqy Ges ¶q aªye‡Ki m¤úK©- N = N0et , n = n0et , m = m0et , t =  ln N 
N
 0
0.693 ln2 0.693 1 T1/2 T1/2
 T1  ev,  = T = T  = = :T1/2 = 1:0693
=
2 λ 1/2 1/2  ln2 0.693
†ZRwµqZvi ¶q
m~Î, Aa©vqy I Mo  n Zg Aa©vqy c‡i Aewkó cigvYy, N  Nn0
dN
 †ZRw¯…q c`v_© fv½‡bi nvi, – N = dt
Avqy msµvšÍ 2
1
 †ZRw¯…q c`v‡_©i Ask Aewkó _vK‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq mgq, t = T1/2 log2n
n
1
 Aewkó Ask = Avw` As‡ki n‡j t = n  T1/2
2n
–13.6 1
 n Zg kw³ ¯Í‡i B‡jKUª‡bi En = 2 eV [E1 =  13.6 eV] E–
n n2
K¶ c‡_i e¨vmva©  n Zg K¶ c‡_i e¨vmva© rn = r1  n2 [r1 = 0.532  10–10 m] r  n2
I kw³ msµvšÍ v1 1
 n Zg K¶ c‡_ B‡jKUª‡bi †eM, v n  [v1= 21.839105 ms–1] v
n n
 fiµwU m = (zmp + xmn  m) [GLv‡b, z = †cÖvUb msL¨v; x = wbDUªb msL¨v = a  z ; mp= †cÖvUb Gi fi; mn = wbDUªb Gi fi; a =
fimsL¨v; m = cvigvYweK fi/wbDwK¬qvi fi]
fiµwU I
 eÜb kw³ E=mc2=m×931
eÜbkw³ msµvšÍ
†gvU eÜb kw³
 Mo eÜb kw³ =
†gvU wbDwK¬qb msL¨v
22
MEx 01 GK UzKiv †ZRw¯…q c`v‡_©i Avw`‡Z 8.010 cigvby Av‡Q| Aa©vqy 2 MEx 05 nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvbyi wØZxq K¶c‡_i e¨vmva© Ges MwZ‡eM KZ?
w`b n‡j 16 w`b ci cigvYyi msL¨v n‡e- Solve K¶ c‡_i e¨vmva© rn = r1  n2 = 0.53  10–10  22
†gvU mgq v1 21.839  105
16
Solve †gvU Aa©vqyi msL¨v n = GKwU Aa©vqyi mgq = 2 = 8 wU; = 2.12  10–10 m. Ges †eM vn = = = 10.919  105 ms-1
n 2
4
N 8  1022 MEx 06 GKwU wnwjqvg (2He) wbDwK¬qv‡mi eÜb kw³ 27.128 MeV| Mo eÜb kw³-
Aewkó cigvYy, N = 2no = = 3.1  1020 hv 2.5  1020 Gi KvQvKvwQ|
28 †gvU eÜb kw³ 27.128
Solve Mo eÜb kw³ = = = 6.782 MeV
MEx 02 GKwU †ZRw®…q c`v‡_©i Aa©vqy 10 w`b| 30 w`b c‡i 1 kg cwigvY †gvU wbDwK¬qb msL¨v 4
D³ c`v_©i KZUzKz Aewkó _vK‡e? 4
MEx 07 GKwU wnwjqvg (2He) wbDwK¬qv‡mi (i) fi µwU, (ii) eÜb kw³ Ges
W 1
Solve Aewkó = eo gvb = 30 (iii) KYv cÖwZ eÜb KYv cÖwZ eÜb kw³ †ei Ki|
2 †QvU gvb 2 10 [GKwU †cÖvU‡bi fi = 1.00728 a.m.u GKwU wbDUª‡bi fi = 1.00876
1 a.m.u Ges 1 a.m.u = 931 MeV]
= kg = 0.125 kg
8 Solve Avgiv Rvwb, GKwU wnwjqvg wbDwK¬qv‡m 2wU †cÖvUb I 2wU wbDUªb
MEx 03 †Kvb c`v‡_©i Aa©vqy 5 w`b| H c`v‡_©i †Kvb e¯‧L‡Ûi 15 w`b c‡i i‡q‡Q| GLb 2wU †cÖvU‡bi fi = 2 × 1.00728 = 2.014556 a.m.u
KZ Ask ¶q cÖvß n‡e| 2wU wbDUª‡bi fi = 2×1.00867=2.01734 a.m.u
15  G‡ì †gvU fi = 2.014556+2.01734=4.03190 a.m.u
Solve n   3 w`b, N0= 100
5 wKš‧ GKwU wnwjqvg wbDwK¬qv‡mi cÖK…Z fi = 4.00276 a.m.u
Aewkó: N 
N0 m 100
 3   12.5% (i) fi µwU m = 4.03190 – 4.00276
n
2 2 8 = 0.02914 a.m.u
¶q = (100 – 12.5%) = 87.5% (ii) myZivs eÜb kw³ = m × 931 = 27.129 MeV
MEx 04 nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvbyi 1g †evi K‡¶ B‡jKUª‡bi †gvU kw³ –13.6 ev. (iii) wnwjqvg wbDwK¬qv‡m KYvi msL¨v A = 4
n‡j, 3q †evi K‡¶ †gvU kw³ n‡e- eÜb kw³
myZivs cÖwZ KYvi eÜb kw³ = A
E1 13 .6
Solve E3   = –1.5 eV 27.127
3 2
32 = = 6.782MeV
4
†mwgKÛv±i I B‡jKUªwb·
 AšÍiK c`v_©: †h mg¯Í c`v‡_©i wfZi w`‡q Zwor mn‡R PjvPj K‡i bv  †Rbvi wefe/ †fv‡ëR/ webvmx †fv‡ëR (Breakdown Voltage): wegyLx ‡Suv‡K
†m¸‡jv‡K AšÍiK e‡j| †fv‡ëR cv_©K¨ evov‡bv n‡jI Zwor cÖev‡ni cwieZ©b LyeB Kg ev w¯i _v‡K| G
 Av‡cw¶K †iva 10 m µ‡gi
12
Ae¯vq ‡fv‡ëR AviI evov‡bv n‡j nVvr K‡i wecyj Zwor cÖevn cvIqv hvq| †h
 †hvRb e¨vÛ m¤ú~Y© c~Y© †fv‡ë‡Ri Rb¨ Giƒc N‡U Zv‡K †Rbvi wefe ev †fv‡ëR e‡j|
 cwienb e¨vÛ I †hvRb e¨v‡Ûi gv‡S cv_©K¨ 6eV †_‡K 15eV  †m‡jwbqvg †mwgKÛv±i bq|
D`vniY: wmivwgK, KuvP, KvV, ivevi BZ¨vw`|  †m․i‡Kvl GKwU- B‡jKUªwbK hš¿|
 cwievnx c`v_©: †h mg¯Í c`v‡_©i wfZi w`‡q Zwor mn‡R PjvPj Ki‡Z cv‡i  ZvcgvÎv e„w× Ki‡j Aa©cwievnxi Zwor cwievwnZv e„w× cvq|
†m¸‡jv‡K cwievnx e‡j|  Rv‡g©wbqv‡gi kw³ eëavb 0.7eV; wmwjK‡bi †ÿ‡Î 1.1eV|
(i) Av‡cw¶K †iva 108 m µ‡gi, D`vniY: Zvgv, iƒcv, A¨vjywgwbqvg| wbwl× e¨vÛ 0eV  cigk~b¨ ZvcgvÎvq Giv AšÍiK|
 †h mg¯Í c`v‡_©i Zwor cwievnxZv cwievnx I AšÍi‡Ki gvSvgvwS, †m¸‡jv‡K
 jwRK †MU (Logic Gate): jwRK †MU n‡”Q Ggb GKwU B‡jKUªwbK eZ©bx
Aa©cwievnx c`v_© e‡j| †hgb- Rv‡g©wbqvg, wmwjKb, M¨vwjqvg Av‡m©bvBW,
hvi GK ev GKvwaK BbcyU I GKwU gvÎ AvDUcyU _v‡K|
BwÛqvg, K¨vWwgqvg mvjdvBW BZ¨vw`|
jwRK †MU‡K g~jZ `ywU fvv‡M fvM Kiv hvq| h_v: 01. †g․wjK †MU 02. ‡h․wMK †MU|
 Aa©cwievnx: †Kej Av‡cw¶K‡iva Øviv Aa©cwievnx‡K wPwýZ Kiv hvq bv|
4 5  ‡g․wjK †MU: G ‡MBU¸‡jv GKKfv‡e MvwYwZK Acv‡ikb m¤úv`b Ki‡Z
 Av‡cw¶K‡iva 10 m/10 10 m µ‡gi|
8
cv‡i| wZb cÖKvi †g․wjK ‡MU:
 Aa© cwievnxi †hvRb e¨vÛ c~Y© _v‡K| Aa© cwievnx‡Z cwienb e¨vÛ Lvwj
i. Ai †MU (OR Gate) †h․w³K †hv‡Mi Rb¨| ii. A¨vÛ †MU (AND Gate)
_v‡K| `yB e¨v‡Ûi gv‡S kw³ cv_©K¨ 1.1eV/1eV
 Rv‡g©wbqv‡gi kw³ eëavb 0.7eV; wmwjK‡bi †ÿ‡Î 1.1eV|
†h․w³K ¸‡bi Rb¨| iii. bU †MU (NOT Gate) †h․w³K c~i‡Ki Rb¨|
 cigk~b¨ ZvcgvÎvq Giv AšÍiK|
 ‡h․wMK †MU: G †MU¸‡jv GK ev GKvwaK †M‡Ui mgš^‡q •Zix nq| wZbwU
 G‡Z †Kvb Ac`ªe¨ wgkv‡j Gi Zwor cwievnKZ¡ e„w× cvq| ‡g․wjK †M‡Ui mgš^‡q PviwU †h․wMK †MU eënvi Kiv nq| G¸‡jv n‡jv-
 Ac`ªe¨ wgkv‡bvi cÖwµqv‡K †Wvwcs e‡j|  b¨vÛ †MU (NAND Gate). AND I NOT †M‡Ui m¤^‡q •Zix
mve©Rbxb †MU
 ZvcgvÎv e„w×i mv‡_ Gi Zwor cwievnKZ¡ e„w× cvq|  bi †MU (NOR Gate). OR †M‡Ui I NOT ‡M‡Ui m¤^‡q •Zix
D`vniY: wmwjKb, Rv‡g©wbqvg|  G·-bi †MU (X-NOR Gate)
we‡kl †MU
 Aa©cwievnxi cÖKvi‡f`: `yB cÖKvi|  G·-Ai †MU (X-OR Gate)
 weï× ev AšÍR©vZ (Intrinsic): ch©vq mviYxi 4_© mvwii cigvYy †Kjvm  jwRK †M‡Ui wW-giM¨v‡bi ZË¡: divwm weÁvbx wW giMvb (De Morgan) `ywU
†hgb: C, Si, Ge, Pb, Sn, K¨vWwgqvg mvjdvBW BZ¨vw`| we‡kl MvwYwZK Dccv`¨ Avwe®‥vi K‡ib| †m¸wj Zuvi bvg Abymv‡i wW giM¨vb
 `~wlZ ev ewnR©vZ (Extrinsic): h_v- (K) p-UvBc Aa©cwievnK; Dccv`¨ bv‡g cwiwPZ|
(L) n-UvBc Aa©cwievnK  Dccv`¨-1: A I B BbcyU wmMbv‡ji Rb¨ GKwU NOR †M‡Ui AvDUcyU wmMbvj,
 p-UvBc Aa©cwievnK: †Kvb weï× Aa©cwievn‡K mvgvb¨ cwigvY wÎ‡hvRx
A I B BbcyU wmMbv‡ji Rb¨ GKwU AND †M‡Ui AvDUcyU wmMbv‡ji mgvb nq|
Ac`ªe¨ wn‡m‡e †g‡kv‡bv n‡j Zv‡K p-UvBc Aa©cwievnK e‡j|
 n-UvBc Aa©cwievnK: †Kvb weï× Aa©cwievn‡K mvgvb¨ cwigvY cÂ‡hvRx
A_©vr A  B = A . B
Ac`ªe¨ wn‡m‡e †gkv‡bv n‡j, Zv‡K n-UvBc Aa©cwievnK e‡j|  Dccv`¨-2: A I B BbcyU wmMbv‡ji Rb¨ GKwU NAND †M‡Ui AvDUcyU wmMbvj,
 G·wUªbwmK/Aweï× Aa©cwievnx: 2 cÖKvi| A I B BbcyU wmMbv‡ji Rb¨ GKwU OR †M‡Ui AvDUcyU wmMbv‡ji mgvb|
(B, Al, Ga, In): A_©vr A.B = A + B
 weï× Ge ev Si (4 †hvRx) Gi mv‡_ M¨vwjqvg ev  NOT ‡M‡Ui †ÿ‡Î BbcyU nvB n‡j AvDUcyU †jv nq|
(3 †hvRx) Ac`ªe¨ †gkv‡bv nq| Kve©b n‡jv AšÍiK c`v_©|

p-UvBc
 Al †K MÖwnZv cigvYy ejv nq|
Aa©cwievnx AND ‡M‡Ui mKj BbcyU 1 n‡jB AvDUcyU †KejgvÎ 1 nq|
 p-type G abvZ¥K Zwor AvavbB gyL¨ f~wgKv cvjb K‡i|
 evBbvwi c×wZ‡Z Pvi wWwR‡Ui m‡ev©”P 15 wU bv¤^vi †Ìqv hv‡e|
 †nvjB ÔmsL¨v¸iæ evnKÕ (Majority carrier) Ges 4
 Aa©cweevnxi Av‡cwÿK †iva 10 -m µ‡gi|
B‡jKUªb msL¨vjNy evnK (Minority carrier)|
 ivevi, Rv‡g©wbqvg, wmwjKb, Zvgv Gi g‡a¨ ivev‡ii Av‡cwÿK †iva ‡ewk|
(P, As, Sb, Bi):
 cwievnx,Aa©cwievnx, AšÍiK &i g‡a¨ Aa©cwievnxi Av‡cwÿK †iva gvSvgvwS|
Ge/Si (As) (†hvRbx 4) Gi mv‡_ cÂ‡hvRx (As) Gi gZ
 UªvbwR÷i Avwe®‥v‡ii Rb¨ 1956 mv‡ji b‡f¤^‡i eªvB‡Ub †bv‡ej cyi®‥vi cvb|
Ac`ªe¨ †gkv‡bv nq|
n-UvBc  OR ‡M‡UÑ
 Ge/Si GLv‡b MÖnxZv cigvYy, Ac`ªe¨ `vZv (Donor) cigvYy|
Aa©cwievnx  DM74LS32N n‡jv mgwš^Z eZ©bx| GQvovI H|D74LSO8P, HD7402P,
 n-type G FYvZ¥K B‡j±ªbB gyL¨ f~wgKv cvjb K‡i|
HD742SOOP n‡jv wewfbœ gv‡bi mgwš^Z eZ©bx|
 B‡jKUªbB ÔmsL¨v¸iæ evnKÕ (Majority carrier) Ges
 UªvbwR÷i evqvwms G †em GwgUvi m¤§yL †SvuK Ges Kv‡j±i GwgUvi wecix‡Z
†nvj msL¨vjNy evnK (Minority carrier)|
†Svu‡K ms‡hvM †Ìqv nq|
 IE = IB + IC
IC 
cÖevn jvf ,  = IC = 
I
 [Kgb †em ms‡hvM, Kv‡j±i- †em wefe cv_K©¨ VCB aªæeK]
BwgUi, †em E  IEVCE
I Kv‡j±i IC  IC 
 cÖevn weea©K,  = = [Kgb A¨vwgUv‡ii ms‡hvM, Kv‡j±i- A¨vwgUvi wefe cv_K©¨ VCE aªæeK]
Kv‡i‡›Ui IB  IBVCb
g‡a¨ m¤úK©  MZxq †iva, R =
V
msµvšÍ I
ewnMv©gx ÿgZv
 PA =
AšÍMv©gx ÿgZv = cÖevn jvf  †fv‡ëR jvf
β
cÖevn weea©b ¸bK, α = 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99
Aspect 1+β
SPECIAL α
cÖevn jvf, β = 1 – α 19 24 32 49 99
–4
MEx 01 GKwU Kgb †em UªvbwR÷i web¨v‡m GwgUvi Kv‡i›U 1.2 mA Ges Kv‡j±i Kv‡i›U 9  10 A n‡j †em Kv‡i‡›Ui gvb n‡e-
Solve IE = IB + IC
ev, IB = IE – IC
ev, IB = (12  10-4) – (9  10-4)
= 3  10-4 A
= 0.3  10-3 A
MEx 02 †Kvb p – n Rvsk‡bi 1.12V wefe cv_©K¨ cÖ‡qvM K‡i we`y¨r cÖevn cvIqv †Mj 25mA Ges wefe cv_©K¨ 1.3V cÖ‡qvM K‡i we`y¨r cÖevn 45mA cvIqv
†Mj| Rvsk‡bi MZxq †iva †ei Ki|
Solve Rvsk‡bi MZxq †iva,
V 1.3 – 1.12
R= =
I 45  10–3 – 25  10–3
= 9
MEx 03 †Kvb p–n Rvsk‡bi †iva 40| 0.2V wefe cv_©K¨ cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ we`y¨r cÖev‡ni cwieZ©b KZ n‡e?
V 0.2
Solve I = = = 5mA
R 40
K…wl (¸”Q) wek¦we`¨vjq fwZ© cixÿv_©x‡ì c~Y©v½ cÖ¯‧wZi Rb¨ M„nwkÿ‡Ki weKí GKgvÎ mnvwqKv...
¸”Q †bUIqvK© 4.0 kU© mv‡Rkb imvqb cÖ_g cÎ
¸YMZ imvqb
 NH4+ Avq‡bi Dcw¯wZ wbY©‡q eëüZ nq- K2[HgI4], NaOH/KOH|  MRI cixÿvq- †iwWI I‡qf iwk¥ eëüZ nq|
 ,  Ges  KYv¸‡jvi PvR©, h_vµ‡g- +2, 1 and 0|  wiWevM© aªæe‡Ki gvb-10.97  106 m–1
 Dc¯Íi m¤¢e bq- 2d, 1p, 3f|  Rvj UvKv kbv³Ki‡Y UV-ray iwk¥i eënvi AZ¨šÍ wbfz©j I mgq Dc‡hvMx|
 MRI h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ gvbe‡`‡ni †ivM wbY©‡q f~wgKv i‡q‡Q- Hydrogen|  1s22s22p63s23p4 B‡jKUªb web¨vmwU- mvjdvi
 bvB‡UªU A¨vbvq‡b B‡jKUªb i‡q‡Q- 32wU|  5 1
42Mo Gi mwVK B‡jKUªb web¨vm-[Kr]4d 5s
 Acwi‡kvwaZ †c‡Uªvwjqvg we‡kva‡b †h cÖwµqv AwaK Kvh©Ki- Fractional  nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi AvB‡mv‡Uvc bq-
4
H
1
distillation| 64 64 64
 Ni , Cu , Zn nj ci¯úi- AvB‡mvevi
 234
90
Th †_‡K 234
91
Pa •Zwi nq- -emission cÖwµqvq| 28 29 30
 cigvYy‡Z B‡jKUª‡bi Ae¯vb eY©bv Kiv hvq †KvbwU Øviv-‡Kvqv›Uvg msL¨v|

 Zi½‣`N©¨ me‡P‡q eo- Microwave Av‡jvK iwk¥i|
 3d AiweUv‡ji Rb¨ m Gi gvb †Kvb †mUwU- 2,  1, 0
 ev¯Íe M¨vm Av`k© mgxKiY AbymiY K‡i- High temperature and low
 AiweUv‡j B‡jKUª‡bi NbZ¡ me©vwaK-1s
pressure|
 AiweUvj cÖKvk K‡i-2
 Zi½‣`N©¨ me‡P‡q Kg-  ray|
 d Dc-kw³¯Í‡i me©vwaK B‡jKUªb _vK‡Z cv‡i- 10wU
 146C I 168O ci¯ú‡ii- Isotone|
 Fe++z=26 Ges Crz=24 Gi B‡jKUªb msL¨v- 24 I 24
 nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi cvigvYweK eY©vjxi `„k¨gvb AÂ‡ji iwk¥ †`Lv hvq- evgvi
 ls 2s22p63s23p63d64s2 B‡jKUªb web¨vmwU- Fe
2
wmwi‡R|
 [Ar]3d74s2 B‡jKUªb web¨vm wewkó †g․‡ji Ae¯vb nj- VIII
 31 P
15 4
Gi 15 wU AYy i g‡a¨ wbDUª b Av‡Q- 960 wU|
 d eøK †g․jmg~‡ni †KvbwU‡Z 4s AiweUv‡j 1wU B‡jKUªb i‡q‡Q- Cu(29)
 42He †_‡K Kx miv‡j Avjdv KYv •Zix nq- B‡j±ªb|
 cwji eR©b bxwZ Abymv‡i s I p Dckw³¯Í‡i me©vwaK B‡jKUªb msL¨v- 2, 6
 `„k¨gvb Av‡jvi Zi½ •`‡N©ï e¨vwß- 380 nm - 780 nm|  RxevYybvkK Kv‡R 240 nm - 280 nm Zi½ •`N©ï Av‡jv eënvi Kiv nq|
 wmjfv‡ii cvigvYweK msL¨v - 47|  B‡jKUªb n = 3 †_‡K n = 2, av‡c ¯vbvšÍi n‡j nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy †_‡K
 K‡¤úvwRU KwYKvi msL¨v- 2wU| wbM©Z eY©vjx wmwiRwU n‡eÑ evgvi wmwiR
 fvix cvwb ejv nq- D2O|  AX3 Gi `ªve¨Zv ¸bdj 1.710-12 n‡j, GwUi `ªve¨Zv-5.010-4 mol/L
 nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi AvB‡mv‡Uvc msL¨v- 3wU (†cÖvwUqvg, wWD‡Uwiqvg, wUªwUqvg)|  A¨v‡gvwbqvg A·v‡jU `ªe‡Yi mv‡_ mv`v Aat‡ÿc m„wó K‡i- Ca2+
 Cr cigvYy‡Z AhyM¥ B‡jKUªb _v‡K- 6|  Fe2+ je‡Y K3[Fe(CN)6] †hvM Ki‡j Aat‡ÿc Drcbœ nq- Mvp bxj
nh  hLb GKwU cigvYyi wbDwK¬qvm †_‡K GKwU weUv KYv wbM©Z nq ZLb-
 †ev‡ii ¯^xKvh© Abyhvqx Aby‡gvw`Z B‡jKUª‡bi †K․wYK fi‡eM- mvr = |
2
cvigvYweK msL¨v GK †e‡o hvq
 M¨vm †µv‡gv‡UvMÖvwd‡Z evnK M¨vm wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq- O2|
 †KvbwU Zxeª A¨vbvqb m„wó Ki‡Z cv‡i- Mvgv iwk¥
 Fe2+ je‡Y K3[Fe(CN)6] †hvM Ki‡j- Mvp bxj e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc Drcbœ nq|
 GUg †evgv •Zix nq wK‡mi wfwË‡Z- wbDwK¬q wdkvb wewµqv
 LyeB A¯vqx †Kvb g~j KwYKv- cwRUªb|
4
 NMR Gi c~Y©iƒc- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance|  †KvbwU †_‡K B‡jKUªb miv‡j Avjdv KYv •Zix nq- 2 He
 `„k¨gvb Av‡jvi m‡e©v”P Zi½‣`‡N©ï iwk¥- jvj|  Aw·‡R‡bi Ab¨Zg AvB‡mv‡Uvc 17O G wbDUªb msL¨v KqwU- 9|
 e¨v_v Dckg I ¯œvqyZ‡š¿i cybM©V‡bi †ÿ‡Î eëüZ iwk¥- Far-IR|  mvjdvBW  32
16 
S 2 Avq‡b B‡jKUªb msL¨v- 18|
 cigvYy mvgwMÖKfv‡e- wbi‡cÿ Avavb hy³|  †Kvb cigvYyi 3q kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb _vK‡Z cv‡i-18wU
 wkLv cixÿvq D¾¡j njy` e‡Y©i wkLv Drcbœ K‡i- Na+|  2p AiweUv‡ji n, l Ges m Gi gvb h_vµ‡g-2, 1, (–1, 0, 1)
 †ZRw®…q AvB‡mv‡Uvc- C-14|  cigvYyi 4_© kw³¯Í‡i Aby‡gvw`Z B‡jKUª‡bi †gvU AiweUvj msL¨v-16|
†gŠ‡ji ch©vqe„Ë ag© I ivmvqwbK eÜb

 Al2Cl6 AYywU‡Z mg‡hvRx I mwbœ‡ek mg‡hvRx eÜ‡bi msL¨v h_vµ‡g- 6, 2|  NH4Cl AYyi eÜb cÖK…wZ- AvqwbK eÜb, mg‡hvRx eÜb I mwbœ‡ek eÜb|
 M¨vmxq Ae¯vq GK †gvj cigvYy‡Z GK †gvj B‡jKUªb †hvM Ki‡j †h kw³i  gwiPvi ivmvqwbK ms‡KZ- Fe2O3.2H2O|
cwieZ©b nq- 1g B‡jKUª‡bi Avmw³|  cuvPwU we‡Rvo d-B‡jKUªb i‡q‡Q- Mn †g․‡j|
 R¡vjvwb bq- O2|  wbi‡cÿ A·vBW- H2O, CO, N2O, NO|
 [CO(NH3)4 (H2O)2]Cl3 RwUj †h․MwU‡Z Ae¯všÍi avZzwUi mwbœ‡ek msL¨v- 6|  evqyi Abycw¯wZ‡Z D”PgvÎvq (600C) KvV‡K `nb Ki‡j cvIqv hvq-
 NH4+ Avq‡bi AvK…wZ I msKiY- tetrahedral, sp3| KvVKqjv|
 CO AYyi eÜbµg- 3|  avZzmg~‡ni g‡a¨ f~-c„‡ô me‡P‡q †ewk cvIqv hvq- Aluminium|
 †Kvb †h․MwUi ùzUbv¼ me‡P‡q Kg- B_v‡ii (C2H5)2O| †Kvb avZe AvqbwU eY©nxb †h․M MVb K‡i- Sc3+
 wdUwKwii ms‡KZ- Al2(SO4)3.K2SO4.24H2O| GKwU †g․‡ji cvigvYweK msL¨v 21, ch©vq mviwY‡Z Gi Ae¯vb †Kv_vq-
 •`Z¨vKvi AYy- SO2| PZz_© ch©vq Z…Zxq MÖæc
 †Kvb †h․MwU cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq- AgF| †Kvb AvqbwU eY©nxb †h․M MVb Ki‡e- Cu+
 SF6 †h․‡Mi msKivqb- sp3d2| A¨v‡gvwbqv (NH3) Drcv`‡b †Kvb cÖfveK mnvqK eënvi Kiv nq- Mo
 cvwb †Kvb ai‡bi A·vBW- cÖkgag©x| iwOb †h․M MVb K‡i- Ni2+
 †Kvb †g․‡ji AvqwbKiY wefe me©vwaK- F| 57 †_‡K 71 cvigvYweK msL¨vavix †g․j¸wji GK‡Î bvg- j¨všvbvBWm
 S-eø‡Ki †g․‡ji msL¨v KZwU- 14wU| wemgv_ n‡jv- avZz
 me©‡kl Avwe®‥…Z †g․jmg~n n‡jv- wb‡nvwbqvg, g‡¯‥vwfqvg, †U‡bwmb, IMv‡bmvb| †eªvwgb n‡jv- Zij
 f- eøK †g․‡ji msL¨v KZwU- 27wU| Kÿ ZvcgvÎvq †KvbwU Zij- Br2
 †d‡ivg¨vM‡bwUK †g․jmg~n- Fe, Co, Ni †KvbwU me©vwaK msL¨K †h․M MVb K‡i- Xenon
 [Cu(NH3)4]2+ Gi AvK…wZ- mgZjxq eM©vKvi| †Rb‡bi GKgvÎ Aw·‡d¬vivBW- XeOF4
 wmMgv eÜb I cvB eÜb g~jZ- mg‡hvRx eÜb| me©v‡cÿv bgbxq avZz n‡”Q-cøvwUbvg
 †db‡j Kx ai‡bi H eÜb i‡q‡Q- AvšÍtAvYweK H-eÜb| ch©vq mviwYi †Kvb MÖæc‡K weij g„wËKv †g․j ejv nq- IIIB
cigvYymg~‡ni †Kvb mshyw³wU †cvjvi mg‡hvRx eÜb •Zix Ki‡e- H Ges Br e¨vmva© me‡P‡q Kg-12Mg2+
†KvbwU me‡P‡q †ewk mg‡hvRx cÖK…wZi- BeCO3 Sr, Tc, Zr Ges Rb cigvYyi e¨vmv‡a©i µg n‡jv-
†Kvb †h․MwU cvwb‡Z A`ªeYxq- CaBr2 Rb > Sr > Zr > Tc
†Kvb †h․MwU cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq- AgF avZzmg~‡ni mvaviY ag© n‡jv- bgbxqZv Ges Zwor I Zvc cwievwnZv
NH4+ Avq‡bi msKivqY- sp3 †h․M¸wji †KvbwU‡Z GKwU AvqwbK I GKwU mg‡hvRx eÜb Av‡Q- KCN
†Kvb AYywUi eÜb †KvY me‡P‡q eo- BCl3 †Kvb †h․‡M AvqwbK •ewkó¨ me‡P‡q †ekx- NaI
†Kvb †h․‡M sp msKiY we`¨gvb- CO2 †KvbwU cvwb‡Z A`ªebxq- CaCO3
†Kvb †h․MwU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb eÜbxi d‡j me‡P‡q eo AvYweK ¸”Q •Zwi †Kvb mvj‡dU jeY cvwb‡Z A`ªeYxq- BaSO4
K‡i- H2O †Kvb †h․‡Mi g‡a¨ me‡P‡q Kg †cvjvivqb N‡U- SnF2
Ti avZz- Ae¯všÍi †g․j †Kvb †h․MwU mn‡R cvwb Øviv AvµvšÍ nq bv- CCl4
†Kvb AvqbwU meyR- V3+ abvZœK Avq‡bi †cvjvivqb †ÿ‡Îi †KvbwU mwVK bq- Ba2+ > Be2+
†Kvb AvqbwU eY©nxb †h․M MVb Ki‡e- Cu + CCl4-Gi WvB‡cvj †gv‡g›U- k~b¨
A¨v‡gvwbqv (NH3) Drcv`‡b cÖfveK eënvi Kiv nq- Fe †UUªv‡nWªvj AYyi eÜbxi †K․wYK `~iZ¡- 109°28
AwaK ÿvixq- Na2CO3 †Kvb AYyi AvK…wZ wÎ‡KvYxq wØ-wcivwgWxq- PCl5
ch©vq mviwY‡Z p-eøK †g․j Av‡Q-36wU †Kvb †h․‡M me©vwaK wbtm½ B‡jKUªb hyMj we`¨gvb- H2O
†KvbwU Wvqvg¨vM‡bwUK- Zn nvB‡Wªv‡Rb eÜb nq †KvbwU‡Z- CH3CH2OH
ivmvqwbK cwieZ©b
 g¨vM‡bwmqvg dm‡d‡Ui ms‡KZ- Mg3(PO4)2|  †nevi c×wZ‡Z NH3 Drcv`‡b cÖfveK wn‡m‡e _v‡K- Fe, K2O, Al2O3
 wkí‡ÿ‡Î NH3 †_‡K HNO3 •Zixi c×wZ‡K ejv nq- AmIqvì c×wZ|  ivmvqwbK mvg¨ve¯vi kZ©mg~n mv‡gï ¯vwqZ¡, Dfqw`K †_‡K myMg¨Zv,
 †Kvb wewµqvi †eM aªæeK k Gi gvÎv hw` (time)1 nq, Z‡e wewµqvwUi µg wewµqvi Am¤ú~Y©Zv, cÖfve‡Ki f‚wgKvnxbZv|
n‡e- cÖ_g µg| GKwU `ªe‡Yi [H3O+] = 4.83  10–8 mol/dm3 n‡j `ªeYwUi pH- 7.32
 0.1M HCl Gi pH gvb- 1.0| Aw· GwmW¸‡jvi ZxeªZv n«v‡mi mwVK µg- HClO4 > HBrO4 > H2SO4 > H3PO4
 i‡³i evdvi Kx ai‡bi evdvi- DrK…ó evdvi | 0.2 mol GKwU `ye©j GK ÿvixq GwmW Ges Gi 0.02 mol †mvwWqvg jeY
14
 25C ZvcgvÎvq kW Gi gvb- 1  10 | wewkó evdvi `ªe‡Yi pH 4.0 n‡j GwmWwUi pKa n‡e- 5|
 H3PO3 Gi ÿviKZ¡ KZ- 2| †Kvb `ªe‡Yi OH Avq‡bi NbgvÎv 410-5 †gvj/wjUvi n‡j H `ªe‡Yi pH
 gvby‡li i‡³i pH 7.45 Gi †ewk n‡j Zv‡K e‡j- A¨vjKvwjwmm| Gi gvb- 9.6
 gvby‡li i‡³i pH 7.0 Gi wb‡P n‡j Zv‡K e‡j- Gwm‡Wvwmm| cvK¯jxi cvPKi‡m pH Gi gvb 1.7 n‡j, H i‡m H+ Avq‡bi †gvjvi
 †h `ªe‡Y mvgvb¨ cwigvY GwmW ev ÿvi †hvM Kivi c‡iI pH cwiewZ©Z nq bv NbgvÎv- 0.02
Zv‡K Kx e‡j- evdvi `ªeY e‡j| Aw· GwmWmg~‡ni g‡a¨ 2q m‡e©v”P kw³kvjx GwmW- H2SO4
 Aw· GwmWmg~‡ni g‡a¨ me‡P‡q kw³kvjx GwmW- HClO7| †KvbwU w`‡q ÿvixq evdvi `ªeY •Zix Kiv hvq- NH4Cl I NH4OH
 kp I kc Gi gvb mgvb n‡e hLb wewµqvwUi n Gi gvb- 0| gvZ…`y‡»i pH cwimi- 6.6- 6.9
 wewµqvi nvi aªæeK Kx‡mi Dci wbf©i K‡i bv- NbgvÎv| weï× cvwb‡Z wKQy A¤ø †hvM Ki‡j- `ªe‡Y H+ Gi NbgvÎv e„w× cvq|
†Kvb jeYwUi Rjxq `ªeY ÿviKxq- NaCN 0.02M H2SO4 Gwm‡Wi pH Gi gvb- 2|
wcËi‡mi pH M‡o- 7.8 0.002 M mvjwdDwiK GwmW `ªe‡Yi pH- 2.40|
mwµqY kw³ †ewk n‡j ivmvqwbK wewµqvi nvi- Kg n‡e| 5.0×10-2M NaOH `ªe‡Yi pH Gi gvb- 12.7|
BDwiqv †_‡K †gjvgvBb •Zwi‡Z AbyNUK wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i- TiO2 †Kvb evdvi `ªe‡Y mgNbgvÎvi X– I HX Av‡Q| HX Gi ka = 10–6 n‡j
CO(g)+2H2(g) ⇌ CH3OH(g) wewµqvwUi †ÿ‡Î 127C ZvcgvÎvq †eM evdvi `ªeYwUi pOH gvb- 8
aªæe‡Ki gvb 27C ZvcgvÎvq †eM aªæe‡Ki gv‡bi 10 ¸Y n‡j wewµqvwUi Rjxq 0.02 M Ba(OH)2 `ªe‡Yi pH gvb- 12.6
mwµqb kw³i gvb- 22.98 kJ/mol †Kvb evdvi `ªe‡Y B_vbwqK GwmW (Ka=1.7610-5) I †mvwWqvg B_vb‡q‡Ui
wewµqvi †eM n«v‡mi Rb¨ †h Z_¨wU mwVK- mwµqY kw³ e„w×| NbgvÎv h_vµ‡g 0.10 I 0.15 mol L-1 n‡j `ªeYwUi pH- 4.93
cUvwkqvg †K¬v‡iU †_‡K Aw·‡Rb M¨vm cÖ¯‧wZi mgq abvZ¥K cÖfveK wn‡m‡e †Kvb `ªe‡Yi OH Avq‡bi NbgvÎv 410-5 †gvj/wjUvi| H `ªe‡Yi pH- 9.60
KvR K‡i- MnO2 4.25 mol H2 I 4.75 mol l2 wgkÖY‡K DËß K‡i 6.70 mol HI Drcbœ n‡j,
wewµqvwUi Kp Dnvi Kc Gi gvb A‡cÿv eo- 2SO3 ⇋ 2SO2+O2 Kc Gi gvb- 35.61
†Kvb wewµqvq wewµqK I Drcv`‡Ki †gvj msL¨v hLb mgvb nq, ZLb- Kp = Kc 90C ZvcgvÎvq PCl5 Gi 35% we‡qvwRZ nq| mvg¨ve¯vq †gvU Pvc 1.5
atm n‡j Kp Gi gvb- 0.2094 atm
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) mvg¨ wewµqvq mvg¨ve¯vq Pvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j-
`~e©j •Re ÿviK- Phenolphthaen
wewµqv mvg‡bi w`‡K AMÖme n‡e|
gvbyl †Kvb ai‡bi Lvevi MÖnb Ki‡j ev Jla iƒ‡c i‡³ †hvM Ki‡j Zv
N2(g)+3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) wewµqvwUi †ÿ‡Î- Pvc evov‡j Drcv`b ev‡o|
mvgë¯v‡K wKfv‡e cÖfvweZ K‡i- H2CO3 + OH– ⇌ HCO3– + H2O
wØ-ÿvixq GwmW- H2SO4
25°C ZvcgvÎvq Zxeª GwmW I Zxeª ÿv‡ii cÖkgb Zvc- –57.34kJ mol-1
CH3COOH Rjxq `ªe‡Y CH3COONa †hvM Ki‡j `ªe‡Y- pH AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡e|
GbUªwc me‡P‡q Kg _v‡K - KwVb Ae¯vq|
GKwU Zvcnvix wewµqvi †ÿ‡Î- H abvZ¥K|
0.005M H2SO4 `ªe‡Yi pH KZ- 2
Kg©gyLx imvqb
 `ya †_‡K Qvbv •Zwii cÖwµqv n‡jv- †Kvqv¸‡jkb|  30-40% digvjwWnvBW Gi Rjxq `ªeY‡K Kx e‡j- digvwjb|
 `y‡ai †cÖvwUb - K¨vwmb|  †h kK©iv †dnwjs `ªeY I U‡jb weKviK †K weRvwiZ Ki‡Z cv‡i bv- my‡µvR|
 †cÖvwUb AYyi g‡a¨ A¨vgvB‡bv Gwm‡Wi AYymg~n †h eÜb Øviv hy³ _v‡K-  XvjvB †j․‡n Kve©‡bi cwigvY- 2.9 - 4.5%|
Peptide bond|  †mvWv A¨vk wkí‡ÿ‡Î †Kvb c×wZ‡Z •Zwi Kiv nq- Solvary process|
 M¨vm‡K ÿq K‡i- HF|  †jvnv‡K gwiPvi nvZ †_‡K iÿvi Rb¨ †h avZzi cÖ‡jc †Ìqv nq- Zn|
 Pvgov cÖwµqvRvZKi‡Y eëüZ nq- Cr2(SO4)3|  g¨vM‡bwmqvg dm‡d‡Ui ms‡KZ- Mg3(PO4)2|

 Dw™¢` g~‡ji mvnv‡h¨ BDwiqv mvi †h Ae¯vq †kvlY K‡i- NO3 Salt|  B¯úv‡Z †h †h Dcv`vb Av‡Q- (Fe + C)|
 eo cyKzwiqv Lwb‡Z Kx ai‡bi Kqjv cvIqv hvq- weUzwgbvm|  gwiPvi ivmvqwbK ms‡KZ †KvbwU- Fe2O4.xH2O|
 Bwiw_ªUj n‡jv- A-non caloric sweetener| wjcw÷‡K _v‡K-‡UUªv‡eªv‡gv‡d¬v‡ivwmb/†mvwWqvg w÷qv‡iU

 †Kvb †g․jwUi Dcw¯wZ Kqjvi gvb bó K‡i- mvjdvi| Uz_‡c‡÷ pH-8
 K¨vIwjbvB‡Ui ivmvqwbK ms‡KZ- Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O|  wf‡bMv‡ii Rb¨ †Kvb Dw³wU mwVK bq- 6-10% diwgK GwmW Gi Rjxq `ªeY|
 BDwiqv mvi •Zwi‡Z cÖvK…wZK M¨vm †hfv‡e eëüZ nq- NH3| Uq‡jU wK¬bvi cÖ¯‧wZ‡Z eëüZ nq-‡ewKs †mvWv/†dbj
¸”Q †bUIqvK© 4.0 kU© mv‡Rkb imvqb wØZxq cÎ
cwi‡ek imvqb
 GKwU Av`k© M¨v‡mi Rb¨ PV ebvg
1
†jLwPÎ n‡e GKwU- x A‡ÿi mgvšÍivj NaOH, P(OH)3, Ca(OH)2 I ClO4H gv‡S- `ywU ÿvi I `ywU A¤ø|
P jyBm ÿviK- H2C=CH2
mij‡iLv| HSO4 Avq‡bi AbyeÜx ÿviK- SO42
 M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ gvc‡Z eëüZ nq- Perfect Gas Equation| HNO3 e„wói cvwbi mv‡_ wg‡k gvwU‡Z Av‡m Ges gvwUi †Kvb ÿviKxq
 ev¯Íe M¨vm Av`k© mgxKiY AbymiY K‡i- D”P ZvcgvÎv Ges wb¤œPv‡c| c`v‡_©i mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i `ªeYxq bvB‡UªU jeY wn‡m‡e gvwU‡Z wg‡k- CaO.
 evqygÐ‡j wbw®Œq M¨v‡mi g‡a¨ me‡P‡q †ewk _v‡K- AvM©b M¨vm (0.8%)| wMÖb nvDR M¨vmmg~‡ni g‡a¨ evqygÛ‡j me‡P‡q †ewk _v‡K- CO2
 wewµqvi nvi mgxKi‡Y wewµqK¸‡jvi NbgvÎvi Nv‡Zi mgwó‡K Kx e‡j- I‡Rvb ¯Íi ÿ‡qi Rb¨ †Kvb †hŠMwU me‡P‡q †ekx `vqx- CFC.
Order of a reaction| I‡Rvb ¯Íi ÿ‡qi Rb¨ †h M¨vmwU `vqx- CF2Cl2
 GKB ZvcgvÎvq H2 I O2 M¨v‡mi AbycvZ- 4| †Kvb m~ÎwU M¨vm m~‡Îi Aš‘f~©³- †n‡mi m~Î|
 †Kvb Ae¯’vq Av`k© AvPiY n‡Z GKwU M¨v‡mi me‡P‡q †ewk wePz¨wZ N‡U- wb¤œ Zij ùwUK- 4-†c›UvBj evBwdbvBj-4-Kv‡ev©bvBUªvBj|
ZvcgvÎv Ges D”P Pv‡c| wbw`©ó Pvc I ZvcgvÎvq M¨v‡mi e¨vcb nvi- Nb‡Z¡i eM©g~‡ji e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK|
 evqy‡Z me‡P‡q †ewk cvIqv hvq- N2| evwn¨K Pv‡ci cÖfv‡e †Kvb miæ wQ`ª w`‡q †Kvb M¨v‡mi m‡Rv‡i wbM©gb‡K ejv
 wbw`©ó Pvc I ZvcgvÎvq M¨v‡mi e¨vcb nvi- Nb‡Z¡i eM©g~‡ji e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| nq- wbtmiY|
 H2 M¨v‡mi msKU ZvcgvÎv-  240C GwmW e„wó m„wó‡Z cÖavb f~wgKv iv‡L- NO2 Ges SO3
 HCl + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + Cl wewµqvwU‡Z AbyeÜx A¤ø- RviK †Rvo  HCl I Cl GwmW e„wó‡Z _vK‡Z cv‡i- HNO3 and H2SO4
 Av`k© M¨v‡mi pv ebvg p eµ Kvf© †Kvb A‡ÿi mgvšÍivj n‡e- P Aÿ jyBm GwmW bq- ZnO.
 gvbe kix‡i †Kvb avZzi AvwaK¨ i‡³ wn‡gv‡Møvweb Drcv`‡b evav †`q- Cr I Fe| CuSO4 Gi Rjxq `ªeY- A¤øxq|
 f¨vÛviIqvjk mgxKi‡Y 'a' aªæeK wK wb‡`©k K‡i- AvšÍtAvYweK AvKl©Y| †h †hŠM eënv‡ii d‡j Mfxi bjK~‡ci cvwb †_‡K Av‡m©wbK AcmviY Kiv
2
 ev¯Íe M¨v‡mi mgxKiY- p + 2  (v  nb) = nRT
an hvq- Fe A·vB‡Wi b¨v‡bv KYv|
 v  b`xi cvwbi `ªexf~Z Aw·‡Rb (DO) Gi gvb 2mgL-1| ¸YMZfv‡e D³ b`xi
 evqy gÛ‡ji †Kvb AÂ‡j IRb ¯Íi Aew¯’Z- ÷ª¨v‡Uvwùqvi| cvwb gvQ Ges Ab¨vb¨ RjR cÖvYxi Rb¨- AZ¨šÍ Lvivc|
 ÿzä gÛj ejv nq- Uª‡cvwùqvi‡K| weï× cvwbi BOD Gi ÷¨vÛvW© gvb- 1.0 - 3.0 ppm.
GwmW e„wói Rb¨ `vqx bq- HCl. gvbe kix‡i †Kvb avZzi AvwaK¨ i‡³ wn‡gv‡Møvweb Drcv`‡b evav cÖ`vb K‡i- Cr I Fe.
ev¯Íe M¨vm KLb Av`k© M¨v‡mi AvPiY cÖ`k©b K‡i- P1atm I D”P ZvcgvÎv| Cd Gi †gŠwjK ¸Y- 2wU|
c`v‡_©i M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq abvZ¥K Avqb I B‡jKUª‡bi cvkvcvwk _vKvi †gvUi PjvP‡ji iv¯Ívi cv‡ki ayjv, evwj I gvwU‡Z Kx cwigvY †jW cvIqv
Ae¯’v‡K e‡j- cøvRgv| hvq- 1000 - 4000 mgKg–1
wjweM †g_W eëüZ nq †KvbwU mbv³Ki‡Y- C. HA + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + A- wewµqvwU‡Z AbyeÜx A¤ø-ÿviK hyMj-HA, A
CFC I‡Rvb¯Íi‡K †f‡O •Zwi K‡i- wd«-i¨vwW‡Kj| EDTA c×wZ‡Z cvwbi LiZv wbY©‡qi mgq `ªe‡Yi pH- 10.0
nvB‡Wªvn¨v‡jv A¨vj‡Kb RvZxq c`v‡_© †Kvb eÜ‡b _vKvi Kvi‡Y ÿwZKi Cl avZzi Avqb nv‡oi ÿq mvab K‡i- Cd2+
cigvYy Drcv`b Ki‡Z cv‡i bv- H – C. SO2 M¨vm cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i- H2SO3
H2O + NH3 ⇌ NH4+ + OH – wewµqvq cvwb GKwU- GwmW|
MvwYwZK mv‡Rkb
 M¨v‡mi cÖv_wgK m~Î m¤úwK©Z MvwYwZK cÖ‡qvM:
m~‡Îi bvg MvwYwZK mgxKiY
e‡q‡ji m~Î P1V1 = P2V2
V1 V2
Pvj©‡mi m~Î =
T1 T2
P1 P2
Pvcxq m~Î =
T1 T2
P1V1 P2V2
e‡qj I Pvj©‡mi mgš^q m~Î =
T1 T2
m PV X V(L)
mgš^q m~Î n= = = = = VS
M RT 6.023  1023 22.4
 Wvë‡bi AvswkK Pvc m~Î
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + .......................... P n
PV =P(V1 + V2) = P1 V1 + P2V2 ; P = XA P0 (AvswkK Pvc = †gvU Pvc  †gvj fMœvsk)
 Mig Lei: NH3 I HCl M¨vm wgkÖ‡Yi †ÿ‡Î Wvë‡bi AvswkK Pvc m~Î cÖ‡hvR¨ bq| KviY NH3 I HCl ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i KwVb NH4Cl
Drcbœ K‡i| Aciw`‡K ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i bv Giƒc eû msL¨K M¨vm wgkÖ‡Yi Rb¨ Wvë‡bi AvswkK Pvc m~Î cÖ‡hvR¨|
 Av`k© M¨v‡mi MZxq mgxKiY/M¨v‡mi MwZkw³ :
Av`k© M¨v‡mi MZxq mgxKiY M¨v‡mi MwZkw³
 PV = 1 mNc2.  1 mole M¨v‡mi AYyi MwZkw³, Ek = 3 RT.
3 2
 Av`k© M¨v‡mi MZxq mgxKiYwU cÖwZôv K‡ib weÁvbx K¬wmqvm|  n mole M¨v‡mi AYyi MwZkw³, Ek = 3 nRT = 3 PV.
2 2
3RT
 1wU AYyi MwZkw³, Ek = .
2NA
ˆRe imvqb
 †Kvb Kv‡e©vK¨vUvqbwU me‡P‡q †ewk w¯’wZkxj- (CH3)3C+| C2H5ONa(alc)+CH3I(alc)  C2H5OCH3 + NaI(s) wewµqvwU-
 B_vBj †ebwRb‡K KMnO4 Gi mv‡_ Zvc †Ìqv n‡j Drcbœ n‡e- DBwjqvgmb wewµqv|
†eb‡RvwqK GwmW| mvd© cvDWvi bv‡g cwiwPZ- †mvwWqvg A¨vjKvBj †ebwRb mvj‡dv‡bU|
 Abv`ª© AlCl3 Gi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z †ebwR‡bi mv‡_ A¨vwmUvBj †K¬vivB‡Wi wewµqvq †db‡ji Rjxq `ªeY- bxj wjUgvm jvj K‡i|
Drcbœ nq- Acetophenone| †db‡ji g‡a¨ CHCl3 I NaOH Gi Rjxq `ªeY wgwkÖZ K‡i 60˚C G DËß
 CH3MgX Gi mv‡_ Kx‡mi wewµqvq AvB‡mv‡cÖvcvbj Drcbœ nq- wg_vb¨vj| Ki‡j Drcbœ nq- A‡_©vnvBWªw· †ebR¨vjwWnvBW|
 C5H12 †hŠ‡Mi MvVwbK mgvYy- 3wU| †dbj mbv³Ki‡Y wjevig¨vb cixÿvi †Kvb wewµqvi kZ©wU cÖ‡hvR¨- NaNO2
 wmjfvi `c©Y cixÿv †`q- †cÖvcvb¨vj| I K‡qK †duvUv H2SO4
 CH3CH(C2H5)CH2CHBrCHClCH3 †hŠMwUi IUPAC bvg -3 jyKvm weKvi‡Ki m‡½ ZvrÿwYK wewµqv K‡i- 2-methylpropan-2-ol
†eªv‡gv-2-†K¬v‡iv-5-wg_vBj‡n‡Þb| Zij O2 Gi mv‡_ i‡KU R¡vjvbx iƒ‡c eëüZ nq- B_vbj|
 †KvbwUi gva¨‡g †dbj †_‡K wcKwiK GwmW cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq- HNO3.H2SO4| B_vbj I mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi wewµqvq †Kvb †hŠMwU MwVZ nq bv-
 †Kvb MÖæc †K›`ªvKl©x ms‡hvRb wewµqv †`q- Kve©wbj (CO) MÖæc| CH3COOH
 RyBUvi Avqb •Zix K‡i- NH2 CO2H †WU‡ji †Kvb Dcv`vbwU Rxevbybvk‡Ki Rb¨ `vqx- AvB‡mv‡cÖvcvbj|
 †dwjs `ªeY I U‡jb weKviK Øviv cv_©K¨ Kiv hvq- A¨vjwWnvBW I wK‡Uvb| UjyBb I H2 Gi wgkªY‡K 200o †m ZvcgvÎvq I cÖfve‡Ki Dci w`‡q Pvjbv
 HCHO I CH3CHO Gi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Kivi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb- Ki‡j- †n·v-nvB‡Wªv UjyBb cvIqv hvq|
Iodoform test| •Re †hŠ‡M GKvwaK †ebwRb ejq we`¨gvb- cvBA¨vwib|
 †ebRvgvB‡Wi ndg¨vb ÿz`ªvskKiY wewµqvq Drcvw`Z nq- A¨vwbwjb| †ebwRb wK ai‡bi cÖwZ¯’vcb wewµqv †`q- B‡jK‡UªvwdwjK|
 †K¬v‡ivwcKwib Gi ivmvqwbK ms‡KZ- CCl3NO2 Rjxq `ªe‡Y 20°C ZvcgvÎvq wPwbi Av‡cwÿK AveZ©b- +66.5°
 G‡Ki AwaK ai‡bi msKwiZ Kve©b Av‡Q- UjyBb| MwZkxj Kvh©Kix g~jK mgvYy Zv- U‡UvgvwiRg|
 Bwiw_ªUj n‡jv- A non-caloric sweetener. †hŠ‡Mi `ªe‡Yi †fZi w`‡q GK mgZjxq Av‡jv Pjvi mgq Zv AvewZ©Z nq-
 CH2=CHCH2CHO †hŠMwU‡Z  Ges  eÜ‡bi msL¨v- 10, 2 †iwmwgK wgkÖY|
 me‡P‡q kw³kvjx H2 eÜb MVb K‡i- B_vbwqK GwmW| A¨vwbwjb‡K mivmwi bvB‡Uªv‡ebwR‡b iƒcvšÍwiZ Kivi DËg weKviK- H2O2
 Mvp HCl Ges ZnCl2 Gi `ªeY‡K e‡j- jyKvm weKviK| mKj wbDwK¬IdvBj- jyBm ÿviK|
 CH3CH=CHCH3 †hŠMwUi †÷wiI mgvby i‡q‡Q-2| wbDwK¬IdvBj- NH3
 A¨vwmU¨vjwWnvBW‡K wb‡K‡ji Dcw¯’wZ‡Z nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Øviv weRviY Ki‡j NH3 †Kvb ai‡bi weKviK- †K›`ªvKl©xq|
cvIqv hvq-B_vbj| †Kvb wewµqvwU cÖavbZ A¨vj‡Kb †`q- mgvYyKiY wewµqv|
 K2Cr2O7 Øviv B_vbj‡K RvwiZ Ki‡j cvIqv hvq- A¨vwmwUK GwmW| DU©R wewµqvi gva¨‡g †Kvb ai‡bi A¨vj‡Kb Drcbœ nq- D”PZi|
CH4+CI2  CH3Cl+HCl GB wewµqvi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb- Av‡jv| A‡kvwaZ †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi AvswkK cvZ‡b cvIqv hvq- †K‡ivwmb|
weKvi‡Ki gva¨‡g m¤ú„„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b Ges Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi g‡a¨ R-X Gi mv‡_ Na, Mg avZzi wewµqvKv‡j `ªveKiæ‡c- ï®‹ B_vi
cv_©K¨ Kiv hvq- Br2/H2O eëüZ nq|
A¨vjKvBj n¨vjvBW (RX) cÖwZ¯’vcb wewµqvi †KŠkj- wbDwK¬IwdwjK| DDT Gi ms‡KZ- C14H9Cl5
†h †hŠMwU Av‡qv‡Wvdig Drcbœ- CH3COCH3 †K¬v‡ivdi‡gi weï×Zv cixÿvq wewµqv N‡U †Kvb wewµq‡Ki g‡a¨-
†Kvb M¨vmwUi e¨vc‡bi nvi me‡P‡q †ewk- H2 HCl + AgNO3
K¨vwbRv‡iv wewµqvq AskMÖnY K‡i- (CH3)3C-CHO †K¬v‡ivdig AYy‡Z †K¬vwib cigvYyi Aw¯ÍZ¡ cÖgvY Kiv hvq wK Øviv- AgNO3
†ebwRb I †cÖvwcb †Kvb wewµqv Øviv wKDwgb •Zix K‡i- wd«‡Wj µvdU †hŠM¸wji ùzUbvs‡Ki mwVK µgwU- CH3CH3<CH3CHO<CH3CH2OH
wewµqv| wMømvwib weKvi‡Ki mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i 1, 2, 3- UªvB‡K¬v‡iv‡cÖv‡cb •Zwi
wbw`©ó Pvc I ZvcgvÎvq †h M¨v‡mi e¨vcb nvi- Nb‡Z¡i eM©g~‡ji K‡i- PCl5
e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| wmdm& ÿviK Drcbœ nq- C6H5CHO + CH3NH2 wewµqv †_‡K|
†Kvb ms‡KZwU A¨vj‡Kvn‡ji- CH4O mvbw¯Œb †jvk‡b ZnO b¨v‡bvKYv eënv‡ii KviY- Z¡‡K UV iwk¥i cÖ‡ek
Wv³vix hš¿cvwZi Rxevbybvk‡Ki eëüZ- 70% B_vbj I 30% cvwbi wgkªY| cÖwZnZ Ki‡Z|
cwjnvBwWªK A¨vj‡Kvn‡ji D`vniY- wMømvij| †cwbwmwj‡bi `ªveK wn‡m‡e eëüZ- weDUvBj A¨vwm‡UU|
PCl5 Ges B_vBj A¨vj‡Kvn‡ji wewµqvq Drcbœ nq- Ethyle chloride. wcKwiK GwmW- 2,4,6-UªvBbvB‡Uªv †dbj|
C‡÷i Dcw¯’wZ‡Z my‡µv‡Ri dvi‡g‡›Ukb Ki‡j Drcbœ nq- Møy‡KvR| mvevb •Zix‡Z eëüZ nq- KOH
†iw±dvBW w¯úwi‡U B_vBj A¨vj‡Kvn‡ji kZKiv cwigvY- 95.6% c¨vivwmUvgj •Zwi‡Z KvuPvgvj wn‡m‡e cÖ‡qvRb- †dbj|
jyKvm weKviK n‡jv- Mvp HCl + Abv`ª© ZnCl2 Kve©bvBj †hŠM †hgb A¨vwmUvjwWnvBW I wK‡Uvb Mvp HCl mn‡hv‡M weRvwiZ
wjevig¨vb cixÿvi mvnv‡h¨ mbv³ Kiv nq- †dbj| Ki‡j Kve©bvBjb g~jKwU weRvwiZ n‡q wgw_wjb g~j‡K cwiYZ n‡q
cÖfveK ZnCl2 Gi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z †dbj Ges A¨v‡gvwbqv GK‡Î DËß Ki‡j nvB‡WªvKve©b Drcbœ K‡i †h wewµqvwU- wK¬‡gbmb weRviY|
Drcbœ nq- A¨vwbwjb| I‡Rvb ¯Í‡ii fvsMb NUvq- NO
e¨v‡KjvBU •Zwi‡Z eëüZ nq- †dbj| Av‡qv‡Wvdig wewµqv †`q bv- HCHO
†h †hŠMwU A¤øxq- C6H5OH A¨vj‡Wvj Kb‡Wbkb wewµqvq ZvcgvÎv- 20-30C
†dbj‡K †eªvwgb cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqv Ki‡j cÖavb Drcv`- 2,4,6 UªvB‡eªv‡gv n¨v‡jvdig wewµqv †`q bv- C6H5CHO

†dbj| C6H5CONH2 + Br2 + KOH   ? +KBr + H2O wewµqvi
B‡j‡±ªvwdwjK A¨v‡iv‡gwUK cÖwZ¯’vcb wewµqvq †Kvb MÖæcwU †gUv-wb‡`©kK k~b¨¯’v‡b Drcv`KwU- A¨vwbwjb|
bq- –OH †h wewµqv‡Z †dbj †_‡K m¨vwjmvBjwWnvBW Drcbœ- ivBgvi UvBg¨vb
0C ZvcgvÎvq A¨vwbwjb I HCl wewµqvq Drcv`‡K Kÿ ZvcgvÎvq †i‡L wewµqv|
w`‡q cvIqv hvq- Phenol ivBgvi-UvBg¨vb wewµqvq hv Drcbœ- A¨vjwWnvBW|
†dbj‡K `¯ÍvP~‡Y©i mv‡_ cvZb Ki‡j †h †hŠM cvIqv hvq- †ebwRb| †h †hŠMwU A¨vjWj wewµqv †`q- CH3CHO
†Kvb †hŠMwU FeCl3 Gi mv‡_ †e¸wb eY© m„wó K‡i- †dbj| †h †hŠMwU K¨vwbRv‡iv wewµqv †`q bv- C6H5–CH2CHO
†db‡ji Rjxq `ªe‡Y K‡qK †dvUv FeCl3 `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j Drcbœ †hŠ‡Mi is- †Kvb wewµqKwU n¨v‡jvdig wewµqv †`q bv- CH3-COOH
†e¸wY nq| HCHO I CH3CHO g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Kivi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb- lodoform test
†h †hŠMwUi ùzUbvsK- C2H5OH me‡P‡q †ekx| A¨vjwWnvBW I wK‡Uv‡bi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ wbY©q Kiv hvq- U‡jb weKviK Øviv|
B_vi •Zix K‡i- DBwjqvgmb wewµqv| A¨vj‡Kvnj I †db‡ji g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Kiv hvq †h wewµqvi Øviv-
U‡jb weKviK †KvbwU Ges †Kvb ai‡bi †hŠ‡Mi mbv³Ki‡Y eëüZ- wjevig¨vb cixÿv|
[Ag(NH3)2]OH, A¨vjwWnvBW| †Kvb A¨vjwWnvBW Ny‡gi Jla wnmv‡e eënvi Kiv nq- c¨vivjwWnvBW|
CH3CHO Ges CH3COCH3 g‡a¨ cv_©K¨m~PK cixÿvq eëüZ- †ivMxi cÖmªv‡e Møy‡Kv‡Ri Dcw¯’wZ wba©viY Kiv nq †Kvb cixÿvi mvnv‡h¨-
[Ag(NH3)2]+ †ewbwW± cixÿv|
mvB‡K¬v‡n·v‡bvb †K HNO3 DËß ev®ú I V2O5 Øviv RvwiZ Ki‡j Drcbœ A¨v‡iv‡gwUK †hŠ‡Mi AYy‡Z mÂviYkxj KZ¸‡jv  B‡jKUªb- 4n+2
nq- A¨vwWwcK GwmW| `¯Ívi ¸ovi mv‡_ †dbj‡K DËß Ki‡j cvIqv hvq- C6H6
C6H5N2Cl †K dzUšÍ jNy H2SO4 Øviv Av`ª© we‡kølb Ki‡j Drcbœ nq-
V2O5 Gi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z 300°C ZvcgvÎvq UjyBb‡K evqyi mvnv‡h¨ RvwiZ
C6H5OH
Ki‡j cvIqv hvq- †ebRwqK GwmW|
DËß Ae¯’vq wdbvBj A¨vwgb bvBUªvm Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i Drcbœ
†h †eqvi weKviK- Conc. KMnO4
K‡i- †dbj|
†hwU A¤øag©x- HC  CH
Kvwe©j A¨vwgb cixÿv Øviv hv kbv³ Kiv m¤¢e- A¨vwbwjb|
RMgX- †K B_vBj di‡g‡Ui m‡½ wewµqv NUv‡j wK Drcbœ nq- RCHO
bvBUªvm Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqvq †h †hŠMwU N2 M¨vm Drcbœ- CH3NH2
Avbvi‡mi we`¨gvb wgwó MÜ †hwU Kvi‡Y- B_vBj weDUvb‡qU|
D.D.T wK- c¨viv c¨viv WvB‡K¬v‡iv WvBwdbvBj UªvB‡K¬v‡iv B‡_b|
bvgxq wewµqv m¤úwK©Z Z_¨vewj
N2Cl X
HX
 m¨vÛ‡gqvi wewµqv: + Cu2X2
100C
+ N2 + Cu2Cl2
GLv‡b, X = Cl I Br ; HI m¨vÛ‡gqvi wewµqv †`q bv| ZvB G‡Z Drcbœ n‡e bv|
 M¨vUvig¨vb wewµqvt ‡ebwRb Wvqv‡Rvwbqvg jeY‡K Kcvi P~Y© Ges n¨v‡jv‡Rb GwmWmn DËß Ki‡jI Wvqv‡Rvg~jK n¨v‡jv‡Rb Øviv cÖwZ¯’vwcZ nq| G
wewµqv‡K M¨vUvig¨vb wewµqv e‡j|
N2Cl Cl
Cu
 + N2
HCl
 K¨vwbRv‡iv wewµqv: Kve©Y cigvYy‡Z -nvB‡Wªv‡Rbwenxb A¨vjwWnvBW Mvp je‡Y hyMcrfv‡e RvwiZ G weRvwiZ n‡q h_vµ‡g GwmW I A¨vj‡Kvn‡j iƒcvšÍwiZ
nq| G wewµqv‡K K¨vwbRv‡iv wewµqv e‡j| C6H5CHO (†ebRvjwWnvBW) H wenxb †hŠM| ZvB GwU K¨vwbRv‡iv wewµqv w`‡e| wewµqvwU n‡jv:
CHO CH2–OH COONa
Mvp NaOH
2 
50% 20–30C +
 A¨vjWj Nbxfeb wewµqv: A¨vjwWnvB‡Wi ÔA¨vjWÕ I A¨vj‡Kvn‡ji ÔAjÕ wg‡j A¨vjWj kãwU MwVZ (ald + ol = aldol), A_©vr †h wewµqvq A¨vjWj MwVZ
nq Zv‡K A¨vjWj Nbxfeb wewµqv e‡j| †hgb: R–CH2–CHO + H3C–CHOR–CH2–CH(OH)–CH2–CHO
D`vniYt †hgb: jNy ÿv‡ii Dcw¯’wZ‡Z `yB AYy A¨vwmUvjwWnvBW (-nvB‡Wªv‡Rbwewkó Awfbœ A¨vjwWnvBW wewµqv K‡i -nvB‡Wªvw· weDUvi¨vjwWnvBW Drcbœ K‡i|
H OH
Dil NaOH
HCH2C = O + HCHC = O HCH2CCH2C = O
H H H H
A¨vwmUvjwWnvBW -nvB‡Wªvw· weDUvi¨vjwWnvBW (A¨vjWj)
`ywU GKB ev wfbœ A¨vjwWnvBW ev wK‡Uv‡bi ci¯ú‡ii g‡a¨ A_ev GKwU A¨vjwWnvB‡Wi m‡½ GKwU wK‡Uv‡bi g‡aÏ A¨vjWj Nbxfeb wewµqv NUv‡Z cv‡i|
 BUvW© wewµqv: BUvW© wewµqvq g„`y RviK ‡µvwgj †K¬vivBW (CrO2Cl2) ev g¨v½vwbR WvBA·vBW (MnO2) eëüZ nq| G wewµqvq †ebRvjwWnvBW Drcbœ nq|
CH3 CHO
CrO2Cl2
+2 [O]  +2H2O
CS2g„`y RviK
 DU©R-wdwUM wewµqvt ï®‹ B_v‡i A¨vivBj I wg_vBj n¨vjvB‡Wi `ªeY‡K †mvwWqvg avZz mn wid¬v· Ki‡j UjyBb Drcbœ nq| mgxKi‡Y-
CH3
X+2Na+X CH3 +2NaX
wg_vBj n¨vjvBW wn‡m‡e mvaviYZ wg_vBj Av‡qvWvBW eënvi Kiv nq| A¨vjKvBj †ebwRb •Zwii G c×wZ‡K DU©R-wdwUM wewµqv ejv nq|
 wK¬‡gbmb weRviYt G wewµqvq Zxeª weRviK ZnCl2 I Mvp HCl eëüZ nq| hv Kve©wbj †hŠM‡K (>CO) mivmwi wgw_wjb (CH2) g~jK cwiYZ K‡i|
 mvaviY wewµqvt Zn–Hg + 2HCI  ZnC12 + 2[H]
 g~j wewµqv >C = O + 2[H] –CH2 –
 R–CO–R + 4[H]  R–CH2–R + H2O D`vniY- CH3–CO–CH3 + 4[H]  CH3–CH2–CH3 + H2O
 †iv‡RbgvÛ weRviYt ‡ewiqvg mvj‡d‡Ui Dc‡i Aatwÿß c¨vjvwWqvg cÖfve‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Øviv A¨vwmW †K¬vivBW‡K weRvwiZ K‡i A¨vjwWnvBW
PdBaSO
cÖ¯‘Z Kivi cÖYvjx †iv‡RbgvÛ weRviY bv‡g cwiwPZ| CH3COCl + H2 
4
CH3–CHO + HCl
 Kvwe©j A¨vwgb wewµqvt A¨vj‡Kvnjxq Kw÷K cUvm ev Kw÷K †mvWv I A¨vwbwj‡bi m‡½ †K¬v‡ivdig‡K 60-70°C DòZvq DËß Ki‡j wdbvBj
AvB‡mvmvqvbvBW Z_v Kvwe©j A¨vwgb Drcbœ nq|
NH 2 NC
KOH
+CHCl 3 +KCl+H 2O
Kvwe©j A¨vwg‡bi DrKU MÜ Øviv A¨vwbwjb ev †K¬v‡ivdig kbv³ Kiv hvq| G cixÿvwU‡K Kvwe©j A¨vwgb cixÿv e‡j |
 ‡Kve wewµqvt 4-7 evqyPvc I 120°C ZvcgvÎvq †mvwWqvg wd‡b‡Ui mv‡_ CO2 Gi wewµqvq †mvwWqvg m¨vwjmvB‡jU MwVZ nq| D™¢~Z m¨vwjmvB‡jU‡K HCl
Øviv Av`ª©-we‡kølY Ki‡j A‡_©v-nvBWªw·†eb‡RvwqK GwmW Drcbœ nq| D™¢ve‡Ki bvgvbymv‡i G wewµqv‡K †Kve&-wewµqv e‡j|
OH ONa ONa OH
COONa COOH
NaOH
NaCH +CO2 HCl +NaCl
†mvwWqvg wd‡bU
†mvwWqvg †d‡bU ‡mvwWqvg m¨vwjmvB‡jU
m¨vwimvB‡jU
0-nvBWªm¨vwjmvBwjK GwmW
w·‡ebRwqK GwmW
(O-(cÖ avb Drcv`b)
nvBWª w·‡ebRwqK GwmW)
 ivBgvi UvBg¨vb wewµqvt ‡K¬v‡ivdg‡K †dbj I Kw÷K †mvWv ev Kw÷K cUvm `ªeYmn 60-70°C DòZvq DËß Ki‡j m¨vwjmvjwWnvBW Drcbœ nq| D™¢ve‡Ki
bvgvbymv‡i G wewµqv‡K ivBgvi-UvBg¨vb wewµqv e‡j|
OH OH
CHO
6070C
+ CHCl3 + KOH  
 + KCl+H2O
 nd&g¨vb ÿz`ªvskKiY wewµqv (ïaygvÎ cÖvBgvix A¨vwg‡bi Rb¨): GwU Kve©b msL¨v n«vm Kivi GKwU cÖwµqv| G c×wZ‡Z A¨vgvBW‡K †eªvwgb I KwóK
†mvWv/KwóK cUvm `ªeY Øviv DËß Ki‡j cÖvBgvix A¨vwgb Drcbœ nq| Drcvw`Z A¨vwg‡b g~j A¨vgvBW A‡cÿv GKwU Kve©b Kg _v‡K e‡j G c×wZ‡K
Avwe®‹vi‡Ki bvgvbymv‡i Òndg¨vb ÿz`ªvskKiY wewµqvÓ e‡j| R–CO–NH2 + 4NaOH + Br2  R – NH2 + 2NaBr + Na2CO3 + 2H2O
1° A¨vwgb
D`vniY ¯îƒct A¨vwmUvgvBW †_‡K wg_vBj A¨vwgb Drcbœ nq| H3C–CO–NH2 + Br2 + 4NaOH  H3C–NH2 + 2NaBr + Na2CO3 + 2H2O
 bvgavix wewµqv I Zv‡ì Drcv`mg~n:
wewµqv Drcbœ †hŠM ms‡KZ wewµqv Drcbœ †hŠM ms‡KZ
DU©R wewµqv A¨vj‡Kb R–R m¨vÛ‡gqvi †ebwRb RvZK C6H5–Br
Kvwe©j A¨vwgb wewµqv wdbvBj AvB‡mv mvqvbvBW C6H5–NC K¨vwbRv‡iv GwmW I A¨vj‡Kvnj RCOONa, ROH
ivBgvi UvBg¨vb m¨vwjmvjwWnvBW C6H4(OH)–CHO DBwjqvgmb B_vi R–O–R
WvI wewµqv †dbj Ar–OH m¨v‡cvwbwd‡Kkb mvevb RCOONa
†Kve wewµqv m¨vwjmvBwjK GwmW C6H4(OH)COOH ndg¨vb ÿz`ªvskKiY cÖvBgvix A¨vwgb R–NH2
j¨vWv‡ii g¨vbv‡m e¨v‡KjvBU – cviwKb wewµqv wmbvwgK GwmW C6H5–CH=CH–COOH
cwigvYMZ imvqb
 †h wewµqvq RviY Ges weRviY GKB mv‡_ N‡U Zv‡K Kx e‡j- AmvgÄm¨KiY wewµqv| Fe2++2H++NO-3 =Fe3++NO2+H2O wewµqvwU m¤úwK©Z †Kvb Dw³wU mZ¨
 cÖvBgvwi ÷¨vÛvW© c`v_©- Na2CO3 bq- H+ weRvwiZ n‡q‡Q|
 Rjxq `ªe‡Y †dbjd&_¨vwjb wb‡`©k‡Ki eY© cwieZ©‡bi pH cwimi- 8.3  2FeCl3 + SnCl2  2FeCl2 + SnCl4 wewµqvq weRvwiZ n‡q‡Q- Fe3+
10.0 H2O2 + SO2 = H2SO4 wewµqvwU‡Z- H2O2 RviK SO2 weRviK
 Fe2+ Kxiƒ‡c KvR K‡i- RviK I weRviK Dfq wn‡m‡e| 2FeCl3 + SnCl2  2FeCl2 + SnCl4 GB wewµqvq Sn I Fe Gi g‡a¨
 H2SO4 + K2Cr2O7 + KI Gi wewµqvi cÖavb Drcv`wU- I2| wewµqv N‡U‡Q- RviY-weRviY|
15.2g FeSO4 Gi m¤ú~Y© RvwiZ Ki‡Z KZ MÖvg K2Cr2O7 ìKvi- 49.06g †KvbwU weRviK- Sn2+
†KvbwU weRviK- FeSO4 FeCl3(s)+SnCl2 = 2FeCl2+SnCl4 †Kvb ai‡Yi wewµqv- RviY weRviY|
A·vBW¸‡jvi †KvbwU weRviK c`v_© wn‡m‡e KvR Ki‡Z cv‡i bv- CO2 K3[Fe(CN)6] †hŠ‡M Fe Gi RviY msL¨v- +3
CuSO4 + Kl  Cu2l2 + l2 + K2SO4 wewµqvq †KvbwU `k©K Avqb- SO42- Na2S2O3 RvwiZ n‡q Na2S4O6 G iƒcvšÍwiZ nq| cÖ_gwUi 1wU mvjdvi
KZwU B‡j±ªb Z¨vM Ki‡e- 0.5wU
K4[Fe(CN)6] RwUj †hŠM-G Fe Gi RviY msL¨v- +2
H2SO4 + K2Cr2O7 + KI Gi wewµqvq cÖavb Drcv`wU- I2
H2O2 G ‘O’ RviY msL¨v- –1
1 6KI+K2Cr2O7+14HCl 3I2+2CrCl3 DcwiD³ mgxKiYwU AvqZb
KO2 †hŠ‡M O RviY msL¨v-  B‡jKUªb c×wZ‡Z mgZv cvq hw` mgxKi‡Yi Wvb w`‡K †hvM Kiv nq-
2
Na2O2 I KO2 †hŠ‡M Aw·‡R‡bi RviY gvb h_vµ‡g- -1,-1/2 8 KCl+ 7 H2O
weRviY wewµqvq N‡U- B‡jKUªb MÖnY| wb‡`k©K wn‡m‡e †Kvb ai‡bi UvB‡Uªk‡bi †ÿ‡Î wg_vBj †iW Dc‡hvMx- Zxeª
[Fe(CN)6]4- Avq‡b Fe cigvYyi RviY msL¨v I mwbœ‡ek msL¨v h_vµ‡g- GwmW I g„`y ÿvi|
+2,6 `ªe‡Yi NbgvÎv 0.1 M ej‡Z †evSvq- †Wwm †gvjvi `ªeY|
NO G O Gi RviY msL¨v- +2 †gvjvi G·wUskb †kvlY aªæeK () GKK- LMol-1cm-1
[Cr(CN)6] Avq‡b Cr Gi RviY msL¨v- +3
-3
 MvwYwZK mgm¨v:
cUvwkqvg cvi‡K¬v‡i‡U †K¬vwi‡bi RviY gvb- +7
2– TYPE-01: †gvjvwiwU ev †gvjvi NbgvÎv wbY©‡q hw` % _v‡Kt
Cr2O7 G Cr RviY msL¨v- 6
= %  10
 (%)   ; S =
W
weRviK wnmv‡e KvR K‡i- SnCl2
V M
Møy‡Kv‡Ri ¯’zj ms‡KZ- CH2O
   10
 (%)   ; S =
W %
†m‡KÛvwi ÷¨vÛvW© c`v_©- HCl [ = `ªe‡Yi NbZ¡]
W M
cÖvBgvix ÷¨vÛvW© c`v_©- C2H2O4 %    10
 (%)   ; S =
V
[ = `ª‡ei NbZ¡]
1 wK‡jvMÖvg `ªe‡Y 1 MÖvg †gvj `ªe `ªexf~Z _vK‡j Zv‡K e‡j- †gvjvj `ªeY| V M
GKRb †ivMxi i‡³ Møy‡Kv‡Ri cwigvY 8 wgwj‡gvj/wjUvi| wgwjMÖvg/ %      10
 (%)   ; S =
V
[ = `ªe‡Yi NbZ¡;  = `ª‡ei NbZ¡]
†WwmwjUvi GK‡K gvb- 144 W M
cÖvBgvix ÷vÛvW© c`v_©- K2Cr2O7
TYPE-02: †gvjvwiwU †_‡K ppm Ges ppm †_‡K †gvjvwiwU wbY©q
2CuSO4+ 4KI Cu2I2 +I2+2K2 SO4 ; GB wewµqvq- Cu2+ weRviK|
= ppm GK‡K gvb
wb‡`©kK c`v_©wU A¤øxq gva¨‡g eY©nxb- †dbjd&_¨vwjb| †UKwbK: S = 10–3
M
g„`y GwmW-Zxeª ÿviK UvB‡Uªk‡b Kvh©Ki wb‡`©kK- †dbjd_¨vwjb|
NaOH Øviv CH3COOH †K UvB‡Uªk‡bi Rb¨ Dchy³ wb‡`©kK- TYPE-03: c¨v_jwRK¨vj GK‡Ki iƒcvšÍi m¤úwK©Z cÖ‡qvM
†dbjd_¨vwjb| = mmol/L  mg/dL 18 w`‡q ¸Y
Zxeª GwmW I g„`y ÿv‡ii cÖkg‡b †Kvb wb‡`©kK eëüZ- wg_vBj A‡iÄ| mg/dL  m mol/L 18 w`‡q fvM
wg_vBj A‡iÄ A¤øxq `ªe‡Y †Kvb eY© aviY K‡i- †Mvjvcx jvj|
Tips: eo gvb †_‡K †QvU gv‡b †h‡Z ¸Y Ki‡Z nq Ges ‡QvU gvb †_‡K eo
g„`y GwmW- Zxeª ÿvi UvB‡Uªk‡bi Dc‡hvMx wb‡`k©K- †dbd_¨vwjb|
gv‡b †h‡Z fvM Ki‡Z nq|
Sn2+ +2Hg2+=Sn4++Hg22+ wewµqvq RviK- Hg2+
Zwor imvqb
 avZe cwievnx Zwor cwien‡b †Kvb m~Î †g‡b P‡j- Kzj‡¤î m~Î| nvB‡Wªv‡Rb-Aw·‡Rb dz‡qj †mj‡K KZ N›Uv hver mvaviYZ eënvi Kiv
 mycvi KÛv±i Zwor cwievnxi •ewkó¨- mwÜ ZvcgvÎv| hvq- 1000 N›Uv|
 Zwor cwigv‡ci ÿz`ªZg GKK- Kzj¤^| †Kvb AvqbwU Zwor we‡køl‡Y `ªæZ PvR©gy³- Ag+
 `ye©j Zwor we‡køl¨ kZKiv AvqwbZ nq- 1-10 wjw_qvg Avqb e¨vUvwi Zwor we‡køl¨ wn‡m‡e †KvbwU eënvi Kiv nq bv-
 Zij nvB‡WªvKve©bmg~n †Kvb ai‡bi Zwor we‡køl¨- Zwor Awe‡køl¨| wjw_qvg cvi‡K¬v‡iU|
 jeY †mZz wn‡m‡e eëüZ nq- KCl, KNO3, NH4Cl nvB‡Wªv‡Rb dz‡qj †m‡j A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW wn‡m‡e eëüZ nq- MÖvdvBU|
 A¨v‡bvW w`‡q B‡jKUªb- `ªeY †Q‡o hvq| MwjZ A¨vjywgbv (Al2O3) †_‡K Zwor we‡kølY c×wZ‡Z 50g A¨vjywgwbqvg
 †jW GwmW †gvUi e¨vUvwii wefe- 2.00v avZz wb®‹vkb Ki‡Z KZ Kyj¤^ we`y¨r cÖv‡qvRb- 536111
 wg_vBj A‡iÄ wb‡`©k‡Ki pH cwimi- 3.1 – 4.4 nvU© †cm‡gKviiƒ‡c †KvbwU eëüZ- wjw_qvg SVO e¨vUvwi|
 CuSO4 Gi Rjxq `ªe‡Y 0.5 A¨vw¤úqvi ZworcÖevn 10 wgwbU e¨vcx Pvjbv e¨vUvwi‡K Pv‡R©i mgq wb‡Pi †Kvb wewµqvwU N‡U- PbSO4(s) + 2H2O 
Ki‡j wK cwigvY Kcvi Rgv n‡e- 0.0987g| Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 4H+ + 2SO42–
 K¨vjKz‡jU‡i eënvi Kiv nq- wjw_qvg e¨vUvwi| wg_vBj A‡iÄ wb‡`©k‡Ki pH cwimi- 3.1 - 4.4
 H2 †m‡j dz‡q‡ji Drm- cvwb| dz‡qj †m‡j wbiwew”Qbœ we`y¨r Drcv`b †KvbwUi Dci wbf©i K‡i- dz‡q‡ji
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb-Aw·‡Rb dz‡qj †m‡ji abvZ¥K ZworØvi MÖvdvB‡Ui Dci mieiv‡ni Dci|
†KvbwUi Av¯ÍiY- wb‡Kj| †jW †÷v‡iR e¨vUvwi‡Z eëüZ H2SO4 Gwm‡Wi NbgvÎv- 4.5M
B‡jKUªb †fvë wK‡mi GKK- kw³|
TYPE-02: GKbR‡i Zwor cÖev‡ni m~Îvejx:

= cÖ‡qvRbxq Zzj¨v¼ (e)
Q = ‡gvU PvR© (Kzj¤^) Al  2, Ag  1, Zn  2, Cr  3,
W VSTP VSATP x
Q = enF n= = = =
M 22.4 24.8 NA
e = †hvR¨Zv/PvR©/Zzj¨v¼, w = fi, M = avZzi O  2, H  1, Cl  1, Ni  2
cvigvYweK fi (M¨v‡mi †ÿ‡Î AvYweK fi) FeO  2, FeCl3  3
CuCl  1, CuSO4  2, H2O4
 W =  .It  W = Z.It
W It M
Abywm×všÍ Q = enF  n= =
M eF eF
TYPE-03: Zwor †Kv‡li wefe ev ZworØvi wefe ev EMF ev Ecell wbY©qt
=
EMF = (eo gvb - †QvU gvb)
¯^ZtùzZ© wewµqvi †ÿ‡Î e.m.f. = +ve
Avi ¯^ZtùyZ© bv n‡j e.m.f. = –ve
 wewµqv ¯^Ztù~Z©Zvi wPý: Ecell > 0 ev emf = (+ve) wewµqvwU ¯^Ztù~Z© ev m¤¢e ev NU‡e|
Ecell < 0 ev emf = (–ve) wewµqvwU ¯^Ztù~Z© bq ev Am¤¢e ev NU‡e bv|
Ecell = 0 ev emf = 0 n‡j mvg¨ve¯’v AR©b Ki‡e A_©vr The cell is dead|
 A¨v‡bvW ‡Pbvi DcvqÑ  hvi RviY wef‡ei abvZ¥K gvb †ekx
 hvi weRviY wef‡ei FYvZ¥K gvb ‡ekx
 cvÎ‡K me©`v A¨v‡bvW ai‡Z n‡e|
⚽ ¸”Q fwZ© cixÿv MvwYwZK imvqb ⚽
imvq‡b 3 fv‡e cÖkœ Av‡m

01. cÖ_g I wØZxqcÎ UwcK
02. •Re imvqb
03. MvwYwZK imvqb
wcwWGd †c‡Z
K‡g›U e‡· jÿ¨ K‡iv
†gv. †nv‡mb Avjx

†jLK, †Kwgw÷ª cøvm
†jLK, †bUIqvK© K…wl wek¦we`¨vjq fwZ© mnvwqKv
†jLK, dvg©vb‡jR (Rvwe wW mnvwqKv)
cÖavb m¤úv`K, Avm‡c± wmwiR
 HOSSAIN SIR CHEMISTRY MATH SOULTION  30
¸”Q fwZ© cixÿvi Rb¨ 32wU AvB‡Ug †Ìqv n‡q‡Q hv †_‡K 3-5 wU cÖkœ _vK‡Z cv‡i|
imvqb ¸bMZ imvqb imvqb
1g cÎ QUALITATIVE CHEMISTRY 2q Aa¨vq
ITEM : 01 cigvYyyi  I  Kbvi msL¨v wbY©qK mgm¨vt (S&T)
TRICKS
fi msL¨vi cv_©K¨
TIPS
(i)  KYvi msL¨v =
&
4
(ii)  KYvi msL¨v = bZzb †g․‡ji †cÖvUb msL¨v + 2  KYvi †cÖvUb msL¨v  Av‡Mi †g․‡ji †cÖvUb msL¨v
Problem:
228
90 Th 83
212
Bi GB †ZRw®Œq wewµqvq wbM©Z I  KYvi msL¨v †ei Ki|
fi msL¨vi cv_©K¨ 228–212
Solve: (i)  KYvi msL¨v= = 4 =4
4
(ii)  KYvi msL¨v = bZzb †g․‡ji †cÖvUb msL¨v + KYvi msL¨v  2  Av‡Mi †g․‡ji †cÖvUb msL¨v = (83+42)-90=1
ITEM : 02 Zi½ •`N¨© RwbZ mgm¨v t

 GLvb †_‡K †h mgm¨v ¸‡jv cix¶vq Avm‡Zcv‡i
TRICKS
1. nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cvigvbweK eY©vjxi 4_© kw³¯Íi †_‡K 2q kw³¯Í‡i AvMZ iwk¥i Zi½ •`N¨© A_ev Zi½ msL¨v KZ n‡e
TIPS
2. nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cvigvbweK eY©vjxi †h †Kvb wmwi‡Ri n Zg jvB‡bi Zi½ •`N¨© ev Zi½ msL¨v KZ|
&
3. nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cvigvbweK eY©vjxi †h †Kvb wmwi‡Ri m‡e©v”P A_ev me©wbgœ iwk¥i Zi½ •`N¨© ev Zi½ msL¨v KZ|
1 1 1
wiWevM© mgxKib g‡Z,Zi½ msL¨v a = =RH( 2 - 2 )
 n1 n2
A_©vr Zi½ msL¨v D‡ëvB w`‡j Zi½ •`N¨© cvIqv hvq| GLv‡b n1 Ges n2 Gi gvb wbY©q Ki‡Z cvi‡jB Sv‡gjv †kl|
 Type-01: mivmwi kw³¯Íi †Ìqv _vK‡j, n1= ‡QvU gvb, n2= eo gvb
Problem: nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cvigvbweK eY©vjwi 4_© kw³¯Íi †_‡K wØZxq kw³¯Í‡i AvMZ Av‡jvK iwk¥i Zi½ •`N¨© Ges Zi½ msL¨v wbY©q Ki|
1 1 1 GLv‡b,
Solve: Zi½ •`N©¨,=R ( 2 - 2 )
 H n1 n2 n1= ‡QvU gvb=2,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4-1 n2= eo gvb=4
 =RH( 2 - 2 ), =RH( - ), =RH( ),
 2 4  4 16  16 [‡h‡nZz calculator bvB ZvB gvb¸‡jv Gfv‡eB †Ìqv _vK‡e]
1 3RH 1 3RH
=( ) = a =( ) (GUv Zi½ msL¨v)
 16  16
16
GLb Avgiv Lye mn‡R Zi½ •`N¨© DëvB w`‡q Zi½ •`N¨© wbY©q Ki‡Z cvwi Zi½ •`N¨© = 3R
H
 Type-02: As‡Ki g‡a¨ hw` jvBb K_vUv D‡jøL _v‡K Zvn‡j n1=‡h wmwiR ej‡e †m Abyhvqx n2= n1+ jvBb msL¨v
Problem: nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cvigvbweK eY©vjxi evgvi wmwi‡Ri 3q jvB‡bi Zi½ •`N¨©I Zi½ msL¨v wbY©q Ki|
Solve: GLv‡b †h‡nZz evgvi wmwi‡Ri K_v ejv n‡q‡Q ZvB, n1=2, n1=2+jvBb msL¨v =2+3, =5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 25-4 21R
 Zi½ msL¨v, a = =R ( 2 - 2 ), =R ( 2 - 2 ), =RH(4 -25 ), =RH( 100 ),= 100H
 H n1 n2  H 2 5
100
GLb Zi½ msL¨v †K DëvB w`‡j Avgiv cve Zi½ •`N¨©  = 21R
H

 Type-03: hw` me©wbgœ K_v D‡jøL _v‡K Zvn‡j n1= ‡h wmwiR ej‡e †m Abyhvqx
‡hgb jvB‡gb ej‡j n1=1 evgvi ej‡j n1=2 Ges n2= n1+1
Problem: nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cvigvbweK eY©vjxi evgvi wmwi‡Ri me©wbgœ ivwk¥i Zi½ •`N©¨ I Zi½ msL¨v KZ|
1 1 1 1 1 9-4
Solve: GLv‡b n1 = 2 (‡h‡nZz evgvi wmwi‡Ri K_v ejv n‡q‡Q|) n2=2+1=3 =R ( 2 - 2 ) = RH(4 - 9 ) =RH( 36 ),
 H 2 3
1 5R 36
 Zi½ msL¨= = a = 36H GLb Avgiv Zi½ msL¨v DëvB w`‡jB Zi½ •`N©¨ cv‡ev  = 5R
 H
 Type-04: hw` m‡ev©”P K_v D‡jøL _v‡K Zvn‡j n1= ‡h wmwiR ej‡e †m Abyhvqx †hgb evgvi ej‡j n1 = 2 c¨v‡ðb ej‡j n1=3 Ges n2=
Problem: nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cvigvbweK eY©vjxi evgvi wmwi‡Ri m‡e©v”P iwk¥ Zi½ •`N©¨ I Zi½ msL¨v KZ ;
1 1 1 1 1 1 R R 4
Solve: GLv‡b, n1=2, n2=  =RH( - ), =RH4 , = 4H , = 4H , GLb Zi½ msL¨v  a = R
 22  2   H
–=1=
kU©KvU: m‡e©v”P k‡ãi †ÿ‡Î Zi½ •`N©¨ ev Zi½ msL¨vi mgvb V
RH
 (wmwiR bs)2
ITEM :03 `ªve¨Zv ¸Ydj (S)m¤úwK©Z mgm¨v-
TRICKS
TIPS
&
m
`ªve¨Zv, S =  100 ‡QvU m=‡QvU fi, eo M= eo fi
Mm
Problem: wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq GKwU e¯‘i 60 g m¤ú„³ `ªeY ïwK‡q †djvi ci 10 g Zjvwb cvIqv hvq| D³ ZvcgvÎvq `ªexf~Z e¯‘wUi `ªve¨Zv
KZ? (g cÖwZ 100 g `ªveK)
m 10
Solve: S =  100   100  20
Mm 60 - 10
ITEM : 04 `ªve¨Zv ¸Ydj (Ksp) m¤úwK©Z mgm¨v- S&T

m¤ú„³ `ªe‡Y AvqwbK ¸YdjB n‡jv `ªve¨Zv ¸Ydj| Gevi mvavib mgxKiYwU j¶¨ Ki-
TRICKS
XaYb aXb++bYa- Ksp= [Xb+]a[Ya-]b
TIPS
A_©r †Kvb ‡g․‡ji mvg‡b †h aªæeK wU _v‡K ‡mwU GKB mv‡_ ¸b I cvIqvi wnmv‡e hy³ n‡e|
&
mZ©K ms‡KZ: Dc‡iv³ m~‡Î `ªve¨Zvi GKK molL-1(†gvj/wj:) GK‡K _v‡K hw` bv _v‡K `ªve¨Zvi GKK
(MÖvg/wj:) g.L-1 G _vK‡j cÖ_‡g, `ªve¨Zv (‡gvj/wj:) molL-1 G Ki‡Z n‡e |
g.L1
Zvici Dc‡ii m~Î emv‡Z n‡e| `ªve¨Zv (‡gvj/wj:) = GLv‡b M= AvbweK fi
M
Shortcut
K¨vUvq‡bi mnM
Ksp=( K¨vUvq‡bi mnM) × (A¨vb¨vq‡bi mnM) A¨vb¨vq‡bi mnM×(`ªve¨Zv) K¨vUvq‡bi mnM+ A¨vb¨vq‡bi mnM
Problem: 25° C ZvcgvÎvq BaSO4 Gi m¤ú„³ `ªe‡Y Ba2+ Gi NbgvÎv 4.010-5 mol L-1 GB ZvcgvÎvq BaSO4 -Gi `ªve¨Zv ¸bdj Ksp
Gi gvb mol2L-2 GK‡K KZ?
Solve: BaSO4Ba2+ + SO42- Ksp =[Ba2+][SO42-] = 4.01054.010-5 = 1.610-9, [Ba2+] = [SO42-]= 4.0105
Problem: 25° C ZvcgvÎvq Ag2CO3 Gi `ªve¨Zv ¸Ydj 6.210-12 Gi `ªve¨Zv wn‡me Ki|
2 K sp
2Ag+ + CO3 ,Ksp = (2S)2 S= 4 S3 ev, S = = 1.1610-4 mol/L Ksp = 6.210–12
1
Solve: Ag2CO3 ( ) 3
4

ITEM : 05 Av‡jvi MwZ I Zi½ msL¨v
(i) c = v   GLv‡b, c = Av‡jvi MwZ, v = wd«Kz¨‡qwÝ,  = Zi½‣`N©¨
TRICKS
TIPS
1
(ii)  = GLv‡b,  = Zi½ msL¨v ,  = Zi½‣`N©¨
&

Problem: GKwU †iwW‡qk‡bi Zi½‣`N¨© 450nm n‡j Gi Zi½ msL¨v wbY©q Ki|
– = 1 –
Solve:  =
1
= 0.00222107cm–1 = 2.22104cm–1
 450  10–7 cm
imvqb cwigvYMZ imvqb imvqb

2q cÎ QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY 3q Aa¨vq
ITEM : 01 S&T TRICKS

&
TIPS
m1 m2 V
EXCLUSIVE LAW : = =
M1 M2 22.4
Problem: 50g CaCO3 ‡K DËß Ki‡i KZ AvqZb co2 cvIqv hv‡e -

m1 V 50 V
Solve: CaCO3→CaO+CO2 ,
M1 = 22.4 , 100 = 22.4 , V= 11.2L
Problem: 95% weï× Pzbvcv_‡ii 200 gm ‡K DËß Ki‡j KZ MÖvg Pzb cvIqv hvq?
Solve: 95% and CaCO3 of 200g = 0.95  200= 190g ; mCaCO3  mCaO 
190 mCaO 
 mCaO =106.4 g
M CaCO3 M CaO 100 56
 mZK©t G ai‡bi mgm¨vq `ywU gvb †Ìqv _vK‡j ïaygvÎ eo cvigvYweK fi‡K a‡i wnmve Ki‡jB Pj‡e| 
ITEM : 02 kZKiv mshyw³ ev kZK cÖwZ cwigvYt S&T
TRICKS
cÖ`Ë †g․j ev †h․‡Mi AvYweK fi TIPS
(kZKiv mshyw³ wbY©q)t kZKiv mshyw³ =  100 &
†gvU AvYweK fi
Problem: Zz‡Zui ùwU‡K cvwbi kZKiv cwigvY KZ?

Solve: Zz‡Zi ms‡KZ = CuSO4. 5H2O , Avt fi = 63.51 + 321 + 164 + 5(21 + 16)= 249.5 cvwbi cwigvY =
5  18
 100 = 36.072%
249.5
Problem: wPwb‡Z Kve©‡bi kZKiv cwigvb KZ?
Solve: wPwbi ms‡KZ- C12H22O11 wPwbi AvbweK fi = 1212 + 122 + 1611= 342; %C  144  100 = 42.1
342
 Item: ‡Kjv‡m cvwbi †gvj msL¨v wbY©q
%
×cvwb e¨vwZZ Aci As‡ki AvbweK fi
100
m~Î: cvwbi †gvj msL¨v n n‡j n= %
cvwbi AvbweK fi ×cvwbi AvYweK fi
100
Problem: ‡mvWv A¨v‡k cvwbi kZKiv cwigvb 62.93% n‡j †mvWv As‡k cvwbi †gvj msL¨v KZ ?
Solve: awi, †mvWv As‡ki ms‡KZ Na2CO3, nH2O

% 62 .23
cvwb e¨vwZZ Aci As‡ki AvbweK fi  106
100 0.6293 106 66.71 66 .71
 n= = 100 = = = 10
cvwbi AvbweK fi
%
×cvwbi AvYweK fi 18 
62 .93
 18 18  0.6293 18 18  11.3 6.66
100 100
TRICKS
TIPS
ITEM : 03 GK‡Ki iƒcvšÍi m¤úwK©Z mgm¨vt S&T
&
%  10
 hw` % _v‡K ‡UKwbKt ‡gvjvwiwU ev †gvjvi NbgvÎv, S = [Hints :GB m~Î mKj % Gi †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨]
M
Problem: 5.3% Na2CO3 `ªe‡Yi gvÎv †gvjvwiwU‡Z KZ?
5.3  10
Solve: Na2CO3 = 232 + 121 + 163 = 106 myZivs S   0.5
106
ppm GK‡K gvb
 ‡gvjvwiwU ‡_‡K ppm wbY©‡qi ‡UKwbKt S = 10–3
M
Problem: NaOH `ªe‡Yi NbgvÎv 400ppm n‡j Zv †gvjvwiwU‡Z KZ n‡e?
400
Solve: S   10  3  0.01M
40
Problem: GKwU cvwbi bgybv 0.01ppm Pb2+ aviY K‡i| `ªe‡Y Pb2+ Avq‡b †gvjvi NbgvÎv KZ?
ppm GK‡K gvb 0.01
Solve: S= 10–3 = 10–3 = 4.8310–8M ev molL–1
M 207
ppm
 ppm GK‡K kZKiv GKK wbY©q, ppm = %  104  % = 4
10
Problem: ‡Kvb NaOH `ªe‡Yi NbgvÎv 200ppm n‡j Zv kZKiv GK‡K iƒcvšÍi Ki?
ppm gvb 200
Solve: % = = 4 = 0.02
104 10
ITEM : 04 ppm , ppb , ppt Gi GKK msµvšÍ mgm¨vt S&T
TRICKS
TIPS
ppm GK‡K gvb wbY©q-
&
hw` % _v‡K: Gai‡bi As‡K ïay kZKiv cwigvb‡K 104 Øviv ¸Y Ki‡jB gvb cvIqv qvq| ppm GK‡K gvb=%  104
Problem: evZv‡m CO2 Gi NbgvÎv 0.036% (AvqZb kZvsk)| GB gvb ppm GK‡K KZ? [DU.2005-06]
Solve: ppm GK‡K gvb = % 104 = 0.036  104 = 360

 Abyiƒc fv‡e, ppb (Parts per billion) GK‡K gvb = %107 , ppt (Parts per trillion) GK‡K gvb = %1010
Problem: evZv‡m bvB‡Uªv‡R‡bi cwigvb 78%. ppb GK‡K GB gvb KZ?
Solve: ppb GK‡K GB gvb= %107 = 78  107= 7.8  108

Problem: evZv‡m CO2 Gi cwigvY 0.03% ppt GK‡K GB gvb KZ?
Solve: †UKwbK Abyhvqxt ppt GK‡K gvb = = %1010 = 0.03  1010= 3.0  108

Problem: ‡Kvb WvjWvi 30g bgybv‡K we‡kølY K‡i 0.06mg wb‡Kj cvIqv †Mj| wb‡K‡ji NbgvÎv ppb GK‡K cÖKvk Ki|
3
Solve: †UKwbK Abyhvqx- S  0.06mg  109  0.06 10 g 109 = 2000ppb
30 g 30 10 g
3
ITEM : 05 c¨v_jwRK¨vj GK‡Ki iæcvšÍÍi m¤úwK©Z mgm¨vt S&T
TRICKS
TIPS
m mol/L  mg/dL
&
18 w`‡q ¸Y
mg/dL  m mol/L 18 w`‡q fvM
Problem: GKRb Wvq‡ewUKm †ivMxi i‡³ Mø‡y Kv‡Ri cwigvb 10 m mol/L n‡j mg/dl GK‡K Gi gvb KZ? [D.U.2013-2014,10-11]
Solve: Møy‡Kv‡Ri cwigvb‡K 18 Øviv ¸b Ki‡jB DËi cvIqv hv‡e| myZivs 1810 = 180
Problem: GKRb †ivMxi i‡³ Mø‡y Kv‡Ri cwigvb 162 mg/dL n‡j m mol/L GK‡K Gi gvb KZ?
162
MEx-1 Møy‡Kv‡Ri cwigvb‡K 18 Øviv fvM Ki‡jB DËi cvIqv hv‡e| myZivs 18  9 ( Ans)
 gRvi wbqg 
 cÖ‡kœ cÖ`Ë gvb 18 A‡c¶v ‡ewk n‡j fvM Ki‡e Ges mgvb ev Kg n‡j ¸Y Ki‡e|
ITEM : 06
TRICKS
mgwš^Z m~Î S&T
TIPS
&
m X V PV
n     VS 
M NA 22.4 RT
GB ms‡hv‡Mi gva¨‡g cÖvq me AsK Kiv hvq| Gevi D`vniY j¶¨ Ki Avi g‡b g‡b m~‡Îi ms‡hvM eySvi †Póv Ki?
Problem: cÖgvb Ae¯’vq 1.7g NH3 M¨v‡mi AvqZb KZ?

1.7
Solve: fi I AvqZ‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK© m  V  V   22.4  2.24 L
M 22.4 17
Problem: CO2 Gi GKwU Abyi fi KZ?
Solve: fi I cigvYyi msL¨vi g‡a¨ m¤ú©Kt X  m  m  X  M  1  44
 7.31  10  23 g
NA M NA 6.023  10 23
ITEM : 07 hZ Av‡Q RviY-weRviY + ivmvqwbK MYbvi mgm¨v, Zvi Dci cvwÛ‡Zï fimvt S&T
TRICKS
‡Zvgiv GZ w`b †h welqwU‡K KwVb evwb‡q †i‡LwQ‡j AvR †mB KwVb welq‡K †mvRv evwb‡q w`w”Q
TIPS
hyMvšÍKvix m~Ît  n  e(Neutralizer) =  n  e(Neutralized)
&
evsjvq- (†gvj msL¨v  Zzj¨ msL¨v)cÖkgvbKvix = (†gvj msL¨v  Zzj¨ msL¨v)cÖkwgZ
m
‡gvjvwiwU I †gvjvi NbgvÎvi †¶‡Î,  vse =  vse n = vs , n = M
‡Zvgv‡ì‡K †gvj msL¨v I Zzj¨ msL¨v‡K cwiPq Kwi‡q w`‡q wQbv? Gevi GKUz we‡kølYx `„wófw½ wb‡q j¶¨ Kit-
 Type–01: Df‡qi NbgvÎv D‡jøL _vK‡j tÑ
Problem: 100ml 0.001M Na2CO3 `ªeb‡K cÖkwgZ Kivi Rb¨ 0.2M HCl `ªe‡bi ‡h AvqZb cÖ‡qvRb n‡e-
Solve: HCl  Na2CO3; V1S1e1 = V2S2e2  V10.21 = 1000.0012  V1 = 1ml
 Type –02: Df‡qi fi D‡jøL _vK‡j tÑ
Problem: 5g †divm mvj‡dU‡K m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c RvwiZ Ki‡Z wb‡gœi KZ MÖvg KMnO4 cÖ‡qvRb n‡e?
Solve: FeSO4 = KMnO4ev, ne = ne ev, m  e  m  e ev, 5  1  m  5 m = 1.0394 1.04 g
M M 152 158
 Type –03: fi I AvqZb, NbgvÎv GK‡Î _vK‡j tÑ
Problem: 2M 200 mL NaOH `ªeY cÖkgb Ki‡Z KZ MÖvg HCl jvM‡e?
m
Solve: HCl = NaOH; m  e1  V2 S 2 e2 ,  1  0.2  2  1 m = 14.6 g (m = ?, M = 36.5, V2 = 0.200dm , S2 = 2M, e2 = 1= e1)
3
M 36.5
 Type –04: NbgvÎvq % _vK‡j tÑ
Problem: 1L M / 20 H 2SO 4 ‡K cÖkwgZ Ki‡Z 5% Na 2 CO 3 Gi KZ AvqZb jvM‡e?

Solve: H2SO4  Na2CO3 m~Î Abymv‡i,V1S1e1  V2S2e2  1  1  2 = V2  5 10  2  V2 = 9.43
20 106
 Type –05: GKvwaK GwmW ¶v‡ii ‡¶‡Î t-

Problem: 20cm3 ‡mwg‡gvjvi HCl, 15cm3 ‡gvjvi H2SO4 Ges 60cm3 †Wwm‡gvjvi HNO3 `ªeY GK‡Î wgwkªZ Kiv n‡jv| G GwmW wgkªY‡K
cÖkwgZ Ki‡Z 100cm3 AvqZ‡bi KZ †gvjvi NaOH `ªeY cÖ‡qvRb ?
Solve: GLv‡b, cÖkgbKvix = 20cm 3 1 MHCl  15cm 3 1M H 2SO 4  60cm 3 1 M HNO 3 Ges cÖkwgZ = 100cm3 NaOH
2 10
m~Îvbymv‡i,200.51+1512+600.11= 100S1 S  10  30  6  0.46M (Ans)
100
†UKwbKt hvi gvb †P‡q‡Q Zv‡K GKcv‡k †i‡L evKxme Ab¨cv‡k †i‡L †hvM Ki‡e|
we‡kl wb‡`k©bv t wewµqvq AskMÖnbKvix GwmW¸‡jv GKcv‡k Ges ¶viK/jeY/avZz Ab¨cv‡k †i‡L †hvM K‡i cÖ‡qvRbxq gvb wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e|
imvqb Zwor imvqb imvqb
2q cÎ ELECTRO CHEMISTRY 4_© Aa¨vq
TRICKS
ITEM : 01 cÖevwnZ Zwor m¤cwK©Z mgm¨t &
TIPS
TRICKS hZ PvR© ZZ =F
GKbR‡i cÖ‡qvRbxq Z_¨t
Ag++e-  Ag, G †¶‡Î we`y¨‡Zi cÖ‡qvRb-1 †gvj 1 †hvRx → 1 †gvj = 196500=1 F
 Cu++ + 2e-  Cu †¶‡Î we`y¨‡Zi cÖ‡qvRb-1 †gvj 2 †hvRx  1 †gvj = 296500=2 F
Cr3+ + 3e-  Cr G †¶‡Î we`y¨‡Zi cÖ‡qvRb-1 †gvj 3 †hvRx  1 †gvj = 396500=3 F
1 mol GK‡hvRx abvZ¡K Avqb‡K weRvwiZ Ki‡Z 1F we`y¨r cÖ‡qvRb|
1 mol wØ-†hvRx abvZ¡K Avqb‡K weRvwiZ Ki‡Z 2F we`y¨r cÖ‡qvRb|
1 mol wÎ-†hvRx abvZ¡K Avqb‡K weRvwiZ Ki‡Z 3F we`y¨r cÖ‡qvRb|
Problem: l mol Cu2+†K weRvwiZ Ki‡Z KZUzKz we`y¨r cÖ‡qvRb n‡e?

Solve: l mol wØ-†hvRx abvZ¥K Avqb‡K weRvwiZ Ki‡Z 2F we`y¨r cÖ‡qvRb|  we`y¨r cÖ‡qvRb = 2F = 296500 = 193000 C
Problem: 3. 1.0 †gvj FeO RvwiZ K‡i Fe2O3 Kiv n‡j KZ we`y¨‡Zi cÖ‡qvRb n‡e?
Solve: Q = PvR© Gi cwieZ©b = 1F = 96500C [Fe 3+2O3Fe2+]
TRICKS
ITEM : 02 ‡gvj msL¨v †_‡K we`y¨‡Zi cwigvY wbY©qt S&T &
TIPS
Q=enF
 Type-01:
Problem: 4 mole KMnO4 Gi g‡a¨ KZ Kzj¤^ we`y¨r Pvjbv Ki‡j Mn2+ n‡e?
Solve: Q=enF=5496500= 1.93106C Here,e=5, n=4 F=96500

 Type-02: B‡j±ªb †gvj msL¨v wbY©q-
Problem: AgNO3 `ªeY †_‡K Zwor cÖ‡jc‡bi mvnv‡h¨ 0.5 †gvj wmjfvi Rgv Ki‡Z KZ †gvj B‡jKUªb cÖ‡qvRb n‡e?
Solve: Total mol = 1.0 ,Here, Electron need = 1.0 – 0.5 = 0.5 mol (Ans)
Problem: GKwU wÎ‡hvRx avZe Avq‡bi 1.0 mole Avqb wK cwigvY we`y¨r cwienb K‡i?
Solve: 1 mol wÎ-†hvRx abvZ¡K Avqb‡K weRvwiZ Ki‡Z 3F we`y¨r cÖ‡qvRb| 3F = 396500= 289500C
ITEM : 03 n
m

V

x

Q S&T
TRICKS
M 22.4 NA F
TIPS
&
m
g~j m~Ît 2. Q = enF Aby wm×v¯Ít Q = enF => It = e M F,e = †hvR¨Zv ,m = fi , M = cvigvYweK fi
 Gevi D`vniY j¶¨ Ki t
Problem: ‡Kvevë mvj‡dU `ªe‡Y 2.0 amp Zwor 10 N›Uv hver cÖevwnZ Ki‡j cøvwUbvg K¨v‡_v‡W 22.0 gm †Kvevë mwÂZ n‡e| †Kvevë
Avq‡bi PvR© KZ?
Solve: It = enF => It = eF m =>e = MIt = 58.7  2  10  3600  2 I=2.0amp, t=103600 sec; m=22.0gm, M=58.7
M mF 96500  22
Problem: GKwU GK †hvRx avZe Avqb 1.6024510–19 C we`y¨r cwienb K‡i Z‡e H avZze 1g †gvj Avqb Kx cwigvY we`y¨r cwienb Ki‡e?
Solve: ‡UKwbKt GK‡hvRx avZe Avqb †gvj‡K weRvwiZ Ki‡Z 1F = 96500C we`y¨r cÖ‡qvRb| AsK Kivi cÖ‡hvRb †bB|
Problem: wmjfvi bvB‡UªU `ªe‡Yi ga¨ w`‡q 1.5A we`y¨r KZ¶Y cÖevwnZ Ki‡j 1.89g wmjfvi mwÂZ n‡e?
Solve: m = MIt ev, t  meF = 1.89  1  96500  1125.8 sec
eF MI 108  1.5
ITEM : 04 ‡Kv‡li Zwor PvjK ej (EMF)t S&T+MC
TRICKS
g~j m~Ît EMF = A¨v‡bv‡W RviY + K¨v‡_v‡W weRviY Gevi wewfbœ DcvË †_‡K A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW m¤ú‡K© ¯úó aviYv wb‡Z n‡e|
TIPS
&
g‡b ivLvi gRvi wbqg
 EMF =eo gvb - †QvU gvb [wewµqvwU hLb ¯^Ztù~Z© ev m¤¢e ev NU‡e]
© vi wPýt  Ecell ev EMF = (+ve) wewµqvwU ¯^Ztù~Z© ev m¤¢e ev NU‡e|
wewµqv ¯^Zù~ZZ
 Ecell ev EMF = (-ve) wewµqvwU A¯^Ztù~Z© ev Am¤¢e ev NU‡e bv|
Problem: Zn/Zn I Ag/Ag+ Zwor Øvi `ywU Øviv MwVZ †Kv‡li EMF KZ? E Zn / Zn 2  = 0.76V, E Ag / Ag  = -0.799V
2+
Solve: E ‡Kvl = A¨v‡bv‡W RviY + K¨v‡_v‡W weRviY = 0.76 + 0.799 = 1.559V 

Zn (A¨v‡bvW)
Abyiæc mgvavbt EMF = eo gvb - †QvU gvb= 0.76 - (- 0.799) = 1.559V Ag (K¨v‡_vW)
Problem: GKwU Zwor †Kv‡l wbgœ wjwLZ wewµqvwU msNwUZ nq t Zn + 2Ag+ = Zn2+ + 2Ag
Zn/Zn2+ Ges Ag/Ag+ ZworØ‡qi RviY wefe h_vµ‡g +0.799 †fvë Ges -0.7 ‡fvë| Zwor †KvlwUi †gvU wefe KZ MYbv Ki|
Solve: Zwor †gvU wefe = A¨v‡bv‡W RviY + K¨v‡_v‡W weRviY = 0.799+ 0.70 = 1.499V Zn (A¨v‡bvW)
Abyiæcfv‡e, EMF = eo gvb - †QvU gvb= 0.799 - (- 0.7) = 1.499V Ag (K¨v‡_vW)
 avZe cv‡Î †Kvb avZz ivLv m¤úwK©Z mgm¨v-
 mvavib wbqgt
wbqg-01t cÖ_‡g wewµqvwU NU‡e wKbv Zv wP¯Ív Ki‡e| hw` N‡U, Z‡e Zv H cv‡Î ivLv hv‡e bv| Ab¨_vq ivLv hv‡e|
wbqg-02t MvwYwZK EMF-Gi gvb †_‡KI wbY©q Kiv hvq-
K. hw` abvZœK gvb ‡Ìqv _v‡K Z‡e cv‡Îi gvb †_‡K mivmwi Aci gvb we‡qvM Ki‡jB EMF cvIqv hvq| cvÎ‡K abvZœK we‡ePbv Ki‡e|
L. hw` FbvZœK gvb ‡Ìqv _v‡K Z‡e cv‡Îi gv‡bi mv‡_ Aci gvb ‡hvM Ki‡jB EMF cvIqv hvq|
wbqg-03t †UKwbK
g‡b ivLvi gRvi wbqg
 cvÎ mwµqZv wmwi‡R Dc‡i _vK‡j J cv‡Î ivLv hv‡e bv|
 cvÎ mwµqZv wmwi‡R wb‡P _vK‡j J cv‡Î ivLv hv‡e|
Problem: wRsK ev `¯Ívi cv‡Î FeSO4 `ªeY ivLv hv‡e Kx? hyw³`vI|‡ÌqvAv‡Q, E  OX Zn/Zn2+= +0.76V Ges Fe/Fe2+ = 0.44
2e
Solve: wRs‡Ki RviY wefe Avqi‡bi †P‡q †ewk; ZvB wb‡gœv³ †Kvl wewµqv NU‡e| Zn+Fe2+   Zn2+ + Fe
e.m.f. = A¨v‡bv‡W RviY + K¨v‡_v‡W weRviY = 0.76+( -) 0.44 = 0.32 V Zn (A¨v‡bvW)
Fe (K¨v‡_vW)
1 bs wbqg Abymv‡i, Zn+FeSO4 wewµqvwU ¯^ZùyZ©fv‡e NU‡e
2 (K) Abymv‡i ,cv‡Îi gvb‡K abvZœK a‡i Aci gvb we‡qvM Ki‡jB mivmwi EMF cvIqv hvq| †hgbt
cv‡Îi gvb - Aci gvb = 0.76-0.44 = 0.32V †gvU wef‡ei gvb abvZœK ZvB ¯^Ztù~Z© wewµqv NU‡e|
GRb¨ wRs‡Ki cv‡Î Fe2+ `ªe‡Y ivLv hv‡e bv|
wbqg-03t †UKwbK Abymv‡i , cvÎ (wRsK ) mwµqZv wmwi‡R Avqi‡bi Dc‡i ZvB J cv‡Î ivLv hv‡e bv
Problem: Zvgv ev Kcvi avZzi cv‡Î MgSO4 `ªeY ivLv hv‡e Kx? hyw³ `vI|
 
Solve: ‡`qv Av‡Q, E red , Cu2+/Cu = -0.34V E red , Mg2+/Mg = -2.3V
wbqg-03t †UKwbK Abymv‡i , cvÎ (Zvgv ) mwµqZv wmwi‡R Mg Gi wb‡P ZvB J cv‡Î ivLv hv‡e |
imvqb ivmvqwbK cwieZ©b imvqb
1g cÎ CHEMICAL CHANGE Y 4_© Aa¨vq
ITEM : 01 wewµqvi Mo MwZ‡eM msµvšÍ mgm¨vtÑ S&T
TRICKS
TIPS
–c x
&
m~Ît wewµqvi nvi ev, Mo MwZ‡eM, =
t t
Problem: B_vBj A¨vwm‡UU G÷vi‡K jNy Gwm‡Wi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z Av`ª© we‡køwlZ Ki‡j 1.0 N›Uv mg‡qi ci H G÷v‡ii NbgvÎv 1.0mol L–1 †_‡K
n«vm †c‡q 0.5mol L–1 nq| G mg‡qi eëav‡b wewµqvwUi Mo MwZ‡eM wbY©q Ki|
 c   0.5
Solve: wewµqvi Mo MwZ‡eM=   1.39  10  4 mol L1s 1 GLv‡b, c = (0.5–1.0) = –0.5mol L–1, t = 1hr = 3600s
t 3600 s
ITEM : 02 wewµqvi Mo MwZ ev Zvr¶wbK MwZ wbY©q m¤úwK©Z mgm¨vtÑ S&T
TRICKS
aA + bB  mM + nN
1 A 1 B 1 M 1 N TIPS
wewµqvi nvi =    
&
a t b t m t n t
1 dA 1 dB 1 dM 1 dN
Zvr¶wYK MwZ =    
a dt b dt m dt n dt
Problem: N2O5 Gi we‡qvR‡bi mgxKiY: 2N2O5 4NO2 + O2 G wewµqvi †¶‡Î hw` wewµqv ïiæ nIqvi 2 wgwbU 15 †m‡K‡Û NO2
Gi NbgvÎv 5.2510–2mol.L–1 e„w× cvq| Z‡e wewµqvi nvi wbY©q Ki|
1 NO 2  1 5.25  10 2
Solve: m~Îvbymv‡i, wewµqvi nvi =     9.722  10  5 mol L1s 1
4 t 4 135
Problem: ‘P’ Ges ‘Q’ wewµq‡Ki cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki cÖviw¤¢K NbgvÎv 0.20 mol/dm-3| wewµqvwUi cÖviw¤¢K MwZ 1.610-4 mol dm-3 s-1| wewµqvwUi
MwZ aªæeK MYbv Ki|
1.6  10 4
 kP 0  Q0 ev, k 
dC
Solve: wewµqvi cÖviw¤¢K MwZ  = 4.010-3 dm3 mol-1 s-1| GLv‡b, [P]0 = [Q]0 = 0.20 mol dm-3 cÖviw¤¢K
dt 0.2  0.2
MwZ = 1.610-4 mol dm-3 s-1
ITEM : 03 we‡qvRb gvÎv m¤úwK©Z:- S&T
TRICKS
TIPS
=we‡qvRb gvÎv (%),p= Pvc
&
1
=2
kp
p
Problem: 250C ZvcgvÎvq 3.5atm Pv‡c N2O4 Gi we‡qvRb gvÎv KZ n‡e ? †hLv‡b kp=.145 atm
1 kp 1 .145
Solve: = = = .26 = 26%
2 p 2 5
 PCl5 Gi wewµqv m¤úwK©Z : PCl5 PCl3 +Cl2

 2 PPCl3  PCl 2
(i) Kp= ×P [hw` % _v‡K] (ii) Kp= [hw` % bv _v‡K]
1 2 PPCl5
Problem: 250C ZvcgvÎv 31.5 evqyPv‡c 15.6% PCl5 we‡qvwRZ nq| D³ we‡qvR‡b Kp Gi gvb KZ?
2 (.156 ) 2
Solve: kp= ×p = ×31.5 = 0.79
1 2 1  (1.56 ) 2
ITEM : 04 N2O4 Gi wewµqv m¤úwK©Z S&T
TRICKS
TIPS
4 2 P 2 NO 2
&
i) kp= ×p (hw` cÖkœ % _v‡K) ii) kp= [hw` cÖkœ % bv _v‡K]
1 2 PN 2 O 4
Problem: 50°C DòZvq N2O4 we‡qvR‡bi KP Gi gvb 3.11 atm| mvg¨wgkª‡Y NO2 Gi AvswkK Pvc 0.45 atm n‡j N2O4 Gi AvswkK Pvc KZ?
Solve: N2O4 2NO2 Kp=

P 2 NO 2

0.452  0.065 atm GLv‡b, KP = 3.11 atm PNO2 = 0.45 atm , PN 2O4 = ?
PN 2 O 4 3.11
Problem: 250C ZvcgÎvq Ges 1atm Pv‡c 80% N2O4 we‡qvwRZ n‡j Kp Gi gvb KZ?
4 2 4  (0.8) 2
Solve: Kp= ×P= ×1=7.11 atm
1 2 1  (0.8) 2
ITEM : 05 NbgvÎv †_‡K pH ev pOH wbY©q- MC

TRICKS
TIPS
†UKwbKt g‡b ivL‡e, g‡bv †cÖvwUK A‡¤øi †¶‡Î `kwg‡Ki c‡i 1 wewkó As‡Ki
&
Rb¨ `kwg‡Ki ci hZwU AsK _vK‡e pH ZZ n‡e| wnmv‡ei ìKvi nq bv|
cixÿvq H+ Avqb/OH Avq‡bi NbgvÎv `yB fv‡e _vK‡Z cv‡i i) `kwgK eënvi K‡i (0.00a) ii) `k-Gi FYvZ¥K NvZ AvKv‡i (a×10-b)
NbgvÎv †h fv‡eB _vKzK wbqg wKš‘ GKUvB :
Type:-1 :- 0.000a AvKvi _vK‡j [H+ Avq‡bi NbgvÎv]
i) a=1 Ges †h․MwU g‡bv †cÖvwUK n‡j `kwg‡Ki ci cÖ_g Non-zero digit hZ b¤î N‡i _vK‡e ZvB n‡e †h․‡Mi pH
Problem: 0.01M HCl `ªe‡bi pH KZ ?
Solve: pH=2[ `kwg‡Ki ci 2 b¤î N‡i Non-Zero digit].

Problem: 0.001M NaOH `ªe‡bi pH KZ ?
Solve: pH=11 [`kwg‡Ki ci 3 b¤î N‡i Non-zero digit ‡h․MwUi ÿvi e‡j Gi pOH=3 Ges pH=14-3=11]
ii) a1 n‡j Ges g‡bv ‡cÖvwUK n‡j : pH=Non-zero digit Gi Ni msL¨ a× [`kwg‡i ci hZ b¤î N‡i cÖ_g Non-zero digit _vK‡e Zv
†_‡K a Gi gvb‡K  Øviv ¸Y K‡i cÖvß ¸Ydj‡K we‡qvM Ki‡jB pH cvIqv hv‡e ]  Gi gvb mg~n
Example: 0.00a (a1) 3-a× 1<a<5 n‡j  =0.15
Type:-2 :- a×10-b AvKv‡i _vK‡j : 5a<6 n‡j  =0.14
i) a=1 n‡j, pH= wPý e¨wZZ b Gi gvb
6a<7 n‡j  =0.13
Problem: 1×10-5 M HCl Gi pH KZ ?
7a<8 n‡j  =0.12
8a<9 n‡j  =0.11
Solve: pH=5
9a n‡j  =0.105
Problem: 1×10-3M NaOH Gi POH I pH KZ ?
Solve: pOH=3, Ges pH=11

ii) a1 n‡j , pH= wPý e¨wZZ b Gi gvb- a× [we: `ª:  Gi gvb c~‡e© ejv n‡q‡Q]
TRICKS-01.`kwg‡Ki ci hw` Non Zero Digit 1 nq Z‡e- pH = `kwg‡Ki ci hZ AsK

Ex-01: 0.0001 M HNO3 Gi pH KZ? †UKwbKt `kwg‡Ki ci PviwU AsK Av‡Q| pH = 4.
TRICKS-02. `kwg‡Ki ci hw` Non Zero Digit 1 bv nq Z‡e- pH = `kwg‡Ki ci hZ AsK- (‡kl AsK  0.15)
Ex-02: i) 0.002 M HNO3 Gi pH KZ? Solve. pH= 3- (2 0.15)=3-0.30=2.7
ITEM : 06 % †_‡K pH wbY©q- S&T TRICKS

&
TIPS
(a) 2.5% NaOH `ªe‡Yi pH KZ ?

‡UKwbKt [OH–] = %  10  2.5  10  0.625M  pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – {- log(0.625)} = 13.796
M 40
(b) wgwj †gvjvi bvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi pH KZ?
1
wgwj †gvjvi  M  10 3 ‡UKwbKt pH = 3 (wecixZ wPý hy³ power) Abyiƒcfv‡e,
1000
†Wwm †gvjvi `ªe‡Yi pH = 1 , ‡mw›U †gvjvi `ªe‡Yi pH = 2 g‡bv †cÖvwUK Gwm‡Wi †¶‡Î
 Gevi we‡kølYx `„wó wb‡q D`vniY j¶¨ Kit
Problem: 0.002 M mvjwdDwiK GwmW `ªe‡Yi pH nj-
Solve: [H+] = 0.0022 = 0.004  pH = -log [0.004] = 2.4

5
Problem: A¨vwmwUK A‡¤i AvqwbKiY aªæe‡Ki gvb 1.75  10 | GKwU 1 M A‡¤i we‡qvR‡bi cwigvY kZKiv 5 fvM n‡j Zvi pH Gi
gvb wbY©q Ki|
Solve: pH= − log[c] = - log [ 1.75  10 5  1 ]=4.76

ITEM : 07 n¨vÛvimb-†n‡mjevL mgxKiY m¤úwK©Z mgm¨v S&T
n Salt 
evdvi m~‡Îi wewfbœ iæct pH = pKa + log  Salt  ... (i), = pKa + log  V  = pKa + log  n Salt  ..(ii)
 Acid    
TRICKS
   n   n Acid 
TIPS
Acid
 V 
&
= pKa+ log  (VS ) Salt  ...........(iii), = pKa+ log  (VS ) PS  (VS ) ns  .... (iv)
 (VS ) Acid   (VS ) PA  (VS ) nA 
VbSb
(v) Acid / Base ‡¶‡Î- pH = pKa + log [m~ÎwU jeY D‡jøL bv _vK‡j mivmwi cÖ‡qvM Kiv hv‡e|]
Va Sa  VbSb
 Gevi we‡kølYx `„wó wb‡q D`vniY j¶¨ Ki:

Problem: 0.20 molL–1 CH3COONa and 0.15 molL–1 CH3COOH wg‡j GKwU evdvi `ªeY •Zix Kiv nq|
hw` Ka = 1.810–5 nq Zvn‡j H `ªe‡Yi pH KZ?
Problem: 10 ml 0.1 M B_v‡bvwqK GwmW (pKa = 4.76) `ªe‡Y 4 ml 0.1 M NaOH `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j Drcbœ `ªe‡Yi pH gvb KZ n‡e ?
VbSb 4  0.1
Solve: pH = pKa + log = 4.76 + log = 4.58
VaSa  VbSb 10  0.1  4  0.1
 we‡qvRb aªæeK m¤ú©wKZ mgm¨v-
Problem: NH3 Gi KbRy‡MU A¤ø- (NH4+) Gi Ka = 5.810–10 n‡j NH3 Gi Kb Gi gvb KZ?
Solve: Ka  Kb = 10–14 ev, Kb = 10 14 = 1.7210–5 mol/L

5.8  10 10
ITEM : 08 jeY I Gwm‡Wi AbycvZ msµvšÍ mgm¨v- S&T
TRICKS
TIPS
‡UKwbKt m~Î-1t jeY: GwmW = 10pH – pKa:1 m~Î-2t GwmW:je‡Yi ‡¶‡Î = 10pKa – pH:1
&
D`vniYt pH = 5 wewkó GKwU evdvi `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Ki‡Z B_v‡bvwqK GwmW I †mvwWqvg B_v‡bv‡qU wK Abycv‡Z wgwkªZ Ki‡Z n‡e
Zv wbY©q Ki| †Ìqv Av‡Q pKa = 4.8
mgvavbt GwmW:je‡Yi ‡¶‡Î = 10pKa – pH:1= 104.8-5 = 0.63t1 GwmW t jeY = 0.63 t 1
 `ªe‡Yi cÖK…wZ I NbgvÎv msµvšÍ mgm¨v-

Problem: 30 cm3 0.12 M `ªe‡b 15 cm3 0.11 M H2SO4 †hvM Ki‡j `ªeYwUi cÖK…wZ Ges NYgvÎv wbY©q Ki|
Solve: Gai‡Yi mgm¨v mgvav‡bi Rb¨ `ªe‡Yi Zzj¨ msL¨v me©`v 1 ai‡e Ges GwmW I ¶v‡ii cÖK…wZ‡K B”QvgZ abvZ¥K ev FYvZ¥K a‡i hw`
abvZ¥K ev FYvZ¥K gvb cvIqv hvq Z‡e GwmW ev ¶vi n‡e|awi, mvj‡dvwiK GwmW FYvZ¥K Ges NaOH abvZ¥K VSe = V1S1e1 +V2S2e2
(30+15)S1=(-) 300.122 + 150.111 = -0.123 `ªe‡Yi cÖK…wZ FYvZ¥K Avi GwmW‡K aiv n‡qwQj FYvZ¥K Kv‡RB `ªeYwU GwmwWq n‡e
Ges NYgvÎv n‡e 0.123|
TRICKS
ITEM : 09 `nb Zv‡c Drcbœ e¯‘i cwigvY wbY©‡qi wbqg S&T &
Drcbœ Zvc TIPS
m~Î: `nb Zv‡c Drcbœ e¯‘i cwigvY = `nb Zvc  AvYweK fi|
3n+1
2 ×O2 Gi AvbweKfi/O2Gi AvqZb×eëüZ A¨vj‡K‡bi cwigvb
O2 Gi cwigvb= A¨vj‡K‡bi AvbweK fi , [n=A¨vj‡K‡b C-msL¨v]
Problem: wg‡_‡bi `nb Gb_vjwc- 890.3kJ mol-1 n‡j 1500 kJ Zc Drcbœ Ki‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq Aw·‡R‡bi AvqZb wbY©q Ki|
Solve: cÖ‡qvRbxq O2= 2  22.4 1500 L=75.48L
890 .3
`nb Zvc
 cÖwZ MÖvg e¯‘ †_‡K Drcbœ Zvc = AvYweK fi
Problem: wg‡_b I B‡_‡bi `nb Zvc h_vµ‡g –758.8kJmol–1 I –1362.68kJmol–1 †KvbwU R¡vjvvwb wn‡m‡e †ekx Dc‡hvMx A_ev Drcbœ Zvc KZ?
wg‡_‡bi `nb Zvc
Solve: GK MÖvg wg‡_b n‡Z Drcbœ Zvc = AvYweK fi = 758.8 = 47.426kJ, GK MÖvg B‡_b n‡Z Drcbœ Zvc = 1362.68 = 45.42kJ
16 30
‡h‡nZz GK MÖvg B‡_b A‡c¶v wg‡_‡b †ekx Zvc Drcvw`Z nq| ZvB R¡vjvbx wn‡m‡e wg‡_b †ek Dc‡hvMx|
imvqb cwi‡ek imvqb imvqb
2q cÎ ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 1g Aa¨vq
ITEM : 01 cÖ‡kœ hw` w¯’i Pvc D‡jøL _v‡K S&T
TRICKS
TIPS
&
PV PV PV PV
n= ----(i), n= ------(ii) ‡h‡nZz Dfq cv‡k n i‡q‡Q ZvB Avgiv wjL‡Z cvwi RT =RT
RT RT
Step-1: ‡h‡nZz Pvc w¯’i †m‡nZz g~j myÎ Z‡K Pvc ev` w`‡q †è|
Step-2: ‡h‡nZz Avgiv R Gi gvb L atm G emv‡ev ZvB R †KI ev` w`‡q w`‡e | Gevi we‡kølbx m„wó wb‡q jÿ Ki:
PV PV V V
L.HS=R.H.S, = , = [Step I Ges Step 2 Abymv‡i]
RT RT T T
Problem: 3270C ZvcgvÎvq GKwU M¨v‡mi AvqZb xL n‡j 270C ZvcgvÎvq M¨vmwUi AvqZb KZ n‡e?
v V VT x  300 x
Solve: 1 = 2 V2= 1 2 = = wK?? Dc‡ii K_vi mv‡_ wg‡j †MjZ !!!!
T1 T2 T1 600 2
Problem: w¯’i Pv‡c 270C ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi AvqZb 300cm3 n‡j KZ ZvcgvÎvq Zvi AvqZb wØ¸b n‡e|
v V VT x  300 2  300  300
Solve: 1 = 2 T2= 1 2 = = =600k=3270C wKfv‡e m¤¢e ???????
T1 T2 T1 600 300
 HOSSAIN METHOD 
 cÖ‡kœ w¯’i Pvc D‡jøL _vK‡j (VT) AvqZb ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK A_©vr ZvcgvÎv hZ evo‡e AvqZbI ZZ evo‡e|
Problem: Pvc AcwiewZ©Z †i‡L wbw`©ó cwigvY †Kvb M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv KZ n‡j Zvi AvqZb wØ¸b n‡e| Avw` ZvcgvÎv = 0°c
‡UKwbKt ‡h‡nZz Pvc w¯’i Ges AvqZb wØ¸b D‡jøL Av‡Q Kv‡RB ZvcgvÎvI wØ¸b n‡e myZivs cwieZ©xZ ZvcgvÎv, T = 2T0 = 2273 = 546K=273°C
MEx-2 13°C ZvcgvÎvq wbw`©ó f‡ii GKwU Av`k© M¨v‡mi AvqZb w¯’i Pv‡c wØ¸b Kiv nj| GB Ae¯’vq M¨vmwUi ZvcgvÎv KZ n‡e?
‡UKwbKt ‡h‡nZz Pvc w¯’i Ges AvqZb wØ¸b Kv‡RB  V  2T  2  (273  13) = 572K= 299C
ITEM : 02 Av`k© M¨vm (PV= nRT) mgxKi‡Yi mgm¨v S&T TRICKS

TIPS
&
Problem: 27°C ZvcgvÎvq 0.526 atm Pv‡c 15 g bvB‡Uªv‡R‡bi AvqZb KZ?

mRT 15 × 0.0821 × 300
Solve: V = = = 25.08 L
MP 28 × 0.526
Problem: 25°C ZvcgvÎvq Ges 0.98 atm Pv‡c GKwU bgybv M¨v‡m 500ml AvqZb `ªeY a‡i| bgybv M¨v‡mi fi 2.24g M¨vmwUi AvYweK fi †ei
Ki?
mRT 2.24 × 0.0821 × (273 + 25)
Solve: M = = = 111.84g
PV 0.98 × 0.5

ITEM : 03 MwZ‡eM m¤úwK©Z mgm¨v S&T
TRICKS
 eM©g~j Mo eM©‡eM wbY©q- ‡Kvb As‡Ki eM©g~j Mo eM©‡eM ev Cr.m.s. wbY©q Ki‡Z
TIPS
&
T
Cr.m.s = 157.9 m~Î eënvi Ki‡jB `ªæZ dj cvIqv hvq|
M
Problem: 10°C ZvcgvÎvq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb AYyi r.m.s ‡eM Ki?
Solve: Cr.m.s= 157.9 T  157.9  283 = 1.87103ms–1

M 2
wb‡`©kbvt DËi mivmwi ms–1 GK‡K P‡j Avm‡e| hw` DËi cms–1 GK‡K _v‡K Z‡e 100 w`‡q ¸Y Ki‡Z n‡e| GQvov cms–1 GK‡K wb‡b¥v³ m~Î
¸‡jv g‡b ivL‡Z cvi-
 eM©g~j Mo eM©‡eM, Cr.m.s = 1.58104 T  mvavib Mo MwZ‡eM, C = 1.45104 T  me‡P‡q †ekx m¤¢ve¨ MwZ‡eM, Cp = 1.29104 T
M M M
 Mo eM©‡eM wbY©q- ‡Kvb M¨v‡mi wZbwU AYyi †eM h_vµ‡g 15 ms , 20 ms Ges 25 ms n‡j M¨vmwUi Mo eM©‡eM KZ?
-1 -1 -1
c12+c22+c32 225+400+625 1250

Traditional Solve : c = = = = 416.67 = 20.65ms-1
3 3 3
Magic Tricks G ai‡bi cÖ‡kœ gvSLv‡bi †e‡Mi gv‡bi (20 ms-1) †P‡q DËi mvgvb¨ †ekx n‡e|
ITEM : 04 MwZ kw³ (Ek = 3 nRT) m¤úwK©Z mgm¨v S&T TRICKS

&
2 TIPS
 ms‡¶‡c `ªæZ AsK Kivi Rb¨- a. MwZkw³, EK = 12.47nT
Problem: 27°C ZvcgvÎvq 5g Aw·‡Rb M¨v‡mi MwZkw³ KZ?

m 5
Solve: Ek = 12.47  T = 12.47  300 = 584.5J
M 32
 GKwU AYyi MwZkw³ ev Mo MwZkw³
Solve: EK = 2.0710–23 T
Problem: 25°C ZvcgvÎvq GK AYy CO2 Gi Mo MwZkw³ KZ?
Solve: GKwU Abyi MwZkw³, EK = 2.0710–23 T= 2.0710–23298 = 6.1710–21J
ITEM : 05 MÖvnv‡gi e¨vcb m~Î m¤úwK©Z mgm¨vt S&T

r1 d2 M 2 V1 t 2 TRICKS
Common Law :  = =  &
r2 d1 M 1 V2 t1 TIPS
Problem: Av‡cw¶K NbZ¡ MYbvt GKwU ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c Kve©b WvBA·vBW Ges I‡Rv‡bi e¨vcb cÖwµqvi nvi h_vµ‡g 0.29m3/sec. Ges
0.271m3/sec.| Kve©b WvBA·vB‡Wi Av‡cw¶K NbZ¡ 22.0 n‡j I‡Rv‡bi Av‡cw¶K NbZ¡ KZ?
0.29 d2
Solve: MÖvnv‡gi e¨vcb m~Î ‡_‡K- r1  d 2 ev,  ev, d 2  25.19
r2 d1 0.271 22.0
Problem: AvYweK fi MYbvt 25°C ZvcgvÎvq CO2 I ARvbv GKwU M¨v‡mi e¨vcb cÖwµqvi nvi h_vµ‡g 218m3/sec. I 266 m3/sec. ARvbv
M¨vmwUi AvYweK fi KZ?
r1 M2 M r 2 44  2182
Solve: MÖvnv‡gi e¨vcb m~Î †_‡K-  ev, M 2  12 1 =  29.55
r2 M1 r2 2662

ITEM : 06 Av`k© M¨v‡mi wePz¨wZ m¤úwK©Z mgm¨v- S&T TRICKS
&
TIPS
 ‡UKwbKt ‡Kvb M¨v‡mi AvbweK fi hZ †ekx nq Av`k© M¨v‡mi wePz¨wZ ZZ †ekx nq|
Problem: HCl, He, CH4, N2 Gi g‡a¨ †Kvb M¨v‡mi wePz¨wZ me‡P‡q Kg n‡e?
Solve: Avgiv Rvwb, hvi AvbweK fi hZ †ekx Av`k© M¨vm Ae¯’v †_‡K Zvi wePz¨wZ ZZ †ekx| HCl, He, CH4 I N2 Gi AvbweK fi h_vµ‡g
36.5, 4, 16 I 28 G‡ì g‡a¨ wnwjqv‡gi AvbweK fi Kg nIqvq Gi wePz¨wZ me‡P‡q Kg n‡e|
Problem: N2, CO2, NO, O2 ev¯‘e M¨vm mg~‡ni g‡a¨ †Kvb M¨v‡mi wePz¨wZ Av`k© M¨vm †_‡K me‡P‡q †ekx n‡e?
Solve: N2, CO2, NO I O2 Gi AvbweK fi h_vµ‡g 28, 44, 30 I 32 Kv‡RB AvbweK fi †ewk nIqvq CO2 Gi wePz¨wZ †ekx n‡e|
D‡jøL¨, AvbweK fi mgvb n‡j wePz¨wZ mgvb n‡e|
e¨wZµg: A¨v‡gvwbqvi wePz¨wZ me‡P‡q †ewk|
imvqb j¨ve‡iUixi wbivc` eënvi imvqb
1g cÎ SAFE USES OF LABORATORY 1g Aa¨vq
Problem: GKwU cj-eyw½ e¨v‡j‡Ý ivBWv‡ii fi 5mg n‡j ivBWvi aªæeK KZ? (me©ev‡g wR‡iv n‡Z Wvb ch©šÍ 50wU `vMv¼b wewkó weg|)
2ivBWv‡ii fi (g) 20.005 GLv‡b,
Solve: ivBWvi aªæeK = ivBWvi †¯‥‡ji fvM msL¨v = 50 ivBWv‡ii fi = 5mg= 0.005g;
= 0.0002g  ivBWvi aªæeK 0.0002g ivBWvi †¯‥‡ji fvM msL¨v = 50
ivBWvi aªæeK = ?
Problem: GKwU cj-eyw½ e¨v‡j‡Ý ivBWvi aªæeK 0.0002 n‡j ivBWv‡ii IRb KZ? (we‡gi evg cÖv‡šÍ 0 n‡Z Wvb cÖv‡šÍ 100 ch©šÍ `vM KvUv Av‡Q|
Solve:
ivBWv‡ii IRb = (ivBWvi aªæeK  we‡gi `vMv¼b)  2 GLv‡b,
ev, ivBWv‡ii IRb = (ivBWvi aªæeK  we‡gi `vMv¼b)  2 ivBWvi aªæeK = 0.0002g; we‡gi `v½vKb = 100; ivBWv‡ii IRb = ?
= (0.0002  100)g  2 =0.01g = 10mg
†R‡b ivLv fvj
ivBWvi aªæeK: ivmvqwbK wbw³i ex‡gi •`‡N¨©i Ici cÖwZ kZvs‡k eëüZ ivBWv‡ii IR‡bi cv_©K¨‡K ivBWvi aªæeK (rider constant) e‡j|
i. 5mg ivBWvi eënvi Ki‡j ZLb ivBWvi aªæeK n‡e=5mg×2/100=0.1mg=0.0001g
ii. hw` 10mg ivBWvi eëüZ nq, ZLb ivBWvi aªæeK n‡e=10mg×2/100=0.2mg=0.0002g
K…wl (¸”Q) wek¦we`¨vjq fwZ© cixÿv_©x‡ì c~Y©v½ cÖ¯‘wZi Rb¨ M„nwkÿ‡Ki weKí GKgvÎ
mnvwqKv...

¸”Q †bUIqvK© 4.0 kU© mv‡Rkb MwYZ cÖ_g cÎ
g¨vwUª· I wbY©vqK
MCQ Gi Rb¨ we‡kl m~Î/‡K․kj:
 AB g¨vwUª· Gi gvÎv = A Gi mvwii msL¨v  B Gi Kjvg msL¨v| A = 0
1 1 1 n

1 n‡j A" = 0 1 , n N
 
a b 1 d  b
c d Gi wecixZ g¨vwUª· = ad  bc =  c a   A=
cos x sin x  n cos nx sin nx 
 KY© g¨vwUª· GKwU cÖwZmg g¨vwUª·|  sin x cos x n‡j A =  sin nx cos nx, nN.
(n  1)2
 A GKwU n  n µ‡gi g¨vwUª· n‡j, Adj (AdjA) = |A| A, |Adj(Adj)| = A
n2
KY© g¨vwUª· 0 b Gi wecixZ g¨vwUªª· 0
a 0 1/a 0

1/b
MEx 01 g¨vwUª· M Gi AvKvi 4  3 Ges N Gi AvKvi 3  5 n‡j MN Gi

MEx 05 
4 2
AvKvi †KvbwU? 3 2  -Gi wecixZ g¨vwUª· †KvbwU?
Solve M  4  3
Solve A = 3 2
35N 4 2
=
1  2 –2 1  2 –2 
1 –1
MN Gi AvKvi 4  5 1
 A–1 =
Det(A)
adj(A) =
8 – 6 –3 4 2 –3 4 –
= =  3 
 0 1 –4  2 2
MEx 02 A = –1 3 n‡j a
MEx 06 
0 Gi †Kvb gv‡bi Rb¨ A GKwU 1 2
 a –3 0 3 4
g¨vwUª· G 2 Gi mn¸YK KZ?
wecÖwZmg g¨vwUª· n‡e? Solve 2 Gi mn¸YK = (–1)1+2 |3| = –3
 0 1 –4 13 16 19
Solve A = –1 0 3 ;
 a –3 0 MEx 07 14 17 20 wbY©vq‡Ki gvb-
15 18 21
 0 –1 4
a = 4 n‡j, AT =  1 0 –3 13 16 19  3  3 19
–4 3 0  c  c  c 
Solve 14 17 20   3  3 20  1 1 2  = 0 [†h‡nZz
 0 1 –4 15 18 21 c2  c 2  c 3 
 3  3 21
= – –1 0 3 = – A
wbY©vq‡Ki cvkvcvwk `yBwU Kjv‡gi Dcv`vb GKB| ]
 4 –3 0
MEx 08 hw` 2x – y 5 6 5
nq Z‡e x = ?
MEx 03 hw` A = 
cos2 –sin2   3 y 3 2
=
 sin2 cos2 Ges [A ] = 1 nq, Z‡e  Gi gvb KZ?
2
2x – y
Solve  3
5 6 5
y = 3 2
Solve A =  sin2 cos2  A2 = sin2 cos2  sin2 cos2 
cos2 –sin2 cos2 –sin2 cos2 –sin2
 2x – y = 6 Ges y = 2  2x – 2 = 6  2x = 8  x = 4
cos22 – sin22 –2sin2 cos2  cos4 –sin4
= 1 1 yz
 2sin2 cos2 cos22 – sin22 = sin4 cos4  z  x wbY©vqKwU gvb KZ?
MEx 09 3.1 1
 [A2] = 1  
cos4 –sin4 1 0
sin4 cos4  = 0 1 1 1 xy
 cos4 = 1 Ges sin4 = 0 1 1 yz
 4 = 0, 2  4 = 0,  Solve 3. 1 1 z  x  0 [†h‡nZz wbY©vq‡Ki cvkvcvwk `yBwU Kjv‡gi
  1 1 xy
  = 0, = 0, 90   = 0, ev, 0, 45
2 4 Dcv`vb GKB|]
p4
MEx 04 
7  a x a
p  5
g¨vwU·wU singular n‡e hw` P Gi gvb nq-
8 MEx 10 hw`  = m nnq, Z‡e Δ = 0 mgxKi‡Yi gyj n‡”Q-
m
p–4 7 b b
Solve  8 p – 5 g¨vwUª·wU singular ZvB wbY©vq‡Ki gvb k~b¨
x
a x 0 a a x
 (p – 4) (p – 5) – 56 = 0 Solve   m m n  0 m n c1  c1  c 2 
 p2 – 4p – 5p + 20 – 56 = 0 b x b bx x b
 p2 – 9p – 36 = 0 a x
 p2 – 12p + 3p – 36 = 0 = b  x   (b  x ) (an  mx )
m n
 p(p – 12) + 3(p – 12) = 0
an
 (p – 12) (p + 3) = 0  p = 12, –3    0  (b  x)(an  mx )  0  x  b,
m
mij‡iLv
 cÖv_wgK Z_¨ e·:
x A‡¶i mgvšÍivj ev y-A‡ÿi Dci j¤^ †iLvi mgxKiY, y = b y A‡¶i mgvšÍivj ev x-A‡ÿi Dci j¤^ †iLvi mgxKiY, x = a
x A‡ÿi mgxKib: y = 0 Y A‡ÿi mgxKib: x = 0
y Aÿ n‡Z †Qw`Z Ask abvZ¥K n‡j †iLvwU DaŸ©Mvgx Ges FYvZ¥K n‡j †iLvwU wb¤œMvgx ‡KvwUØ‡qi AšÍi
‡Kvb †iLvi Xvj m = f~RØ‡qi AšÍi = tan
x-Gi mnM y Gi mnM
†Kvb mij‡iLv ax + by + c = 0 Gi Xvj, m =  ax + by + c = 0 †iLvi j¤^ †iLvi Xvj =
x Gi mnM
y-Gi mnM
†KvwUØ‡qi AšÍi a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 I a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 †iLvØ‡qi †Q`we›`y
`yBwU wbw`©ó we›`y (x1, y1) I (x2, y2) Mvgx mij‡iLvi Xvj = fzRØ‡qi AšÍi b1c2 – c1b2 c1a2 – c2a1 
=
a1b2 – a2b1  a1b2 – a2b1
†h †Kvb cÖKvi `yiZ¡ memgqB abvZ¥K n‡e, Z‡e `yiZ¡ w`‡q †Kvb ARvbv gvb †ei Ki‡Z ej‡j †m‡¶‡Î `yiZ¡  `y‡UvB n‡e
 MvwYwZK mgm¨vmg~n mgvav‡bi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq m~Î I cÖwµqvmg~n:
(i) r = x2 + y2  (iii) x = r cos 
 P(r, ) Gi Rb¨   †cvjvi n‡Z Kv‡Z©mxq
 P(x, y) Gi Rb¨ y   Kv‡Z©mxq n‡Z †cvjvi (iv) y = r sin 
(ii)  = tan–1  
x
`~iZ¡ m~Î
Kv‡Z©mxq ¯’vbv‡¼ P(x1, y1) I Q(x2, y2) `ywU we›`y n‡j D³ we›`yØ‡qi gaëZx© `~iZ¡, PQ = x1  x 2 2  y1  y 2 2 GKK
†cvjvi ¯’vbv‡¼ P(r1, 1) I Q(r2, 2) `ywU we›`y n‡j D³ we›`yØ‡qi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡, PQ  r12  r2 2  2r1r2 cos(1   2 ) GKK
we›`y P(x1,y1) †_‡K †iLv ax+by+c=0 Gi j¤^ `~iZ¡ D =

ax1+by1+c
j¤^ `~iZ¡
 a2+b2 
`yBwU mgvšÍivj †iLvi gaëZ©x c1–c2 
GKwU †iLv ax+by+c1=0 †_‡K Aci GKwU †iLv ax+by+c2=0 Gi gaëZx© `~iZ¡, D =
`~iZ¡  a2+b2
j¤^ AvK…wZi mij‡iLvi Av`k© xcos + ysin = p †hLv‡b, p = g~jwe›`y n‡Z mij‡iLvi Dci Aw¼Z j¤^ `~iZ¡  = x A‡ÿi abvZ¥K w`‡Ki mv‡_
mgxKiY Drcbœ †KvY|
wefw³KiY m~Î
A(x1, y1) Ges B(x2, y2) we›`yØ‡qi ms‡hvRK mij‡iLv‡K C(x, y) we›`ywU m1:m2 Abycv‡Z AšÍwe©f³ Ki‡j,
AšÍwe©fw³ KiY m1 x 2  m 2 x 1 m1 y 2  m 2 y1
x Ges y
m1  m 2 m1  m 2
A(x1, y1) Ges B (x2, y2) we›`yØ‡qi ms‡hvRK mij‡iLv‡K C(x, y) we›`ywU m1 : m 2 Abycv‡Z ewnwe©f³
ewnwe©fw³ KiY m1 x 2  m 2 x 1 m1 y 2  m 2 y1
Ki‡j, x Ges y 
m1  m 2 m1  m 2
 x  x 2 y1  y 2 
ga¨we›`y wbY©q A(x1, y1) Ges B (x2, y2) we›`yØ‡qi ms‡hvRK mij‡iLvi ga¨we›`y :  1 , 
 2 2 
y x1
AÿØq‡K wef³ Ki‡j (x1, y1) I (x2, y2) we›`yØ‡qi ms‡hvM †iLv‡K x Aÿ‡K:  1 , y Aÿ‡K:  x Abycv‡Z wef³ K‡i
y2 2
(x1, y1) , (x2, y2) , (x3 , y3) kxl© wewkó wÎfz‡Ri fi‡K‡›`ªi ¯’vbv¼ (x, y) n‡j,
fi‡K›`ª msµvšÍ x x x3 y  y  y3
x= 1 2 ,y= 1 2
3 3
†¶Îdj wbY©q msµvšÍ
wÎfy‡Ri wZbwU kxl© we›`yi ¯’vbv¼ A(x1, y1), B (x2, y2), C(x3, y3) †Ìqv _vK‡j, wÎfy‡Ri †¶Îdj
wÎfy‡Ri †¶Îdj 1
= {(x1y2 + x2y3 + x3y1) – (x2y1 + x3y2 + x1y3)} eM© GKK
2
eM©/mvgvšÍwi‡Ki †¶Îdj GKwU eM© ev mvgšÍwiK‡K `yBwU me©mg wÎfy‡R wef³ Kiv hvq  †¶Îdj = 2   ABC
a1 b1 c1
 a1x + b1y + c1 = 0, a2x + b2y + c2 = 0, a3x + b3y + c3 = 0 ‡iLvÎq mgwe›`y n‡j, a2 b2 c2 = 0
mg‡iL/mgwe›`y/GKB mgZ‡j/GKB
mij‡iLv Aew¯’Z n‡j a3 b3 c3
y1  y 2 y 2  y3
 wZbwU (x1, y1) (x2, y2), (x3, y3) we›`y mg‡iL nIqvi kZ© n‡”Q we›`yÎ‡qi Xvj mgvb n‡e, x -x = x - x
1 2 2 3
MEx 01 †Kvb we›`yi †cvjvi ¯’vbvsK (3, 150˚) n‡j H we›`yi Kv‡Z©mxq 1
 2a = 1  a =
¯’vbvsK- 2
Solve x = 3cos150 MEx 07 †Kvb †m‡Ui GKwU we›`y Ggb †h, g–jwe›`y n‡Z we›`ywUi `~iZ¡ y-
A¶‡iLv †_‡K Zvi `~i‡Z¦i wØ¸Y; we›`ywUi mÂvic_-
– 3 = – 3 3
= 3.
 2  2 Solve awi, mÂvic‡_i Dci GKwU we›`y P(x, y); y-A¶ n‡Z P-Gi `~iZ¡ = |x|
1 3 cÖkœg‡Z, x  02  y  02  2x
Ges y = 3sin 150˚ = 3.2 = 2
 x2 + y2 = 4x2
 we›`ywUi Kv‡Z©mxq ¯’vbvsK  2  2
–3 3 3  y2 = 3x2
MEx 08 3x – 2y +1 = 0 †iLvi mgvšÍivj Ges g~jwe›`yMvgx †iLvi mgxKiY †KvbwU?
MEx 02 x-A‡¶i Dci Aew¯’Z p we›`y †_‡K (0, 2) I (6, 4) we›`y `yBwU Solve 3x  2y + k = 0 †h‡nZz g~jwe›`yMvgx
mg`~ieZx© n‡j p we›`yi ¯’vbv¼ KZ?  k = 0  mgvšÍivj †iLvi mgxKiY, 3x  2y = 0
Solve awi, x-A‡¶ p we›`yi ¯’vbv¼ p(x, 0); MEx 09 gyjwe›`y n‡Z GKwU †iLvi Dci AswKZ j‡¤î •`N©¨ 2-Ges †iLvwU x
cÖkœg‡Z, x  0  0  2  x  6  0  4 A‡¶i abvZ¥K w`‡Ki mv‡_ 45 †KvY Dcbœ K‡i _vK‡j Zvi mgxKiY-
2 2 2 2
Solve x cos45 + y sin45 = 2

 x2 +4 = x2 12x+36+16
x y
 12x = 48  + = 2
2 2
x=4
x y
 p we›`yi ¯’vbv¼ (4, 0)  + =1
2 2
MEx 03 x  3y = 7 mij‡iLvi Xvj KZ? x+y=2
Solve x  3y = 7   3y =  x + 7 MEx 10 Y Aÿ n‡Z g~j we›`yi wb‡P 5 GKK `xN© Ask LwÛZ K‡i Ges X
1 7 A‡ÿi mv‡_ 60 †KvY Drcbœ K‡i H iKg mij †iLvi mgxKiY KZ?
 3y = x  7  y = x [Bnv y = mx + c AvKvi]  Xvj = 1
3 3 3 Solve y = mx + c
x-Gi mnM 1  y = tan60 x – 5
Tricks: Xvj, m =  =  y = 3x – 5
y-Gi mnM 3
MEx 11  Gi †Kvb gv‡bi Rb¨ (1)x+(+1)y7 = 0 †iLvwU 3x+5y + 7
MEx 04 †h we›`y (1, 4) Ges (9, 12) we›`yØ‡qi ms‡hvMKvix †iLvsk‡K = 0 †iLvi mgvšÍivj n‡e?
AšÍt¯’fv‡e 3t5 Abycv‡Z wef³ K‡i Zvi ¯’vbv¼- Solve cÖ`Ë †iLvØq ci¯úi mgvšÍivj e‡j, XvjØq ci¯úi mgvb n‡e
Solve wb‡Y©q we›`yi ¯’vbv¼:  1 3
   = 4
 3.9  5.1 3.(12)  5.4   32  16   1 5
 , 
  ,   ( 4,  2)
 35 35   8 8  MEx 12 mij‡iLv 3x + 4y  12 = 0 Øviv A¶Ø‡qi gaëZx© LwÐZ As‡ki •`N©¨-
Solve 3x + 4y  12 = 0
MEx 05 A, B, C we›`y¸wji ¯’vbv¼ h_vµ‡g (a, bc), (b, ca), (c, ab) n‡j
ABC Gi †¶Îdj KZ?  x  y 1 y
4 3
Solve ABC Gi †¶Îdj, (0, b)
 A¶Ø‡qi gaëZx© LwÐZ As‡ki •`N©¨ =

1
a(ca  ab)  b(ab  bc)  c(bc  ca) 42  32  5
2 (a, 0)
 
1 1 O x
= a 2 c  a 2 b  ab2  b 2 c  bc 2  c 2 a  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a )
2 2 MEx 13 x = 0, x = 4, y = 1 I y = 5 ‡iLv¸‡jv Øviv Ave× GjvKvi †¶Îdj
MEx 06 (2, 1), (a+1, a3) I (a+2, a) we›`y wZbwU mg‡iL n‡j a Gi gvb- KZ eM© GKK n‡e?
a3+1 aa+3 Solve x = 0 †_‡K x = 4 ch©šÍ •`N©¨ = 4 GKK; Avevi, y = 1 †_‡K y
Solve = 5 ch©šÍ cÖ¯’ = 4 GKK
a+12 a+2a1 =
 a  2 = 3(a  1) = 3a  3  Ave× †¶Î A_©vr PZzfz©‡Ri †¶Îdj = •`N©¨  cÖ¯’ = 44 = 16 GKK
e„Ë
 cÖv_wgK Z_¨ e·:
e„‡Ëi x Ges y Df‡qi wØNvZ hy³ c` _vK‡e mgxKiYwU ‘xy’ m¤^wjZ c` ewR©Z| C = 0 n‡j e„ËwU g~jwe›`yMvgx
f = 0 n‡j e„‡Ëi †K›`ª X-A‡¶i Dci Aew¯’Z nq x2 Ges y2 Gi mnM mgvb e„‡Ëi †ÿÎdj = r2
g = 0 n‡j e„‡Ëi †K›`ª Y-A‡¶i Dci Aew¯’Z nq e„‡Ë AšÍwj©wLZ mgevû wÎfz‡Ri evûi •`N¨© = 3 R we›`y e„Ë n‡Z n‡j, e¨vmva© = 0 n‡Z nq
e„‡Ë AšÍwj©wLZ mgevû wÎfz‡Ri †¶Îdj = 3 e„‡Ëi hv wKQzB †ei Ki‡Z ejyK, me©cÖ_g x2 I y2 Gi †K›`ª PvB‡j, x Gi mnM‡K (2) I y
(a ) 2
4 mnMØq‡K 1 evbv‡Z n‡e Gi mM‡K (2) w`‡q fvM Ki‡Z n‡e
 MvwYwZK mgm¨vmg~n mgvav‡bi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq m~Î I cÖwµqvmg~n:
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 e„‡Ëi Rb¨
(i ) †K›`ª (–g, –f) (vi) x-A¶‡K ¯úk© Ki‡j, c = g2
(ix) y-A¶ †_‡K †Qw`Z R¨vÕi •`N©¨ = 2 f 2  c (ii) e¨vmva© = g 2  f 2  c
(vii) y-A¶‡K ¯úk© Ki‡j, c = f2 (x) x, y Dfq A¶‡K ¯úk© Ki‡j, c = g2 = f2
(iii) †K›`ª y-A‡¶i Dci n‡j g = 0 (viii) x-A¶ †_‡K †Qw`Z R¨vÕi •`N©¨ = 2 g 2  c
(x) Area = r2 (iv) †K›`ª x-A‡¶i Dci n‡j f = 0
†K›`ª (h, k) wewkó GKwU e„Ë x ev y A¶‡K ¯úk© Ki‡j Zvi mgxKiY
i. e¨vmva© = |e„‡Ëi †K‡›`ªi †KvwU| = k
x A¶‡K ¯úk© Ki‡j
ii. mgxKiY, (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = k2; †hLv‡b, k = e¨vmva
i. e¨vmva© = |e„‡Ëi †K‡›`ªi fyR| = h
y A¶‡K ¯úk© Ki‡j
ii. mgxKiY, (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = h2; †hLv‡b, h = e¨vmva©
GKwU mij‡iLv GKwU e„Ë‡K ¯ck© Kivi kZ©
¯ck©‡Ki •`N¨©
x1  y1  a 2
2 2
i. (x1, y1) we›`y n‡Z x2 + y2 = a2 e„‡Ë AswKZ
2 2
ii. (x1, y1) we›`y n‡Z x + y + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 e„‡Ë AswKZ ¯ck©‡Ki •`N¨©,
x1  y1  2gx1  2fy1  c
2 2
PT =
iii. g~jwe›`y (0, 0) n‡Z †Kvb e„‡Ëi ¯ck©‡Ki •`N¨© = aªæeK
MEx 01 x +y 5x = 0 I x +y +3x = 0 e„ËØ‡qi †K‡›`ªi `~iZ¡-

2 2 2 2  wb‡Y©q e„‡Ëi mgxKiY x  4 2   y  52  102
 x 2  y 2  8 x  10 y  59  0
Solve x2 + y2  5x = 0 e„‡Ëi †K›`ª   5 , 0 
2  MEx 05 GKwU e„‡Ëi mgxKiY wbY©q Ki hvi †K‡›`ªi ¯’vbv¼ (2, 3) Ges x + y  2= 0
Ges x + y + 3x = 0 e„‡Ëi †K›`ª    3 , 0 
2 2
†iLvwU e„Ë‡K ¯úk© K‡i|
 2  Solve †h‡nZz wb‡Y©q e„‡Ëi †K‡›`ªi ¯’vbv¼ (2, 3) Ges ¯úk©K x + y  2
2
= 0 †m‡nZz-
 e„ËØ‡qi †K‡›`ªi gaëZx© `~iZ¡ =  5  3  = 4 units
2 2 wb‡Y©q e„‡Ëi e¨vmva©= 2  3  2  3
MEx 02 GKK e¨vmv‡a©i e„‡Ë AšÍwj©wLZ GKwU mgevû wÎfz‡Ri evû •`N©¨- 1 1
2 2
2
2
a 3
Solve sinA = 2R  a = 2R sin A = 2  1  sin 60 = 2  2 = 3 units  wb‡Y©q e„‡Ëi mgxKiY x  22   y  32   3 
 2
MEx 03 x + y  6x  4y + c = 0 e„ËwU y A¶‡K ¯úk© K‡i, c Gi gvb-
 
2 2 9
 x2  4x + 4 + y2  6y + 9 =  2 x 2  y 2  8 x  12 y  17  0
Solve †h‡nZz e„ËwU y-A¶‡K ¯úk© K‡i †m‡nZz, c = f2 = (2)2 = 4 2
2 2 2
MEx 06 y = mx + c mij †iLvwUi x + y = a e„‡Ëi ¯úk©K n‡e hLb-
MEx 04 (4, 5) †K›`ªwewkó e„Ë, hv x + y + 4x + 6y 12 = 0 e„‡Ëi †K›`ª
2 2
Solve x2 + y2 = a2 e„‡Ëi †K›`ª (0, 0) Ges e¨vmva© = a kZ©g‡Z,
w`‡q Mgb K‡i, Zvi mgxKiY-
Solve x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y  12 = 0 e„‡Ëi †K›`ª = (2, 3)  0 – 20 + c2= a  c = a m2 + 1
 m +1
 wb‡Y©q e„‡Ëi e¨vmva© = 4  22  5  32 = 10
Solve x2 + y2  4x + 6y  36  x2  y2 + 5x  8y + 43 = 0
2 2
MEx 07 (2, 3) we›`y †_‡K x + y –2x + 6y +5=0 e„‡Ë AswKZ ¯úk©‡Ki
‣`N©¨ †KvbwU?  x  2y + 7 = 0
Solve (2, 3) we›`y †_‡K x2 + y2 – 2x + 6y + 5 = 0; e„‡Ëi AswKZ MEx 10 x2 + y2 = 9 Ges x2 + y2 + 6x + 8y + c = 0 e„Ë `ywU ci¯úi‡K
¯úk©‡Ki •`N©¨ = 22 + 32 – 2  2 + 6  3 + 5 = 32 = 4 2 ewnt¯’fv‡e ¯úk© Ki‡j c Gi gvbÑ
2 2
MEx 08 (0, –3) we›`ywU x + y + 2x – 2y + c = 0 e„‡Ëi Dc‡i Awe¯’Z n‡j Solve x2 + y2 = 9 e„‡Ëi †K›`ª c1 (0, 0) Ges e¨vmva© r1 = 3
c Gi gvb- x + y2 + 6x + 8y + c = 0 e„‡Ëi †K›`ª c2 (–3, –4) Ges e¨vmva© r2 =
2
Solve 02 + (–3)2 + 2.0 – 2.(–3) + c = 0 ev, c = –15 32 + 42 – c = 25 – c

2 2 2 2 GLb, c1c2 = r1 + r2 ev, (0 + 3)2 + (0 + 4)2 = 3 + 25 – c
MEx 09 x +y –4x+6y–36 = 0 Ges x + y – 5x + 8y–43 Gi mvaviY
R¨vi mgxKiY ev, 5 = 3 + 25 – c ev, 2 = 25 – c ev, 4 = 25 – c  c = 21
mshy³ †Kv‡Yi wÎ‡KvYwgwZK AbycvZ

 cÖv_wgK Z_¨ e·:
3 1 10  2 5 5 1 10  2 5 5 1
sin 15o = cos75o = cos 18o = sin 18o = sin 36   cos 36  
2 2 4 4 4 4
3 1 tan 15o = 2  3 tan 75o = 2 + 3 sec2 tan2 = 1

cos15o=sin 75o = tan (15o) = 3 2
2 2
 cosec2  cot2 = 1
 2 sin
2n
= 2– 2+ 2 +..... (n – 2) msL¨K
2 cos n = 2+ 2+ 2 + ..... (n – 1) msL¨K
2

sin/cos Gi †h․wMK †Kv‡Yi m~Î
C  D sin C  D
sin (A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB sinC  sinD = 2cos sin2A = 2sinA cosA
2 2
– sinA sinB cosC + cosD = 2cos C  D cos C  D

cos(A  B) = cosA cosB + cos2A = cos2A  sin2A
2 2
2cosA sinB = sin(A+B)  sin (AB) sin (A + B) sin(AB) = sin2A sin2B = cos2B  cos2A cos2A = 2cos2A  1; 2cos2A = 1 + cos2A
tan/cot Gi †h․wMK †Kv‡Yi m~Î
tanA  tanB 2 tan A 3 tan A  tan 3 A
tan (A + B) = tan2A =
– tanA tanB
1+ 1  tan 2 A tan3A =
1  3 tan 2 A
–1
cotA cotB + cot3A – 3cotA 1  cos 2A
cot3A = tan2A =
cot (A + B) = 3cot2A – 1
cotB  cotA 1  cos 2A
wÎfz‡Ri m~Î mg~n
a b c
wÎfz‡Ri sine Gi m~Î = = = 2R [R = cwie¨vmva©]
sinA sinB sinC
wÎfz‡Ri cosine Gi m~Î b2  c2  a 2 c2  a 2  b2 a 2  b2  c2

1. cosA = 2. cosB = 3. cosC =
2bc 2ac 2ab
1
wÎfz‡Ri †¶Îdj  evûØ‡qi ¸Ydj  evûØ‡qi AšÍf~©³ †Kv‡Yi sin
2
i) a = b cosC + c cosB
Awf‡¶c- m~Î ii) b = c cosA + a cosC
iii) c = a cosB + b cosC
2  2 2 2 cos 15 + sin 15

MEx 01 sin 2 +sin 7+sin 12 + ... sin 147 Gi c`msL¨v KZ? MEx 07
Solve 2 2 2 2
sin 2 + sin 7 + sin 12 + ...... + sin 147 awi, c` cos 15 – sin 15
cosA + sinA
†kl c` Ñ cÖ_g c` 147 – 2 Solve = tan(45 + A) = cot(45  A)
msL¨v, n = +1= +1 = 30  n = 30 cosA  sinA
eëavb 5
cos 15 + sin 15
 = tan(45 + 15) = 3
MEx 02 4 cosx + 3 sinx Gi e„nËg gvb KZ? cos 15 – sin 15
Solve m‡e©v”Pgvb = 42 + 32 = 5 1 – cos2
MEx 08 sin2 Gi gvb-
MEx 03 GKwU ¯’yj‡KvYx wÎf~‡Ri evû¸wj cwigvb 3 †mwg. 5 †mwg. Ges 7 2sin2 sin
†mwg. n‡j ¯’yj‡KvYwUi cwigvY KZ? Solve = = tan
2sincos cos
32 + 52 – 72
Solve  = cos–1  2.3.5 
= 120 MEx 09 cosA + cos C= sinB n‡j sin(B+C) Gi gvb KZ?
A+C A–C
Solve cosA + cosC = sinB  2cos cos = sinB
MEx 04 hw` A + B + C =  nq Z‡e cos A + cos B + cos C + 2cosA
2 2 2
2 2
cosB cosC = KZ n‡e? B A–C B B A–C B
 2sin cos = 2sin cos  =
Solve A = 60, B = 60, C = 60 ewm‡q, 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos2A + cos2B + cos2C + 2cos Acos BcosC = 1  A = B + C  A = 180 – A  A = 90  sin (B + C) = sin90 = 1
MEx 05 ABC mg‡KvYx n‡j sin(A + B + C) = ? MEx 10 x sin   3 Ges x cos   1 n‡j ‘’ Gi gvb KZn‡e?
3   = tan–1  3  = 600
Solve For any triangle, A + B + C = π xsin  3
So, sin (A + B + C) = sin π = 0 Solve =  tan=
xcos 1
MEx 06 sinx sin(x + 30) + cosx sin (x + 120) Gi gvb KZ? MEx 11 tan 36°+tan9°+tan36°tan9° = ?
Solve x = 300 a‡i, Solve Avgiv Rvwb, tan A  tan B  tan A. tan B  1
sinx sin(x+30)+cosx sin(x + 120) = sin30 sin60+cos30 sin150 = 3 36o 9o 36o 9o
2 tan  tan  tan . tan 1
A B A B
AšÍixKiY
 cÖv_wgK Z_¨ e·:
La Hospital’ Rule
x Qvov Ab¨ wKQz †hgb x0, x2, x BZ¨vw` n‡j ïiæ‡ZB limit ewm‡q w`‡Z n‡e †hB gvb cvIqv hv‡e ZvB Ans.
Example : xlim
0
(secx)x = ? Ans: 1
0 
x Gi cwie‡Z© limit ewm‡q mvaviYZ ev, GB AvK…wZ Av‡m| Gme †¶‡Î La Hospital’s Rule Apply Ki‡Z n‡e|
0 
0
La Hospital’s Rule: je I ni‡K x Gi mv‡c‡¶ Differentiate Ki‡Z n‡e| AZtci x Gi gvb ewm‡q
0

ev, AvK…wZ Remove n‡j †h gvb cvIqv hvq ZvB Ans.

 0
Note: gvb ewm‡q ev AvK…wZ Remove bv nIqv ch©šÍ je I ni‡K Differentiate Ki‡Z n‡e|
 0
 lim   =
x lim(x)
lim(x  y) = lim (x)  lim (y)  lim (xy) = lim(x)  lim (y)
y lim(y)
 Required Formulas for Differentiation:
d
dx
( x n )  n x n 1
d n
dx
(cx )  c n x n1
d
dx
 x   2 1x d
dx
(c )  0
d d d 1 d 1 1 d
(e x )  e x (loge x) or, (ln x)  (log x)  log e 
a a (a x )  a x loge a  a x ln a
dx dx dx x dx x x ln a dx
d d d d
(sin x)  cos x (cos x)   sin x (tan x)  se c2 x (se cx)  secx tan x
dx dx dx dx
1
(sin1 x)  (cos1 x) 
d d d 1 d
(cot x)   cosec2x (cosecx)   cos ecxcot x
dx dx dx 1  x2
dx 1  x2
 
d (tan-1x) = 1 d
d (cot-1x) =  1 (se c1 x) 
1 d 1
1  x2 cos ec1x  
dx dx 1  x2 dx x x21 dx x x2  1
d ( U  V)  dU  dV  d ( UV )  U dV  V dU  d dU dV dW V dU  U dV
dx dx dx dx dx dx (UVW) = VW + UW + UV d  U   dx dx 
dx dx dx dx
dx  V  V2
 ch©vq µwgK AšÍixKiY:

dy d
 y = f(x) GKwU dvskb n‡j AšÍixKi‡Yi wewfbœ AvKvi: y1 = dx = f(x) = dx {f (x)}
dy d2y d3y dny
 y = f(x) Gi 1g AšÍixKiY, y1 = dx = f(x); 2q AšÍixKiY, y2 = 2 = f(x); 3q AšÍixKiY, y3 = 3 = f(x); n Zg AšÍixKiY, yn = n = fn(x)
dx dx dx
Technique:
MCQ Gi Rb¨ we‡kl m~Î/†K․kj
(n  1)!
n
 y = x lnx, nN n‡j yn =  y = (ax + b)m, (n  N, a  0) n‡j
x
mn
n m! (ax + b)
 yn = a , hLb n < m  y = ann! , hLb n = m
(m  n)!
1  e2x ln(1  x)
MEx 01 lim Gi gvb KZ? MEx 07 lim Gi gvb KZ?
x0 ln (1  x) x 0
x
1  e2x
Solve lim
x0 ln (1  x)
1
Solve Using L Hospital Rule : lim 1– x =
1
=
1
x0 1  0 1
–2e2x (1–0)× – 2e0 -2 dy
Useing L Hospital Rule: = = =2 MEx 08 y  e n‡j,
x
1 –1 -1 dx
=?
× -1
1–x x
dy 1 e
2
sin x Solve y = e x
 e x
. 
MEx 02 lim ? dx 2 x 2 x
x 0 x d x
MEx 09 (x ) = ?
sinx2 sinx2 dx
Solve lim x =lim x2 × x = 1 ×lim x = 0 Solve Let, y = xx  Differentiate with respect to 'x'
x0 x0 x0
dy d d 1
1 – cosx = xx[x (ln x) + ln x (x)] = xx (x. + ln x .1) = xx(1 + ln x)
MEx 03 limx0 = Gi gvb KZ? dx dx dx x
x2 –13x – x
3
lim 1 – cosx MEx 10 x Gi mv‡c‡¶ tan Gi AšÍiR KZ?

Solve x0 x2 [using L Hospital Rule] 1 – 3x2
3
3x. x dy 3
sinx cosx cos0 1 Solve y = tan–11 – 3x2  y = 3tan–1x [m~Î]  dx = 1 + x2
= lim = lim = = [Again using L Hospital Rule]
x0 2x x0 2 2 2 MEx 11 hw` tan (ln y) = x nq, Z‡e y2 (0) Gi gvb wbY©q Ki|
–1
–1 etan x
Solve tan (ln y) = x  ln y = tan–1 x  y = etan x; y1 =
lim x  1 = ?
2
MEx 04 x 1+x2
–  x 1 –1
1 –1
(1 + x2)etan x – etan x. 2x tan–1x –1
1 (1 + x2) e – 2x etan x
x 1– 2  y2 = =
x 2
 1 x 1 (1 + x2)2 (1 + x2)2
Solve xlim =xlim = =1 1
–  x 1 –
x1+   y2 (o) = = 1
1 1
 x 1
3 2
MEx 12 f(x) = 2x – 21x + 36x – 20 Gi m‡e©v”P I me©wb¤œ gvb wbY©q Ki|
ax – 1
MEx 05 lim
x
Gi gvb †KvbwU? Solve f(x) = 6x – 42x + 36 ; m‡e©v”P I me©wb¤œ gv‡bi Rb¨
2
x0
x f(x) = 0 ; f(x) = 6x2 – 42x + 36 = 0
a –1
Solve lim x = xlim axlna = lna [La Hospitals Law] = lna  x = 1, 6  f (x) = 12x – 42 ; f (1) = – 30 < 0 ; f (6) = 30 > 0
0
x0  fmax = f(1) = – 3  fmin = f(6) = – 128
lim sec (x + h) – secx 1
MEx 06 Gi gvb KZ? MEx 13 x †Kvb gv‡bi Rb¨ y  x  eµ‡iLvwUi Xvj k~b¨ n‡e?
h0 h x
0 1 x2 1
Solve 0 form; ZvB L Hospital cÖ‡qvM K‡i cvB, Solve †Ìqv Av‡Q, y  x 
1

dy
1 2 
lim sec (x + h) – secx lim sec (x + h) tan (x + h) x dx x x2
h0 h
=
h0 1
= secx tanx dy x2 1
cÖkœg‡Z,  0 ev, 0 ev, x2 = 1 ev, x =  1
dx x2
†hvMRxKiY
Required Formulas for Integration
n 1
2
1 1
 x n dx   (n  1)xn  1 
1 1
 x dx  n  1  c ,
x dx  2 x  c dx  x  c
n
n  1
x x
 a dx   c a  0, a  1
x x (u  v)dx   udx   v dx
 e dx  e  c
 x dx  ln x  c
1 x ax
lna
 sinxdx  cosx  c  cosxdx  sinx  c  cosec xdx  cotx  c

d 2
 uvdx  u  vdx   [ (u )  vdx]dx
dx
f ( x )
sec x dx = tanx + c
2
 cosecxcotx dx  cosecx  c  secx tanxd x  secx  c  f (x) dx  ln f (x)  c
f (x)
 f(x)
dx  2 f(x)  c  tanxdx  ln(cosx)  c  ln(secx)  c  sec xdx  ln tan 4  x2   c = ln secx + tanx+ c
 a 2  x 2  a tan
1 x
 1  x 2  tan
1
 cot xdx  ln(sin x)  c = - ln (cosecx) + c
dx 1 dx
c xc
a
1 x 1
 
dx dx
 cos ecxdx  ln | tan 2 | c =  ln (cosecx + cotx) + c
x
 sin c  sin xc
2 2 a 2
a x 1 x
e {f(x) + f(x)}dx = e {f(x)}+c e
x x ax
{af(x) + f(x)}dx = eaxf(x)+c
MCQ Gi Rb¨ we‡kl m~Î/†K․kj
tan1 
 2 dx 2 2ax + b
 , (a  0, D = b2  4ac) = + c, hLb D < 0, a > 0
ax + bx + c |D|  |D| 
1 2ax + b  D + c, hLb D > 0, a > 0
ln 
= 
|D| 2ax + b + D
 D c~Y© eM© n‡j (ax  b)m dx AvKv‡i cÖKvk K‡i mgvKjb Ki‡Z n‡e|
n
nxn  1 n(n  1) xn  2 n(n  1) (n  2)xn  3
  x e dx = e  
ax x
n ax
+  + ........ x hy³ c` ch©šÍ
a a2 a3 a4

b
f(a + b  x)dx b
ba
ev 
f(x)dx
 =
a f(x) + f(a + b  x) a f(x) + f(a + b  x) 2
 10 xdx
8
82 b b
 f(x)dx =  f(a + b  x) dx 
3
(f  x)dx  xdx 2
3
 = =3   2=
 2 x + 10  x 2 a a 2 2 + 3 (5  x)  2 2 + 3x
 b  c f(x  c)dx =  h f(x)dx  (x  1)dx 2 =  xdx 2
4 3 b nb
   
 f(nx)dx = 1  f(x)dx
ac a  2 4 + (x  1)  1 4 + x a n  nn
 (x  a) (b  x) dx =  (b  a)2 , b > a
3 12 b b

 4xdx 2 = 1  xdx 2  
 dx
= , b > a
 2 3 + (4x) 4  8 3 + x a 8  a (x  a) (b  x)
lnx
MEx 01 †hvMRxKiY Ki: 2 dx  MEx 02
3x + 5
4x + 7 dx = ?
Solve Let, I =  2lnxdx = 2lnx  dx –  dx (2lnx)  dx dx
d
dz dz
Solve Let, z = 4x + 7 ; dx = 4  4 = dx ;
= 2lnx.x –  2lnx ln2.
1 
 . x dx
x  3(z – 7)
+5
dz = 3z – 21 + 20 dz
  
3x + 5 4
= x.2lnx – ln2  2lnx dx= x.2lnx – ln2.I 4x + 7
dx =
z 4 16z
 I + I ln2 = x.2 lnx
3z – 1
 I(1 + ln2) = x.2lnx = 
16z
dz
x.2lnx
 
3 1 dz 3z 1
I= +c = dz – = – ln |z| + c Where, [z = 4x + 7]
1 + ln2 16 16 z 16 16
MEx 03 5cos5x sin4x dx = ? MEx 12 sin x dx = ?
5
5 5 Solve sin5x dx = sin4x. sinxdx Let,

Solve 5cos5x sin4x dx = 2 2cos5x sin4x dx = 2 (sin9x – sinx)dx
= (sin2x)2. sinx dx = (1 – cos2x)2 sinxdx cosx = z
5 cos9x 5 = –(1 – z2)2 dz = –(1 – 2z2 + z4)dz –sinxdx = dz
= (– + cosx) + c = (9cosx – cos9x) + c
2 9 18 2 3 z5 2 3 1 5
= –(z – z + ) + c = –cosx + cos x – cos x + c
cos2x 3 5 3 5
MEx 04  dx = ?
1 – sin2x MEx 13  3x cos x 3 dx Gi gvb †KvbwU?
2
cos2x cos2x – sin2x

Solve  dx =  dx Solve 3x2 cos x3 dx =  coszdz Let x3= z 3x2 dx =dz
1 – sin2x sin2x – 2sinx cosx + cos2x
= sinz + c = sin x3 + c
(cosx + sinx)(cosx – sinx)
= dx
MEx 14 
(sinx – cosx)2 dx
4+x2
Gi mgvb †KvbwU?
= (cosx + sinx)dx A_ev –(cosx + sinx)dx = sinx – cosx + c
Solve 4+x2 =  22+x2 = 2 tan–1 2 + c
dx dx 1 x
= –(sinx – cosx) + c =  (sinx – cosx) + c
MEx 05 xcosx dx = ? MEx 15 lnxdx Gi gvb n‡e-
Solve xcosx dx = x.sinx – 1. (–cosx) + c = xsinx + cosx + c d 
Solve lnxdx = lnx dx – dx(lnx) dxdx
 
MEx 06  1 – cos4x dx 1
Solve  1 – cos4x dx =  2sin22x dx = xlnx –x. dx,= xlnx – x + c
x
= 2 sin2x dx = 2 –
cos2x 1
 2  + c = – 2cos2x + c 1
x
3
MEx 16 (1 + 3x4) dx = ?
0
MEx 07 
 1 + sin 2xdx Gi gvb †KvbwU? 1  1 + 3x4 = z
Solve 
0
x3 (1 + 3x4) dx
 12x3 dx = dz
Solve  1 + sin 2x dx =  (cosx + sinx)2 dx 4
1 z 2
3 x 0 1
=  cos xdx + sin xdx = sinx – cosx + c 1 4
=  z dz =   z 1 4
12 1 12  3 
 2 1
MEx 08 
dx
=?
 + e x
e x
1 2 32 32
x x = × [
4 –1 =
7
]
Solve  x =  2x dx = 
dx e e dx 12 3 18
= tan -1 (ex) +c
e + e
x
 1 + e  (ex)2
1 + 6 dx
MEx 17
 x3
Gi gvb †KvbwU?
MEx 09 e
2–3x 1
dx Gi gvb GKwU aªæeK Ges †KvbwUi mgwói mgvb?
e2–3x 1
Solve e2–3x dx = –3 = – 3e2–3x 6 dx  x 31  6 1  1  6 35
Solve  1 x3
= 
  3  1
 =–
 1
=
2  x 2  1 72
MEx 10  4sinx cosx dx Gi gvb †KvbwU?
Solve  2 × 2 sinxcosx dx = 2sin2x dx = – cosx + c 1/ 2 dx
MEx 18  0
1  x2
Gi gvb †KvbwU?
MEx 11 
2x
dx Gi gvb †KvbwU?
1 + x4 1
Solve 
1/ 2 dx
 -1
= sin x  2 1
= sin–1 2 – sin–10 =

Solve 1 + (x2)2dx = tan1 (x2) + c m~Î:  1 + (F)2 dx = tan-1x
2x F 0
1 x 2 6
 0
¸”Q †bUIqvK© 4.0 kU© mv‡Rkb MwYZ wØZxq cÎ
RwUj msL¨v
x+iy GB AvKv‡ii msL¨v‡K e‡j RwUj msL¨v x+iy=0 n‡j x = 0 Ges y = 0 n‡e –a –b = – ab
 AbyeÜx `ywU RwUj msL¨vi †hvMdj I ¸Ydj ev¯Íe x + iy = a + ib n‡j x = a Ges y = b n‡e
z = x+iy Gi AbyeÜx ev wg_yb ivwk Z  x  iy
i + –i = 2 1 +  + 2 = 0
3 3
i + –i = 0

y
01. Z = x + iy Gi gWzjvm |z| = r = x 2  y 2 ,   tan 1 ( )
x
02. Z = – x + iy Gi gWzjvm |z| = r = x 2  y 2 , y
RwUj msL¨vi     tan 1 ( )
x
gWzjvm I
03. Z = – x – iy RwUj msL¨v gWzjvm |z| = r = x 2  y2 ,     tan1( y )
AvMy©‡g›U x
04. Z = x – iy Gi gWzjvm |z| = r = x 2  y 2 ,   2  tan 1 ( y ) = –tan–1 

y
x x
 i 2  1  i 3  i 2 .i  i  i 4  i 2 .i 2  1  i 4n3  i 4n .i 3  1.(i)  i
gvb wbY©q m¤úwK©Z
in + in+1 + in+2 + in+3 = 0 [†hLv‡b n †h‡Kvb c~Y© msL¨v]
–1+ –3 2 –1– –3
 GK‡Ki Nbg~j wZbwU 1, , 2  = ; =
2 2
 GK‡Ki Nbg~j ¸‡jvi GKwU ev¯Íe Ges Aci `ywU KvíwbK
GK‡Ki Nbg~j  GK‡Ki KvíwbK g~j¸‡jvi †hvMdj = –1
 GK‡Ki KvíwbK g~j¸‡jvi ¸Ydj =1
 GK‡Ki Nbg~j ¸‡jvi †hvMdj = 0; n + n+1 + n+2 = 0 [†hLv‡b n †h‡Kv‡bv c~Y© msL¨v]
 3  1 => 3n2  3n .2  2
Special Tricks: Awfbe ‡UKwbK (Shortcut solution)
n n
(i) ni =  ( 1 + i) (ii) –ni =  ( 1 – i)
2 2
eM©g~j wbY©q eM©g~j †ei Kivi wbqg:
Step-1: i hy³ c`wU‡K 2 Øviv fvM K‡i Ggb 2wU Drcv`K •Zwi Ki‡Z n‡e| hv‡ì e‡M©i AšÍidj ev¯Íe Ask|
Step-2: ev¯Íe Ask negative n‡j i n‡e eo Drcv`‡Ki mv‡_| ev¯Íe Ask positive n‡j i n‡e †QvU Drcv`‡Ki mv‡_|
Step-3: eM©g~‡ji gvSLv‡bi wPý n‡e cÖ`Ë RwUj msL¨vi Aev¯Íe As‡ki wP‡ýi g‡Zv|
3 1   3 1   3 a
01. –a3 = –a, –a, – a2  a,  a ( ), a ( ) 03.  a 2  
4
(1  i)
Nbg~j; 4-Zg g~j 2 2 2
I 6-Zg g~j
02. a3 = a, a, a2 = a, a 
3  1 +  3  1  1  3 6 3 3 3
,a 04.  a2 =  ai,  a i,  n i2
 2   2 
 z|=k Gi mÂvi c_ e„Ë wb‡`©k K‡i  |z – k1| = k2 n‡j Gi mÂvi c_ e„Ë wb‡`©k K‡i
mÂvi c‡_i cÖK…wZ  | az k1|| bz k 2 | Gi mÂvi c_ e„Ë wb‡`©k K‡i  | z k1|| z k 2 | Gi mÂvi c_ mij‡iLv wb‡`©k K‡i
wbY©q msµvšÍ  | z k1|  | z k 2 |k 3 Gi mÂvi c_ Awae„Ë wb‡`©k K‡i  | z k1|  | z k 2 |k 3 Gi mÂvi c_ Dce„Ë wb‡`©k K‡i
 | z  k1| x ev y Gi mÂvi c_ cive„Ë wb‡`©k K‡i
MEx 01 z1 = 1 + i Ges z2 = 1 – i n‡j, z1z2 Gi gvb †Kgb n‡e?

2  3i
MEx 03 = P+iQ, P I Q ev¯Íe msL¨v n‡j, Q = ?
2i
Solve z1z2 = (1 + i) (1 – i) = 1 – i2 = 1 + 1 = 2  R
Solve 2  3i  2  3i  2  i  4  8i 23i  1  8i  1  i 8
2
(i – 1)2 2i 2i 2i 4i 5 5 5

MEx 02
(i – 1)4
RwUj msL¨vwUi Av¸©‡g›U n‡e-
2  3i = P + iQ = 1 8
1  i
(i – 1)2 1  2i 5 5
–1 2
Solve (i – 1)4 = – 2 i   = – tan =– 8
0 2  Q
5
MEx 04 cos  + i sin = ?
MEx 07 –2 + 2 –2 + 2 –2 + .....  = KZ?
Solve cos  + i sin  =  1 + i.0 = 1
MEx 05 2i Gi eM©g~j- Solve –2 + 2 –2 + 2 –2 + ..... 
Solve 2i = 1  1 + 2i = 1 + i + 2i = (1 + i)  2i Gi eM©gyj =  (1 + i)
2 2 2  22 – 4.2
=
2
4 2  2i
MEx 06 –81 gvb KZ? = =1i
2
4 4 9 3
Solve –81 = –92 =  (1  i) =  (1  i)
2 2
eûc`x I eûc`x mgxKiY

 eûc`x: GK ev GKvwaK c` m¤^wjZ exRMvwYwZK ivwk‡K eûc`x e‡j| eûc`xi Pj‡Ki m‡e©v”P NvZ hZ mgxKiYwU‡Z me©vwaK ZZ¸‡jv g~j _v‡K|
n
p x
i 0
i
n i
= p0xn + p1xn1 + p2xn2 + ............ + pn1x + pn = 0
D³ eûc`xi mgxKi‡Y me©vwaK g~j i‡q‡Q n msL¨K|

p1 p2
i. a1 = a1 + a2 + ............... + an =  ii. a1a2 = a1a2 + a2a3 + ............... + ana1 =
p0 p0
p3 pn
iii. a1a2a3 = a1a2a3 + a2a3a4 + ...................... =  iv. me¸‡jv g~‡ji ¸Ydj = a1a2a3 ................ an = (1)n
p0 p0
1
Note: (i) eûc`x n‡Z n‡j Aek¨B cÖwZwU c‡` x Gi NvZ AFYvZ¥K n‡Z n‡e| †hgb- + 3x + x2 eûc`x bq Ges x2  3x + 4 eûc`x n‡e|
x
(ii) †Kv‡bv mgxKi‡Yi m‡e©v”P NvZ hZ, H mgxKi‡Yi g~j ZZwU| †hgb, wØNvZ mgxKiY 5x2 + 10x – 2 = 0 -Gi g~j 2wU|
(iii) †Kvb wØNvZ mgxKiY, AÁvZ ivwkwUi `yB‡qi AwaK gvb Øviv wm× n‡j, Zv Aek¨B GKwU A‡f` n‡e| †hgb- x4+x2+1 = (x2  x + 1) (x2 + x + 1)
(iv) GKvwaK PjK mgwš^Z †Kvb c` _vK‡j †m c‡ì NvZ nq Dfq Pj‡Ki Nv‡Zi †hvMdj| †hgb: x2y3 + 5x3 + y3 = 0 GKwU cÂNvZ mgxKiY|

 Av`k© wØNvZ mgxKiY: ax2 + bx + c = 0
i. wØNvZ nevi kZ© a  0
ii. b = 0 Ges c < 0 n‡j g~jØq mgvb wKš‘ wecixZ wPýhy³ nq Ges a I c GKB wP‡ýi n‡j g~jØq RwUj, wecixZ wP‡ýi n‡j
g~jØq ev¯Íe nq|
Av`k© wØNvZ
iii. c = 0 n‡j mgxKiYwUi GKwU g~j k~b¨ nq|
mgxKi‡Yi
iv. b = c = 0 n‡j mgxKiYwUi `ywU g~jB mgvb Ges k~b¨|
•ewkó¨
v. c = a n‡j mgxKiYwUi GKwU g~j AciwUi Dëv|
vi. a I c abvZ¥K Ges b FYvZ¥K n‡j mgxKiYwUi `ywU g~jB †hvM‡evaK nq|
vii. a I c FYvZ¥K Ges b abvZ¥K n‡j mgxKiYwUi `ywU g~jB we‡qvM‡evaK nq|
viii. a + b + c = 0 n‡j GKwU g~j 1 Ges Ab¨wU c/a n‡e|
 wØNvZ mgxKiY ax2 + bx + c = 0 Gi wbðvqK/c„_vqK/wbiƒcK (b2  4ac) †K D Øviv m~PxZ Kiv nq|
wØNvZ mgxKi‡Yi g~jØ‡qi cÖK…wZ D Gi Dci wbf©i K‡i|
wØNvZ b
i. D = 0 n‡j g~jØq ev¯Íe, mgvb, g~j` Ges mgvb g~jØq = 
mgxKi‡Y 2a
wbðvq‡Ki ii. D > 0 n‡j g~jØq ev¯Íe I Amgvb nq|
eënvi iii. D c~Y©eM© n‡j g~jØq g~j` I Amgvb nq|
iv. D < 0 n‡j g~jØq Aev¯Íe/RwUj/KvíwbK, Amgvb I ci¯ú‡ii AbyeÜx RwUj msL¨v nq|
v. D = 0 n‡j ax2 + bx + c wØNvZ ivwkwU c~Y©eM© n‡e|
g~j I ARvbv b b2  4ac
 ax2 + bx + c = 0 wØNvZ mgxKi‡Yi g~jØq ,  n‡j  +  =  Ges  = c ; g~jØ‡qi AšÍi, |  | =
gvb wbY©q a a 
msµvšÍ  ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 wÎNvZ mgxKi‡Yi g~j wZbwU , ,  n‡j,
MvwYwZK
       a
b c d
cÖ‡qvM              
a a
 wØNvZ mgxKi‡Yi g~j `ywU ,  n‡j mgxKiYwU: (x  ) (x  ) = 0  x2  ( + )x +  = 0
g~j †_‡K  wÎNvZ mgxKi‡Yi g~j wZbwU , ,  n‡j mgxKiYwU: (x ) (x  ) (x  ) = 0
mgxKiY wbY©q  x3  ( +  + )x2 + ( +  + )x   = 0
 wÎNvZ mgxKi‡Yi g~j wZbwU , ,  n‡j mgxKiYwU: (x GKwU g~j) (Aci g~jØq wewkó wØNvZ mgxKiY) = 0
 f(x) = 0 mgxKi‡Yi g~j¸‡jv , ,  n‡j-
i. – , – , –  g~j wewkó mgxKiY f( – x) = 0
  g~j wewkó mgxKiY f  = 0
n n n n
ii.
   x
mgxKi‡Yi g~j      g~j wewkó mgxKiY f  = 0
n n n n
iii.
†_‡K mgxKiY     x
n, n, n g~j wewkó mgxKiY f  = 0
wbY©q msµvšÍ x
iv.
n
v. (+h), (+h), (+h) g~j wewkó mgxKiY f(x–h)=0 vi. ( – h), ( – h), ( – h) g~j wewkó mgxKiY f(x+h) = 0
vii. 2, 2 g~j wewkó mgxKiY f( x) = 0
viii. ( + ) Ges  g~jwewkó mgxKiY x2  {( + ) + } x + ( + ) = 0
b2
wØNvZ  ax2 + bx + c = 0 ivwki m‡ev©”P ev me©wb¤œ gvb = c 
4a
mgxKi‡Yi 2
i. a > 0(x Gi mnM abvZ¥K) n‡j gvb me©wb¤œ
m‡ev©”P ev
ii. a < 0(x2 Gi mnM FYvZ¥K) n‡j gvb m‡e©v”P
me©wb¤œ gvb
msµvšÍ  m‡ev©”P ev me©wb¤œ gv‡bi †¶‡Î, x =  b n‡e
2a
 fvM‡kl Dccv`¨ (Remainder Theorem): †Kvb eûc`x f(x) †K (x  a) Øviv fvM Ki‡j fvM‡kl n‡e f(a) A_©vr x Gi cwie‡Z©
fvM‡kl
a ewm‡q †h gvb cvIqv hvq ZvB fvM‡kl|
Dccv`¨
 Drcv`K Dccv`¨ (Factor theorem): x PjKhy³ †Kvb eûc`x ivwk‡Z x Gi ¯’v‡b a emv‡j hw` gvb k~b¨ nq Z‡e xa H ivwkwUi
msµvšÍ
GKwU Drcv`K n‡e|
 hv mivmwi g‡b ivLvB fv‡jv:
i. x2 – px + q I x2 – qx + p ivwkØ‡qi GKwU mvaviY Drcv`K _vKvi kZ©, p + q + 1 = 0
a1 b 1 c1
ii. a1x2 + b1x + c1 = 0 Ges a2x2 + b2x + c2 = 0 mgxKiY `yÕwUi `yÕwU g~jB mvaviY nIqvi kZ©- = =
kZ©g~jK a2 b 2 c2
MvwYwZK iii. x2 – px + q = 0 I x2 – qx + p = 0 mgxKi‡Yi GKwU mvaviY g~j _vKvi kZ©, p + q + 1 = 0
cÖ‡qvM iv. x2 – bx + c = 0 I x2 – cx + b = 0 Gi g~jØ‡qi cv_©K¨ GKwU aªæe ivwk nevi kZ©, b + c + 4 = 0
v. x2 – px + q = 0 mgxKi‡Yi g~j `yBwUi cv_©K¨ 1 n‡j, p2 = 1 + 4q n‡e|
m n b
vi. ax2 + bx + b = 0 mgxKi‡Yi g~jØ‡qi AbycvZ m : n n‡j + m+ =0
n a
 f(x) = 0 mgxKi‡Yi g~j¸wj , , .... n‡j,
, , ........ g~j wewkó mgxKiY f   = 0

1 1 1 1
(a)  ,  ,   ... g~j wewkó mgxKiY f( x) = 0 (b)
   x
(c)  + h,  + h,  + h ..... g~j wewkó mgxKiY f(x  h) = 0 (d)   h,   h,   h ....... g~j wewkó mgxKiY f(x + h) = 0
 ax2 + bx + c = 0 mgxKi‡Yi-
(a) g~jØq ¸YvZ¥K wecixZ n‡j, a = c (b) g~jØq ¸YvZ¥K wecixZ Ges wecixZ wPýhy³ n‡j, a =  c
(c) GKwU g~j AciwUi n ¸Y n‡j, nb2 = ac (a + n)2
MCQ ‡KŠkj  ax2 + bx + c = 0 mgxKi‡Yi g~jØq ,  n‡j,
1 1
(a)  ,   g~j wewkó mgxKiY, ax2 – bx + c = 0 (b) , g~j wewkó mgxKiY, cx2 + bx + a = 0
 
1 1
(c)  ,  g~j wewkó mgxKiY, cx2  bx + a = 0
 
b2 b
 ax2 + bx + c ivwki m‡e©v”P ev me©wb¤œ gvb c  n‡e x =  Gi Rb¨|
4a 2a
a > 0, a < 0 n‡j cÖ`Ë ivwki h_vµ‡g me©wb¤œ I m‡e©v”P gvb cvIqv hv‡e|
2
MEx 01 k Gi †h gv‡bi Rb¨ mgxKiY (k + 1)x + 4(k – 2)x + 2k = 0 Gi 2
4 4 16 16
g~j Ø‡qi gvb mgvb n‡e Zv-      (  ) 2  4     4.   0
Solve wbðvqK, (4(k–2))2 – 4.(k + 1).2k 3 9 9 9
= 16k2 – 64k + 64 – 8k2 – 8k = 8k2 – 72k + 64 = k2 – 9k + 8 
g~jØ‡qi gvb mgvb n‡j wbðvqK k~b¨ n‡e, k2 – 9k + 8 = 0     0       1   :   1: 1

 k2 – 8k – k + 8 = 0
MEx 05 GKwU wÎNvZ mgxKiY x + qx + r = 0 Gi g~j¸‡jv , ,  n‡j
3
k = 8, 1
2
MEx 02 3x – kx +4 = 0 mgxKiY GKwU g~j AciwUi 3 ¸Y n‡j k Gi gvb-
2 2 2
+ + Gi gvb KZ?
+ + +
k
Solve g~jØq  I 3 .   + 3 = Solve x + qx + r = 0,  +  +  = 0
3
3   +  = – ,  +  = – ,  +  = – 
k 4 2 2 2 2 2 2
  Ges g~jØ‡qi ¸Ydj, 3α2 =  + + = + + = – ( +  + ) = 0
12 3  +   +   +  – – –
2
MEx 06 mgxKi‡Yi x – x + k = 0 Gi GKwU g~j 2 n‡j Aci g~jwU n‡e –––|
4 k2 4
α =
2
   k = 64
2
Solve g~jØq  I  n‡j g~jØ‡qi †hvMdj  +  = 1   = 1 – 
9 12 2 9 =1–2=–1
k=±8 2
MEx 07 5-3x-x Gi m‡e©v”P gvb KZ?
MEx 03 x – 4x + 4 = 0 Gi exRØq  Ges  n‡j,  +  Gi gvb KZ?
2 3 3
2
c – b  = 5  ( 3) = 29
2
Solve x – 4x + 4 = 0 mgxKi‡Yi g~jØq  Ges  n‡j  +  = 4 Ges 

2 Solve  
4a 4  ( 1) 4
= 4  3 + 3 = ( + )3 – 3( + ) = 43 – 344 = 16 1 1
MEx 04 9x – 12x + 4 = 0 wØNvZ mgxKi‡Yi g~jØq ,  n‡j g~jØ‡qi MEx 08 6x – 5x + 1 = 0 mgxKi‡Yi g~jØq ,  n‡j,  ,  g~j wewkó
2 2
AbycvZ (:) KZ? mgxKiYwU n‡e-

12 4 4

2
Solve       Ges   1 = 0  61 – 51 +1 = 0  6 – 5x2 + x = 0  x2 – 5x + 6 = 0
2
9 3 9 Solve x x x x
KwYK
 Kwb‡Ki mvaviY mgxKiY: x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + 2hxy + c = 0
(ab – h2) = 1 n‡j KwbKwU cive„Ë
0 < (ab – h2) < 1 n‡j KwbKwU Dce„Ë
(ab – h2) > 1 n‡j KwbKwU Awae„Ë
a = b, h = 0 n‡j e„Ë
 Dr‡Kw›`ªKZv e n‡j, e = 1 n‡j KwbKwU cive„Ë
0 < e < 1 n‡j KwbKwU Dce„Ë
e > 1 n‡j KwbKwU Awae„Ë
e = 0 n‡j e„Ë
e =  n‡j mij‡iLv
 ‡dvKvm (, ) wbqvgK‡iLv ax + by + c = 0, Dr‡Kw›`ªKZv e n‡j Kwb‡Ki mgxKiY,
(ax + by + c)2
(x – )2 + (x – )2 = e2
a2 + b 2
mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ THEORY ANALYSIS AT A GLANCE
cive„Ë
 †Kvb wØNvZ mgxKi‡Yi wØNvZ m¤^wjZ c`¸‡jv c~Y©eM© m„wó Ki‡j GwU GKwU cive„Ë|
b2 – 4ac b 
 x A‡ÿi mgvšÍivj Aÿ wewkó cive„‡Ëi mgxKiY, x = ay2 + by + c, kxl© –
1
– Ges Gi Dc‡Kw›`ªK j¤^ = |a|
4a 2a
b b2 – 4ac
 y A‡ÿi mgvšÍivj Aÿ wewkó cive„‡Ëi mgxKiY, y = ax2 + bx + c, kxl© –  –
1
 2a 4a 
Ges Gi Dc‡Kw›`ªK j¤^ = |a|
 y2 = 4ax cive„‡Ëi (x1,y1) we›`y‡Z ¯úk©‡Ki mgxKiY, yy1 = 2a (x + x1)
a
 y = mx + c ‡iLvwU y2 = 4ax cive„Ë‡K ¯úk© Ki‡j c = Ges ¯úk©we›`yi ¯’vbv¼ – a2 – 2a
m  m m
 y = mx + c ‡iLvwU x2 = 4ay cive„Ë‡K ¯úk© Ki‡j c = –am2 Ges ¯úk©we›`yi ¯’vbv¼ (2am, am2)
 (x1, y1) we›`ywU y2 = 4ax cive„‡Ëi, evB‡i Ae¯’vb Ki‡j, y12 – 4ax1 > 0
Dc‡i Ae¯’vb Ki‡j, y12 – 4ax1 = 0
†fZ‡i Ae¯’vb Ki‡j, y12 – 4ax1 <0
{P(x,y)we›`y †_‡K Aÿ‡iLvi j¤^ `~iZ¡}2
 = 4 |Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î •`N©¨|
P(x,y) we›`y †_‡K kxl© we›`y‡Z ¯úk©‡Ki Dci j¤^ `~iZ¡
cive„‡Ëi AvKvi y2 = 4ax x2 = 4ay (y – )2 = 4a(x – ) (x – )2 = 4a(y – )

kxl©we›`y (0, 0) (0, 0) (, ) (, )
Dc‡K›`ª (a, 0) (0, a) (a + , ) (, a + )
wbqvgK‡iLvi cv`we›`y (–a, 0) (0, –a) (–a + , ) (, – a + )
Aÿ‡iLvi mgxKiY y=0 x=0 y–=0 x–=0
wbqvgK‡iLvi mgxKiY x+a=0 y+a=0 x–+a=0 y–+a=0
Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î mgxKiY x=a y=a x – a y – a
kxl© ¯úk©‡Ki mgxKiY x=0 y=0 x–=0 y–=0
Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î •`N¨© 4|a| 4|a| 4|a| 4|a|
Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î cÖvšÍwe›`y (a  2a) ( 2a, a) (a + a + ) a + a + 
(x, y) we›`yi Dc‡Kw›`ªK `~iZ¡ x+a y+a x–+a y–+a
Dce„Ë
 †dvKvm (, ) wbqvgK‡iLv ax + by + c = 0 Ges Dr‡Kw›`ªKZv e n‡j, Dce„‡Ëi mgxKiY,
(ax + by + c)2
(x – )2 + (y – )2 = e2
a2 + b 2
x2 y2 x12 y12
 (x1, y1) we›`ywU 2 + 2 = 1 Dce„‡Ëi, evB‡i Ae¯’vb Ki‡j, 2 + 2 – 1 > 0
a b a b
x12 y12 x12 y12
Dc‡i Ae¯’vb Ki‡j, a2 + b2 – 1 = 0; ‡fZ‡i Ae¯’vb Ki‡j, a2 + b2 – 1 < 0
a2 m b2
 y = mx  a2m2 + b2 †iLvwU m Gi mKj gv‡bi Rb¨ Dce„Ë‡K ( 2 2 2  2 2 2) we›`y‡Z ¯úk© Ki‡e|
a m +b a m +b
xx1 yy1
 (x1, y1) we›`y‡Z ¯úk©‡Ki mgxKiY, a2 + b2 = 1
x2 y2
 y = mx + c ‡iLvwU 2 + 2 = 1 Dce„Ë‡K ¯úk© Ki‡j c2 = a2m2 + b2
a b
 †h‡Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Dc‡Kw›`ªK `~iZ¡Ø‡qi †hvMdj e„nr A‡ÿi mgvb|
 Dce„‡Ëi mKj †K›`ªMvgx R¨v H we›`y‡Z mgwØLwÛZ nq|
 P (x, y) we›`ywU Dce„‡Ëi Dci Aew¯’Z n‡j Gi civwgwZK ¯’vbv¼ (acos, bsin)
civwgwZK mgxKiY, x = acos, y = bsin
x y
GB Dce„‡Ëi Dci 1 we›`y‡Z ¯úk©‡Ki mgxKiY, a cos b cos 1 = 1
 Ax2 + By2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0; [A, B, C, D, E Constant] Ges A  B n‡j,
 (x1, y1) we›`y‡Z ¯úk©‡Ki mgxKiY, Axx1 + Byy1 + C  2 1 + D  2 1 + E = 0
x+x y+y
Dce„‡Ëi AvKvi x2 y2 x2 y2 (x –  (y –  (x –  (y – 

2 + 2=1 + =1 + =1 + =1
a b a2 b 2 a b a b
a>b b>a a>b b>a
‡K‡›`ªi ¯’vbv¼ (0, 0) (0, 0) (, ) (, )
Dr‡Kw›`ªKZv b2 a2 b2 a2
e= 1– e= 1– e= 1– 2 e= 1– 2
a2 b2 a b
e„nr A‡ÿi •`N¨© 2a 2b 2a 2b
ÿz`ª A‡ÿi ‣`N¨© 2b 2a 2b 2a
e„nrA‡ÿi mgxKiY y=0 x=0 y–=0 x–=0
ÿz`ªA‡ÿi mgxKiY x=0 y=0 x–=0 y–=0
kxl©Ø‡qi ¯’vbv¼ ( a, 0) (0,  b) ( a + , ) (,  b + )
‡dvKvmØ‡qi ¯’vbv¼ ( ae, 0) (0,  be) ( ae + , ) (,  be + )
( a2 – b2, 0) (0,  b2 – a2) ( a2 – b2 + , ) (,  b2 – a2 + )
‡dvKvmØ‡qi `~iZ¡ 2ae = 2 a2 – b2 2be = 2 b2 – a2 2ae = 2 a2 – b2 2be = 2 b2 – a2
wbqvgK‡iLvi cv`we›`y  a 0 0  b  a +     b + 
 e   e  e   e 
 a  0 0 b   a
+    b
+ 
2 2 2 2
 a – b2 
2
 b – a22
 a2 – b 2   b 2 – a2 
wbqvgK‡iLvØ‡qi `~iZ¡ 2a 2a2 2b 2b2 2a 2a2 2b 2b2
= 2 = 2 2 = 2 = 2 2
e a – b2 e b –a e a – b2 e b –a
wbqvgK‡iLvØ‡qi mgxKiY a b a b
x= y= x–= y–=
e e e e
Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î •`N¨© 2b2 2a2 2b2 2a2
a b a b
Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î mgxKiY x =  ae y =  be x –  =  ae y –  =  be
‡ÿÎdj  ab  ab  ab  ab
Dc‡K›`ª I Abyiƒc wbqvg‡Ki `~iZ¡ a b a b
– ae – be – ae – be
e e e e
Awae„Ë
2 2
(x – h) (y – k)
 (h, k) ‡K›`ª wewkó Awae„‡Ëi mgxKiY, – =1
a2 b2
xx1 yy1
 (x1, y1) we›`y‡Z ¯úk©‡Ki mgxKiY, 2 – 2 = 1
a b
 civwgwZK ¯’vbv¼, (asec, btan)
 civwgwZK mgxKiY, x = asec, y = btan
x 1 y 1 1
 asec1, btan1 I (asec2, btan2) we›`yMvgx R¨v Gi mgxKiY,  cos (1 – 2) – sin (1 – 2) = cos (1 + 2)
a 2 b 2 2
 †Kvb kZ© D‡jøL bv _vK‡j a > b aiv nq| Z‡e †dvKv‡mi †KvwU w¯’i _vK‡j a > b Ges f~R w¯’i _vK‡j b > a aiv nq|
 Awae„‡Ëi Dci †Kvb we›`y P(x,y) Dc‡K›`ªØq S, S n‡j |PS – PS| = 2a
x2 y2
 y = mx + c †iLvwU 2 – 2 = 1 Awae„Ë‡K ¯úk© Ki‡e hw` c2 = a2m2 – b2 nq|
a b
Awae„‡Ëi AvKvi x2 y2 y2 x2 (x – )2 (y – )2 (y – )2 (y – )2
2 – 2=1 2– 2 =1 2 – 2 = 1 – =1
a b b a a b b2 a2
‡K‡›`ªi ¯’vbv¼ (0, 0) (0, 0) (, ) (, )
Dr‡Kw›`ªKZv b 2
a 2
b 2
a2
e= 1– 2 e= 1+ 2 e= 1+ 2 e= 1+ 2
a b a b
Avo A‡ÿi •`N¨© 2a 2b 2a 2b
AbyeÜx A‡ÿi •`N¨© 2b 2a 2b 2a
AvoA‡ÿi mgxKiY y=0 x=0 y–=0 x–=0
AbyeÜx A‡ÿi mgxKiY x=0 y=0 x–=0 y–=0
kxl©Ø‡qi ¯’vbv¼ (a, 0) (0,  b) (a + , ) (, b + )
‡dvKvmØ‡qi ¯’vbv¼ (ae, 0) (0, be) (ae + , ) (, b + )
( a2 + b2, 0) (0,  a2 + b2) ( a2 – b2 + , ) (,  a2 + b2 + )
‡dvKvmØ‡qi `~iZ¡ 2ae = 2 a2 + b2 2ae = 2 a2 + b2 2ae = 2 a2 + b2 2ae = 2 a2 + b2
wbqvgK‡iLvi cv`we›`y  a  0 0 b   a +   b + 
2 2 2 2
 a +b 
2 2
 a +b 2 2
 a +b
2 2
  a + b2
2

2 2 2
wbqvgK‡iLvØ‡qi `~iZ¡ 2a 2a 2b 2b 2a 2a 2b 2b2
= 2 = 2 = 2 = 2
e a + b2 e a + b2 e a + b2 e a + b2
wbqvgK‡iLvØ‡qi mgxKiY a b a b
x= y= x–= y–=
e e e e
Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î ‣`N¨© 2b2 2a2 2b2 2a2
a b a b
Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î mgxKiY x =  ae y =  be x –  =  ae y –  =  be
x =  a2 + b 2 y =  a2 + b 2 x –  =  a2 – b 2 y –  =  a2 + b 2
Awae„‡Ëi AmxgZU b b b b
y= x y= x y –  =  (x – ) y –  =  (x – )
a a a a
 MCQ Gi Rb¨ we‡kl m~Î/‡KŠkj:
†K․kj: x2 + gx + fy + c = 0 Ges y2 + gx + fy + c = 0 cive„‡Ëi j‡¤î ‣`N¨© h_vµ‡g |f| Ges |g|
2b 2a
ax2 + by2 + gx + fy + c = 0 Dce„‡Ëi Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î ‣`N¨© , hLb a > b; , hLb b > a.
a b
 †KŠkj: (, ) kxl©we›`y I (a, ) Dc‡K›`ª wewkó cive„‡Ëi mgxKiY (y – ) = 4 | – a| (x – ) h_vµ‡g  < a I  > a|
2
(, ) kxl©we›`y I (b, ) wbqvgK‡iLvi cv`we›`y wewkó cive„‡Ëi mgxKiY (y – )2 = 4| – a| (x – ) h_vµ‡g  > b I  < b|
2 2
MEx 01 3(x1) + 4y = 12 mgxKiYwU wK eY©bv K‡i? Solve awi, cive„‡Ëi Dci P(x, y) †h †Kvb we›`y Ges Dc‡K›`ª, S = (4, 0)
(x – 1)2 y2 SP = PM
Solve 3(x – 1)2 + 4y2 = 12  4 + 3 = 1 x+2
(x – y)2 + (y – 0)2 =  x2 – 8x + 16 + y2 = x2 + 2x + 4
3 1 1
Dr‡Kw›`ªKZv, e = 1 – 4 = 2  y2 – 10x + 12 = 0
2 2 2
1 MEx 06 y = 16x cive„Ë I 9x + 16y = 144 Dce„‡Ëi Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î
 †dvKvm (X, Y) = ( ae, 0),  (x – 1, y) = ( 2. , 0)
2 •`‡N©ï AbycvZ wb‡Pi †KvbwU?
 (x, y) = (2, 0)  (0, 0) Solve cive„‡Ëi Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î •`N©¨ = 4.a = 4.4 = 16 Ges Dce„‡Ëi
2
MEx 02 5x +15x–10y–4=0 cive„‡Ëi wbqvg‡Ki mgxKiY- 2b2 2.32 9 16
4 Dc‡Kw›`ªK j‡¤î •`N©¨ = a = 4 = 2  wb‡Y©q AbycvZ = 9 = 32:9
Solve 5x2 + 15x – 10y – 4 = 0  x2 + 3x – 2y – 5 = 0
2
3 2 3 2 3 2
 x2 + 2. x +   = 2y + +    x +  = 2 y + 
2 2
3 4 61 MEx 07 3x + 5y = 15 Dce„‡Ëi Dr‡Kw›`ªKZv n‡e-
2 2 5 2  2  40 x2 y2 3 2
 wbqvg‡Ki mgxKiY Y = – a Solve   1;  e  1  
61 1 1 61 1 5 3 5 5
y+ =– [a= ] y+ + = 0  40y + 81 = 0 MEx 08 GKwU Dce„‡Ëi mgxKiY wbY©q Ki hvi Dc‡K›`ª (1, –1) w`Kv‡ÿi
40 2 2 40 2
2
MEx 03 x + 4x + 2y = 0 cive„‡Ëi kxl© we›`y- 1
mgxKiY x – y + 2 = 0 Ges Dr‡Kw›`ªKZv
Solve x2 + 4x + 2y = 0  x2 + 4x + 4 =  2y + 4 2
 (x + 2)2 = 2(y  2)  kxl© we›`y (2, 2) 1 2 (x  y + 1)2
Solve (x  1)2 + (y + 1)2 =  . ;
2
MEx 04 y = 2x+b †iLvwU y =16x c¨viv‡evjv‡K ¯úk© K‡i, Z‡e b = ?  2 ( 2)2
a mgvavb K‡i, 3x2+3y2+2xy12x+12y+4 = 0
Solve y = mx+c †iLvwU y2 = 4ax c¨viv‡evjv‡K ¯úk© Kivi kZ©: c = MEx 09 x 3y 2x8 = 0 Awae„‡Ëi †K‡›`ªi ¯’vbvsK-
2 2
m Solve x 3y2 2x8 = 0  x2 2x+13y2 9=0
2
4
b= =2
 x  12  3 y 2  9 
x  12  y 2  1  Awae„‡Ëi †K‡›`ªi ¯’vbvsK  (1, 0)
2 9 3
MEx 05 †h cive„‡Ëi Dc‡K‡›`ªi ¯’vbvsK (4, 0) Ges wbqvgK (w`Kv¶) x + 2 = 0,
Zvi mgxKiY-
wecixZ wÎ‡KvYwgwZK dvskb I mgxKiY

 wecixZ e„Ëxq dvsk‡bi iƒcvšÍi K‡i gvb wbY©q msµvšÍ: G‡ÿ‡Î mwVKfv‡e wPÎ Gu‡K GKwU AbycvZ †_‡K Aci Abycv‡Z iƒcvšÍi K‡i gvb †ei Ki‡Z n‡e|
5 5 5 A
awi, tan 1 †Ìqv Av‡Q| tan 1    tan  
12 12 12
5
GLb, tan   Gi Rb¨ wÎfyR wPÎ Avgiv cvB, AB2 +BC2 = AC2 13
5
12
ev, AC2 = 52 +122 ev, AC2 = 169 ev, AC = 13 
GLb, cÖ‡qvRb g‡Zv cv‡ki wÎfyR wPÎ †_‡K ‡h †Kvb wÎ‡KvYwgwZK AbycvZ Avgiv †ei Ki‡Z cvwi| C B
12
5 5 12 12
†hgb: sin      sin 1 ; cos      cos1 cÖf„wZ|
13 13 13 13
 wÎ‡KvYwgwZK mgxKiY mgvav‡bi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq mvaviY m~Îvejx:

 sec–1(–x) =  –sec–1x  cosec–1(–x) = – cosec–1x
2sin–1x = sin–1(2x 1 – x2)  2cos–1x = cos–1(2x2 – 1)
–1 –1
 3sin x = sin (3x – 4x ) 3
 3cos–1x = cos–1(4x3 – 3x)
3x – x3 1 1 – 1 – x2
 3 tan–x = tan–1 2  sin–1x = tan–1
1 – 3x 2 x
1 –1 1 + x2 – 1 ax + by  by
 tan x = tan–1  tan–1 = + tan–1
2 x ax – by 4 ax
ax + by a y ax – by a y
 tan–1 = tan–1 + tan–1  tan–1 = tan–1 – tan–1
bx – ay b x bx + ay b x
1–x 
 tan–1 = – tan–1x  sin = sin n‡j  = n–1n
1+x 4
 cos = cos n‡j  = 2n    tan = tan n‡j  = n + 
 sin = 0 n‡j  = nπ  tan = 0 n‡j n
 
 sin = 1 n‡j  = (4n + 1) 2  sin = – 1 n‡j n – 1
2
–1 –1
 cos = 1 n‡j n  cos (–x) =  – cos x

 cot–1x + tan–1x =  sin–1x + sin–1y = sin–1[x 1 – y2 + y 1 – x2]


 cos–1x + cosec–1x =  sin–1x – sin–1y = sin–1[x 1 – y2 + y 1 – x2]
2
x+y
 tan–1x + tan–1y = tan–1  cos–1x + cos–1y = cos–1[xy – 1 – x2 1 – y2]
1 – xy
x–y
 tan–1x – tan–1y = tan–1  cos–1x – cos–1y = cos–1[xy + 1 – x2 1 – y2]
1 + xy
1 x + y + z – xyz
 sin–1 = cosec–1x  tan–1x + tan–1y + tan–1z = tan–1
x 1 – xy – yz – zx
2
1 2x –1 1 – x 2x
 tan–1 = cot–1x  2tan–1x = tan–1 2 = cos = sin–1
x 1–x 1 + x2 1 – x2
1 –1 1+x 1–x 1–x
sin–1(–x) = – sin–1x  cos x = cos–1 = sin–1 = tan–1
2 2 2 1+x
2
x –1 1 – x 1 1
 tan–1(–x) = – cot–1x  sin–1x = cos–1 1 – x2 = tan–1 2 = cot = sec–1 = cosec–1
1–x x 1 – x2 x
–1 –1
MEx 01 tan(tan 3 – tan 2) Gi gvb n‡e †KvbwU?  
32 1  tan  
Solve tan (tan13  tan12) = tan tan1 1 + 3.2 = 7  6

1    n  [tan = tan n‡j  = n  ]
MEx 02 n-c~Y© msL¨v n‡j sin 3  Gi mvaviY mgvavb †KvbwU? 6
2
1
1   MEx 04 sin 2 (cos 1 ) Gi gvb KZ?
Solve sin 3  = sin  3 = n  +(1)n 3
2 6 6 1 1 1 8
1 1
 Solve sin (cos )  1  cos (cos )  1  
2 2
  = 1 {n  + (–1)n } 3 3 9 9
3 6 –1 –1
MEx 05 cot x = sin y n‡j y Gi gvb †KvbwU?
1 Solve cot1 x = sin1 y
MEx 03 tan  
2
n‡j  Gi mvaviY gvb †KvbwU? 1
3  sin1 = sin1 y
1 1 1 + x2
Solve tan    tan   
2
1
3 3 y=
1 + x2
1 1
π
2
MEx 06 sin cot tan cos (2x ) = 1, x Gi gvb KZ? –1 –1
Solve sin cot–1 tan cos–1(2x2) =1 MEx 09 sin x + sin y = n‡j †KvbwU mwVK?
2
1
 2x2 = 1  x =  π π
2 Solve sin–1x + sin–1y =  sin–1x = –sin–1 y
–1 –1
2 2
 
MEx 07 tan (2x + 3) + cot (2x + 3) Gi gvb KZ?  
 x = sin   sin 1 y   cos sin 1 y
–1 –1
 2 
Solve m~Î, tan x + cot x =
2  x = coscos–1 1 y
2
 x = 1  y  x  1  y  x2 + y2 = 1
2 2 2

 tan 1 ( 2 x  3)  cot 1 ( 2 x  3)  1
2 MEx 10 x  tan 1 n‡j sinx Gi gvb †KvbwU?
–1
MEx 08 sin(2tan x) Gi gvb †KvbwU? 7
2x 2x 1
Solve sin( 2 tan 1 x)  sin(sin 1
) Solve sin x = 1 50
1 x 2
1 x2 50
7
w¯’wZwe`¨v
†h kv‡¯¿ e¯‘i w¯’wZkxj ev MwZkxj Ae¯’v wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq Zv‡K ejwe`¨v e‡j| ejwe`¨v `yB fv‡M wef³| h_v-
(i) w¯’wZwe`¨v (Statics) Ges (ii) MwZwe`¨v (Dynamics)
w¯’wZwe`¨v (Statics): ejwe`¨vi G As‡k e‡ji wµqvaxb e¯‘i w¯’wZkxj Ae¯’v Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq|
MwZwe`¨v (Dynamics): ejwe`¨vi G As‡k e‡ji wµqvaxb e¯‘i MwZkxj Ae¯’v Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq|
**`ywU e‡ji ‡ÿ‡Î jwäi gvb I w`K wbY©q:
B C
jwä R = P2+Q2+2PQcos
Q
ejØ‡qi AšÍ©MZ †KvY   R
Q sin  
 tan   O
P  Q cos  P A
Note:
i)   0  n‡j, R max  P  Q
ii)   180  n‡j, Rmin = P  Q
iii) α  90  n‡j, R 2  P 2  Q 2
iv) `yBwU e‡ji jwä (R) e„nËg ej (P) Gi mv‡_ †h †Kvb Drcbœ K‡i, e„nËg ejwU‡K wØ¸b Kivq hw` D³ †KvbwU A‡a©K n‡q hvq Z‡e P I Q Gi gaëZx©
†KvY  = 120
v) `yBwU ej P I Q Gi jwä R n‡j Ges P I Q Gi gaëZx© †KvY  n‡j,
 GKwU ej AciwUi wØ¸Y Ges jwä j¤^ eivei wµqviZ n‡j,  = 120
 GKwU ej AciwUi wØ¸Y n‡j,  = 120
 `yBwU mgvb e‡ji jwä k~b¨ n‡j,  = 180

jwä R = P2+Q2+2PQcos
`ywU e‡ji ‡ÿ‡Î I jwäi gvb I ejØ‡qi AšÍ©MZ †KvY 
w`K wbY©q Q sin 
 tan  
P  Q cos 
`ywU mggv‡bi e‡ji †ÿ‡Î jwäi α α
P I Q mgvb n‡j, jwä R  2 Pcos Ges jwäi w`K θ 
gvb I jwäi w`K wbY©q 2 2
`ywU ej j¤^ eivei wµqvkxj n‡j Q
jwä, R = P2 + Q2 Ges jwäi w`K,  = tan–1 P
jwäi gvb I jwäi w`K wbY©q
Qsin
jwä, R = P2 – Q2 ; †hLv‡b (P  Q); tan90 =  P + Qcos = 0
P + Qcos
¶z`ªZg ej
ejØ‡qi gaëZx© ‡KvY  n‡j, cos = – e„nËg ej   = cos–1 – Q
P
jwä †QvU e‡ji mv‡_ j¤^

Note: i)   0  n‡j, R max  P  Q ii)   180  n‡j, Rmin = PQ iii) α  90  n‡j, R 2  P 2  Q 2
eivei wµqvkxj n‡j jwäi gvb
iv) `yBwU e‡ji jwä (R) e„nËg ej (P) Gi mv‡_ †h †KvY Drcbœ K‡i, e„nËg ejwU‡K wØ¸b Kivq hw` D³
I ejØ‡qi gaëZ©x †KvY wbY©q
†KvYwU A‡a©K n‡q hvq Z‡e P I Q Gi gaëZx© †KvY  = 120
v) `yBwU ej P I Q Gi jwä R n‡j Ges P I Q Gi gaëZx© †KvY  n‡j,
 GKwU ej AciwUi wØ¸Y Ges jwä j¤^ eivei wµqviZ n‡j,  = 120
 GKwU ej AciwUi wØ¸Y n‡j,  = 120  `yBwU mgvb e‡ji jwä k~b¨ n‡j,  = 180
GK we›`y‡Z wfbœ †iLv eivei wµqviZ wZbwU GKZjxq ej mvg¨ve¯’vq _vK‡j, cÖ‡Z¨KwU e‡ji gvb Aci `yÕwU e‡ji
AšÍf©y³ †Kv‡Yi mvB‡bi mgvbycvwZK| cv‡ki wP‡Îi †¶‡Î, jvwgi Dccv`¨ Abymv‡i,
P Q R
 
sinYOZ sinZOX sinXOY
Y Q
jvwgi Dccv`¨ msµvšÍ
O
X Z R P
Avevi, †h‡Kv‡bv e‡ji gvb Aci ej `ywUi jwäi gv‡bi mgvb n‡e| †hgb- Q = P + R2 + 2P Rcos;
2
P= Q2 + R2 + 2Q Rcos
j¤^vsk Dccv`¨ (Resolved part’s Theorem): GKwU we›`y‡Z †Kvb Q
wbw`©ó w`‡K `yB ev, Z‡ZvwaK e‡ji j¤^vs‡ki exRMvwYwZK R
†hvMdj GKB w`K eivei Zv‡ì jwäi j¤^vs‡ki mgvb|

P I Q Gi jwä ej R n‡j, j¤^vsk Dccv`¨ Abymv‡i,  P

R cos   P cos   Q cos  . O
 X
Note:
i. `yB Gi AwaK e‡ji jwä wbY©‡qi †ÿ‡Î j¤^vsk Dccv`¨ eënvi Ki‡Z n‡e|
j¤^vsk Dccv`¨ msµvšÍ
ii. P, Q, R gv‡bi wZbwU mgZjxq ej GKwU we›`y‡Z wµqv K‡i| P I Q, Q I R Ges R I P Gi gaëZ©x †KvY
h_vµ‡g ,  Ges  n‡j ejÎ‡qi jwä, F = P2 + Q2 + R2 + 2PQcos + 2QRcos + 2PRcos
iii. ejÎq mgvšÍi avivq Ges mgvb †Kv‡Y wµqviZ _vK‡j jwä R = 3  mgvšÍi avivq mvaviY AšÍi|
iv. wZbwU mggv‡bi ej Ggbfv‡e wµqv K‡i †hb †h †Kvb `yBwU e‡ji gaëZ©x †KvY 120 nq, Z‡e jwä k~b¨|
360
v. PviwU mggv‡bi ej †Kvb we›`y‡Z Ggb fv‡e wµqv K‡i †hb ci ci `yBwU e‡ji gaëZ©x †KvY = 90 nq Z‡e
4
jwä k~b¨|
01. e‡ji wÎfyR m~Î: GKwU we›`y‡Z wµqviZ wZbwU ej‡K †Kvb wÎfy‡Ri wZbwU evû Øviv GKBµ‡g gv‡b I w`‡K m~wPZ
Kiv †M‡j ejÎq mvg¨ve¯’vi m„wó K‡i|
Note: GKwU wÎfz‡Ri wZbwU evû Øviv wZbwU ej‡K w`‡K, gv‡b I GKB µ‡g cÖKvk Ki‡Z n‡j †h †Kvb `yÕwU
wZbwU ej mvg¨ve¯’vq _vKvi
e‡ji †hvMdj Z…ZxqwU A‡c¶v e„nËi n‡Z nq|
kZ© msµvšÍ mgm¨v
02. KZ¸‡jv ej mgvšÍi aviv •Zwi Ki‡j ev wÎfz‡Ri wZb evû‡Z Ae¯’vb Ki‡j Zv‡ì jwä n‡e: e‡ji msL¨v 
ejØ‡qi mvaviY AšÍi
03. †h‡Kv‡bv msL¨K ej mvgë¯’vq _vK‡j Zv‡ì jwä k~b¨ n‡e|
MEx 01 3 GK‡Ki `yBwU mgvb ej 120 †Kv‡Y GK we›`y‡Z KvR K‡i| MEx 02 1, 1 Ges 2 GKK gv‡bi wZbwU ej P, Q, R GKwU e¯‘‡K
Zv‡ì jwäi gvb: mvg¨ve¯’vq ivL‡j P I Q Gi gaëZx© †KvY n‡e?
Solve jwäi gvb, Solve awi, AšÍf©y³ †KvY ; G‡¶‡Î jwä ej 2
R  3   3
2 2
 2. 3 . 3 cos120 0
 3 units   2 2
 12  1  2.1.1. cos   cos   0   = 90
2
MEx 03 ABC GKwU mgevû wÎfzR Ges 3P, 7P I 5P gv‡bi wZbwU e‡ji MEx 06 15N Ges 10N `yBwU m`„k mgvšÍivj ej 5m j¤^v GKwU nvjKv i‡Wi
w`K h_vµ‡g AB, BC I CA Gi w`‡K| ej wZbwUi jwäi gvb KZ? `yB cÖv‡šÍ Kvh©Ki n‡j e„nËg ej †_‡K jwä KZ `~‡i wµqv Ki‡e?
Solve 3P, 5P I 7P ejÎq mgvšÍi aviv MVb K‡i hvi mvaviY AšÍi 2P Solve awi e„nËg ej †_‡K jwäi wµqvwe›`yi `~iZ¡ = AC
 ejÎ‡qi jwä = 3  2P =2 3P 15 10 15 10 A C B
=  =
BC AC AB – AC AC
MEx 04 †Kvb wbw`©ó †e‡Mi gvb 100 wg./†m.; Zvi mv‡_ 60 †Kv‡Y AskK KZ?
3 2
Solve
100 200  = [∵ AB = 5m] 15N 25N 10N
= 5 – AC AC
cos60 + sin60 3+1
 3AC = 10 – 2AC
MEx 05 jvwgi Dccv`¨ †KvbwU?
 AC = 2
P Q R
Solve jvwgi Dccv`¨ = =
sin sin sin
mgZ‡j Pjgvb e¯‘i MwZ

 MwZcÖvß wewfbœ Ae¯’vi v-t MÖvd:
MÖvd bs Ae¯’v v-t MÖvd MÖvd bs Ae¯’v v-t MÖvd
w¯’i Ae¯’v †_‡K hvÎv ïiæ

v
v
01 02 wbw`©ó †e‡M hvÎv ïiæ Ki‡j
Ki‡j
t t
v
v
03 mg‡e‡M hvÎv Ki‡j 04 mgg›`‡b hvÎv Ki‡j
t t
vmax w¯’i Ae¯’vb †_‡K hvÎv ïiæ K‡i
v
v
mgZ¡i‡Y hvÎv ïiæ K‡i

05 06 h_vµ‡g mgZ¡iY, mg‡eM I mg‡eM
mgg›`‡b hvÎv †kl n‡j mg
Z¡iY
mg
g›`b
t mgg›`‡b †M‡j
t
 Av‡cwÿK †eM,  Mo †eM,

i. `ywU e¯‘ hLb GKB w`‡K Mgb K‡i, ZLb †gvU AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡
Mo `ªæwZ = ;
A e¯‘i mv‡c‡ÿ B e¯‘i Av‡cwÿK †eM = VB  VA Ges B e¯‘i mv‡c‡ÿ A e¯‘i Av‡cwÿK †eM = VA  VB †gvU mgq
ii. `ywU e¯‘ hLb ci¯úi wecixZ w`‡K Mgb K‡i, ZLb miY
Mo †eM =
A e¯‘i mv‡c‡ÿ B e¯‘i Avt †eM = VA + VB ; B e¯‘i mv‡c‡ÿ A e¯‘i Avt †eM = VA + VB †gvU mgq

i. Vmax2+Vmin2=2v2 ii. Vmin = u – v iii. V = u 2  v 2
MwZ‡eM I `ªywZ 2uv
Mo †eM wbY©q: †Kvb ¯’v‡b hvevi †eM = u, Avmvi †eM = v n‡j Mo †eM =
uv
i. f~wgi D‡aŸ© h D”PZv n‡Z u †e‡M Dj¤^fv‡e Dc‡i wbwÿß GKwU e¯‘ KYv t mg‡q f~wg‡Z v †e‡M cwZZ n‡j-
wbw¶ß/cošÍ 1
h =  ut + gt2 ; v =  u + gt
2
e¯Íyi MwZ
ii. cošÍ e¯‘ cZ‡bi †kl t sec G h `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j cZ‡bi †gvU mgq =  +  sec
t h
2 gt
u2sin2
i. m‡e©v”P D”PZv, H =
2g
ii. AbyfzwgK `~iZ¡ d = ucos.t
1 2
iii. Dj¤^ `~iZ¡, h = u sin.t –gt
2
u sin 
iv. cZbKvj ev DÌvbKvj, t =
g U
cÖ‡¶cK 2u sin  usin

v. ågbKvj, T = 
g ucos
u 2 sin 2
vi. Avbyf~wgK cvjøv, R=
g
u2
vii. me©vwaK Avbyf~wgKcvjøv, Rmax =
g
4H
viii. = tan
R
i. †¯ªv‡Zi AbyKz‡j †eM = u+v
ii. b~¨bZg `~i‡Z¡ b`x cvi n‡Z jwä †eM= u2 + v2
s
iii. b`x cvi n‡Z mgq t =
u2 + v2
†mªvZ msµvšÍ
‡¯ªv‡Zi †eM
mgm¨vejx iv. Zx‡ii mv‡_ mvuZviæ ev †b․Kvi ‡e‡Mi gaëZx© †KvY = cos–1 mvuZviæi †eM
v. †¯ªv‡Zi cÖwZK~‡j †eM = u  v

s
vi. ¯^íZg mg‡q b`x cvi nIqvq mgq, t =
u sin 
†e‡Mi gvb = ‡f`K…Z Z³vi msL¨v :
1 S
Z³v msµvšÍ i. hLb nviv‡bv †eM = 2 ev Avw`‡e‡Mi A‡a©K ZLb `~iZ¡ ev miY = [S = Avw` miY]
3
mgm¨vejx 2
1 S(n – 1)
ii. hLb nviv‡bv †eM = Ask| ZLb `~iZ¡/miY = [S = Avw` miY]
n 2n 1
i. `ywU e¯‘ hLb GKB w`‡K Mgb K‡i, ZLb A e¯‘i mv‡c‡ÿ B e¯‘i Av‡cwÿK †eM = VB  VA Ges B e¯‘i mv‡c‡ÿ A e¯‘i
Av‡cwÿK †eM Av‡cwÿK †eM = VA  VB
msµvšÍ ii. `ywU e¯‘ hLb ci¯úi wecixZ w`‡K Mgb K‡i, ZLbÑ A e¯‘i mv‡c‡ÿ B e¯‘i Avt †eM = VA + VB ; B e¯‘i mv‡c‡ÿ A e¯‘i
Avt‡eM = VA + VB hr
MEx 01 GKwU k~b¨ K~‡ci g‡a¨ GKLÐ cv_‡ii UzKiv †Q‡o †`qvi ci Zv 19.6 MEx 03 GKwU UvIqv‡ii P~ov n‡Z GKLÛ cv_i 10m wb‡P bvgvi ci Aci
wg./†m. †e‡M K~‡ci Zj‡`‡k cwZZ nq| K~‡ci MfxiZv KZ wgUvi? GKLÛ cv_i P~ovi 30m wbP n‡Z †d‡j †`qv n‡jv| hw` Df‡qB w¯’ive¯’v n‡Z
Solve v2 = u2 + 2gh
c‡o Ges GKB m‡½ f~wg‡Z cwZZ nq, Z‡e UvIqv‡ii D”PZv KZ wgUvi?
 (19.6)2 = 0 + 2  9.8  h 2
 h = 19.6 m (x + y)2 (30 + 10)
Solve h = = = 40 m
4x 410
MEx 02 ‡Kvb ¯Í‡¤¢i kxl© n‡Z 19.5m/sec †e‡M Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K cÖw¶ß
†Kvb KYv 5 sec c‡i ¯Í‡¤¢i cv`‡`‡k cwZZ n‡j ¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZv- MEx 04 GKwU e¯‘ 39.2 wg:/†m: †e‡M f‚wgi mv‡_ 30 †Kv‡Y wbw¶ß n‡j KZ
Solve G‡¶‡Î, u = 19.5 m/s, t = 5 s, g = 9.8 m/s2 mgq c‡o e¯‘wU wb‡¶‡ci w`‡Ki mv‡_ j¤^fv‡e Pj‡e?
1 1
 h = ut + gt2 = 19.55+ 9.852 = 25 m Solve mgq t 
u

39.2
 8 †m:
2 2 g sin  9.8 sin 30
[∵ ¯Í‡¤¢i kxl© n‡Z e¯‘ Lvov Dc‡i cÖw¶ß nq]
MEx 05 GKwU e¯‘ Dci †_‡K gy³fv‡e 4 †m‡K‡Û coj| e¯‘wU †k‡li 2 v =180 m/s, t = 5 s
†m‡K‡Û KZ dzU c‡owQj? v  u 180
 a   36 m / s 2
1 t 5
Solve 4 †m‡K‡Û AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ = 2  32  42 = 256 dzU
MEx 09 †mªvZ bv _vK‡j GKwU †Q‡j 5 wgwb‡U mvZvi †K‡U †mvRvmywRfv‡e 80
1
Avevi, cÖ_g 2 †m‡K‡Û c‡owQj = 2  32  22 = 64 dzU wgUvi cÖk¯Í GKwU Lvj cvi n‡Z cv‡i Ges †mªvZ _vK‡j Zvi wØ¸Y mgq
jv‡M| †mªv‡Zi †eM-
 †k‡li 2 †m‡K‡Û c‡owQj = (256 – 64) = 192 dzU
Solve g‡b Kwi, †Q‡ji †eM u Ges †mªv‡Zi †eM v
MEx 06 GKwU cÖ‡¶cK‡K Abyf‚wg‡Ki mv‡_ 30 †Kv‡Y 8 g m/sec †e‡M
 †mªvZ _vK‡j †Q‡ji jwä †eM= u2  v2
wb‡¶c Kiv n‡j, Zvi m‡e©v”P D”PZv KZ n‡e?
80
Solve m‡e©v”P D”PZv, u   16 m / min
  2 5
u 2 sin 2  8 g sin 30
2 o
H=  = 8m cÖkœg‡Z, u2  v2  10 = 80
2g 2g
 162  v2  10 = 80
MEx 07 GKwU ey‡jU †Kvb †Ìqv‡ji wfZi 3 †m.wg. cÖ‡ek Ki‡Z Zvi A‡a©K †mªv‡Zi †eM, v = 13.86 m/min
†eM nvivq| ey‡jUwUi †eM ïb¨ nevi c~‡e© ey‡jUwU †Ìqv‡ji wfZi Avi
MEx 10 GKwU KYvi Dci 2m/sec, 3m/sec. I 5m/sec. gv‡bi wZbwU †eM
KZ`~i cÖ‡ek Ki‡e?
Ggb wZbwU w`‡K Av‡ivc Kiv n‡jv †hb KYvwU w¯’wZkxj _v‡K| ¶z`ªZi
s 3
Solve ¸wjwU AviI x `~iZ¡ †f` Ki‡j, x    1cm gv‡bi †eM `yÕwUi gaëZx© †Kv‡Yi cwigvc KZ?
3 3
Solve ÿz`ª‡eM `ywUi gaëZ©x †KvY  n‡j,
MEx 08 GKwU Mvox w¯’Zve¯’v n‡Z mgZ¡i‡Y Pjv ïiæ K‡i 5 †m‡K‡Û 180
5 = 22 + 32 + 2.2.3cos
2
wg./†m. MwZ‡eM cÖvß nj| MvoxwUi Z¡iY-
 12cos = 12  cos = 1
Solve G‡¶‡Î, u= 0 m/s, 1
  = cos (1) = 0
¸”Q †bUIqvK© 4.0 kU© mv‡Rkb RxeweÁvb cÖ_g cÎ
†Kvl I Gi MVb
 †Kv‡li wSwjhy³ A½vYy- †K¬v‡ivcøv÷, gvB‡UvKwÛªqv, MjwR e¯‧, jvB‡mv‡Rvg,  wewfbœ Z‡_ï wfwË I †Kv‡li wPwýZKviK wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i- MøvB‡KvK¨vwj·|
G‡ÛvcøvRwgK †iwUKzjvg, wbDwK¬qvm, gvB‡µvewWm|  †KvlwSwjøi A‡bKUv Zij c`v‡_©i b¨vq AvPiY Kiv‡K ejv nq- Flip-flop
 †Kv‡li wSwjøwenxb A½vYy-ivB‡ev‡Rvg, †mw›UªIj, gvB‡µvwUDey¨j, movement|
gvB‡µvwdjv‡g›U, B›UviwgwW‡qU wdjv‡g›U, †cÖvwU‡qv‡Rvg|  †KvlwSwjøi ï®‥ IR‡bi ‡gvU ï®‥ IR‡bi-75 fvM wjwcW |
 †Kvlxq e¯‧ ev †mj BbK¬zkvb- mwÂZ Lv`ë¯‧, ÿwiZ c`v_© Ges eR©¨ c`v_©mg~n|  †KvlwSwjøi †cÖvwUbmg~‡ni AwaKvskiB cÖK…wZ n‡jv- GbvRvBg|
 Dw™¢`‡Kv‡li GK Abb¨ •ewkó¨- †KvlcÖvPxi|  †Kv‡li wewfbœ cÖKvi ¯œvqy DÏxcbvi KvR K‡i- †KvlwSwjø|
 Ro c`v_© wbwg©Z g„Z †KvlcÖvPxi _v‡K- Dw™¢`‡Kv‡l|  wbDwK¬qvm e¨ZxZ †cÖv‡UvcøvR‡gi Aewkó AskB- mvB‡UvcøvRg|
 †KvlcÖvPxi _v‡K bv- cÖvwY‡Kvl, civM‡iYy I Dw™¢‡ì Rbb‡Kv‡l|  mvB‡UvcøvR‡gi Zij Ask‡K ejv nq- mvB‡UvcøvRgxq gvZ…Kv ev avÎ|
 †Kvl¸‡jv‡K ci¯úi †_‡K c„_K iv‡L- †KvlcÖvPxi|  mvB‡UvcøvR‡gi gvZ…Kv‡K ejv nq- nvqv‡jvcøvRg ev mvB‡Uvmj|
 c~Y© weKwkZ Dw™¢`‡Kv‡li †KvlcÖvPxi- 3 ¯Íiwewkó|  mvB‡UvcøvR‡gi gvZ…Kvi †Kvl A½vYy I wbR©xe e¯‧¸‡jv‡K GK‡Î ejv nq-
 GK ¯Íiwewkó n‡jv- ga¨c`©v| †Uªv‡dvcøvRg|
 †KvlcÖvPx‡ii `ywU †Kv‡li gaëZ©x mvaviY ¯Íi ev c`©v- ga¨c`©v|  mvB‡UvcøvRgxq gvZ…Kvi ewnt¯ A‡cÿvK…Z †ewk Nb AÂj n‡jv- G±vcøvRg&
 ga¨c`©vi m~Pbv N‡U- †U‡jv‡dR ch©vq|  mvB‡UvcøvRgxq gvZ…Kvi †K›`ª¯ A‡cÿvK…Z Kg Nb AÂj n‡jv- G‡ÛvcøvRg|
 ga¨c`©v c~Y©Zv cvq- mvB‡UvKvB‡bwmm ch©v‡q|  †KvlMnŸ‡ii Pviw`‡K mvB‡UvcøvR‡gi nvjKv ¯Íi‡K ejv nq- U‡bvcøvRg/ U‡bvcøv÷|
 †m‡KÛvwi †KvlcÖvPx‡ii wZbwU m~² ¯Íi n‡jv- AšÍt¯Íi, ga¨t¯Íi I ewnt¯Íi|  Rx‡ei mKj wecvKxq Kv‡Ri wbqš¿K- mvB‡UvcøvRg|
 †KvlcÖvPxi cÖavbZ MwVZ nq- Cellulose w`‡q|  wewfbœ ÿz`ªv½ aviY K‡i- mvB‡UvcøvRg|
 †m‡KÛvwi †KvlcÖvPxi MV‡bi Dcv`vb- my‡ewib I wjMwbb|  †Kv‡li Af¨šÍ‡ii pH iÿv K‡i- mvB‡UvcøvRg|
 †KvlcÖvPxi MV‡bi µmwjsK wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i- Xyloglucan|  †Kv‡li mvB‡UvcøvR‡g cvwbi cwigvY- 65-96% (Dw™¢` †Kv‡l 75% Ges
 †KvlcÖvPx‡i gy‡LvgywL Aew¯Z `ywU K‚c‡K ejv nq- wcU †cqvi ev wcU †Rvo| cÖvwY‡Kv‡l 67%)|
 †cÖv‡UvcøvR‡gi myZvi g‡Zv Ask n‡jv- cøvR‡gv‡Wmgv|  mvB‡UvcøvR‡g Aew¯Z cvwb‡Z `ªexf‚Z •Re I A‣Re c`v‡_©i msL¨v- 36|
 cvkcvwk `ywU †Kv‡li g‡a¨ wewfbœ c`v‡_©i Av`vb-cÖ`vb NUvq- cøvR‡gv‡WmgvUv|  mvB‡UvcøvR‡gi `„k¨gvb duvKv Ask- †KvlMnŸi|
 †KvlcÖvPx‡ii ÿz`ªZg MvVwbK GKK- gvB‡mwj|  †KvlMnŸ‡ii Af¨šÍ‡ii im- †Kvlim (U‡bvcøvRg)|
 cÖwZwU gvB‡mwj‡Z †mjy‡jvR AYyi msL¨v- cÖvq 100wU|  ivB‡ev‡Rvg Avwe®‥vi K‡ib Ges gvB‡µv‡Rg bvg †`b- Alber Claude (1954)|
 †KvlcÖvPxi MV‡bi g~j GKK- gvB‡µvdvBweªj|  †cÖvwUb d¨v±wi ev †cÖvwUb ms‡køl‡Yi hš¿- ivB‡ev‡Rvg|
 gvB‡µvdvBweª‡ji AvuwU MVb K‡i- gvB‡mwj|  ÿy`ªvKvi ivB‡ev‡Rvg n‡jv- ivB‡evwbDwK¬I †cÖvwUb KYv (RNP)|
 KqwU gvB‡µvdvBweªj wgwjZ n‡q GKwU g¨v‡µvdvBweªj MwVZ nq- 250wU|  †Kv‡li mve©Rbxb A½vYy- ivB‡ev‡Rvg|
 A‡bK¸‡jv g¨v‡µvdvBweªj wgwjZ n‡q MVb K‡i- Zš‧|  Avw`‡Kvlx ivB‡ev‡Rv‡gi DcGKK ev mve-BDwbU- 50S I 30S|
 †KvlcÖvPxRi Øviv cwi‡ewóZ †Kv‡li mgy`q mRxe I wbR©xe c`v_© n‡jv- †cÖvUvcøv÷|  cÖK…Z‡Kvlx ivB‡ev‡Rv‡gi DcGKK- 60S I 40S|
 nv·‡ji g‡Z Rxe‡bi †f․Z wfwË n‡jv- †cÖv‡UvcøvRg|  ivB‡ev‡Rv‡gi eo DcGK‡K mvBU ev AÂj _v‡K- 4wU (E-mvBU, P-mvBU,
 †Kv‡li mRxe ev RxešÍ e¯‧- †cÖv‡UvcøvRg| A-mvBU I mRNA Gi mshyw³i ¯vb)|
 †cÖv‡UvcøvR‡g cvwbi cwigvY- 70-90%|  ivB‡ev‡Rv‡gi cÖavb Dcv`vb- †cÖvwUb I RNA (G‡ì AbycvZ 1:1)
 cvwbi †P‡q Av‡cwÿK ¸iæZ¡ †ewk- †cÖv‡UvcøvR‡gi|  mRNA-Gi m‡½ eû ivB‡ev‡Rvg hy³ n‡q †h ivB‡ev‡Rvg k„•Lj •Zwi nq
 †cÖv‡UvcøvR‡gi bvgKiY ev cÖeZ©b K‡ib- cviwKbwR (1840)| Zv‡K- cwjivB‡ev‡Rvg †_‡K- 5-50wU|
 †cÖv‡UvcøvR‡gi Pjb‡K e‡j- mvB‡K¬vwmm|  †Kv‡bv Rxe‡Kv‡l cÖvß ivB‡ev‡Rv‡gi GKwU Dc-GKK 40S n‡j, AciwU- 60S|
 †cÖv‡UvcøvRg‡K †eóbKvix •elg¨‡f`¨ c`©v- †KvlwSwjø|  †Kvl 'Translation' cÖwµqvi m‡½ RwoZ A½vYywU n‡jv- ivB‡ev‡Rvg|
 ev‡qv‡gg‡eªb ejv nq- †KvlwSwjø‡K|  MjwR e¯‧i Avwe®‥viK- C. Golgi (1889)|
 †KvlwSwjøi cÖavb MVb Dcv`vb- wjwcW I †cÖvwUb|  MjwR e¯‧‡K ejv nq †Kv‡li- c¨v‡KwRs †K›`ª ev †Kv‡li UªvwdK cywjk|
 †Kvlc`©vi ¯v‡b ¯v‡b †h fuvR m„wó nq Zv‡K ejv nq- gvB‡µvwfjvB|  Dw™¢` †Kv‡l MjwR ewW‡K ejv nq- Kv‡e©vnB‡WªU d¨v±wi|
 cøvRgv‡gg‡eªb †Kvb cÖwµqvq KwVb I Zij e¯‧ MÖnY K‡i- d¨v‡MvmvB‡Uvwmm  d¨vwU GwWm, wfUvwgb-C I wfUvwgb-K, ATPase I UªvÝdv‡iR GbRvBg
I wc‡bvmvB‡Uvwmm| cvIqv hvq- MjwR e¯‧‡Z|
 cøvRgv‡gg‡eªb MVb m¤úK©xq m¨vÛDBP g‡Wj cÖ¯Íve K‡ib- Danielli &  †Kvl wefvRbKv‡j †Kvl‡cøU •Zwi K‡i- MjwR e¯‧|
Davson (1935)|  ïµvYyi A¨v‡µv‡Rvg MV‡b mnvqZv K‡i- MjwR e¯‧|
 GKK c`©v (BDwbU †gg‡eªb) g‡Wj cÖ¯Íve K‡ib- Robertson (1959)G  jvB‡mv‡Rv‡gi bvgKiY K‡ib- de Duve (1955)|
 cøvRgv‡gg‡eªb MV‡bi me©vwaK ¯^xK…Z I AvaywbKZg g‡Wj- d¬zBW †gvRvBK  jvB‡mv‡Rvg‡K ejv nq- †Kv‡li cvK¯jx/my&mvBWvj †¯‥vqvW/AvZ¥NvZx
g‡Wj ev AvBmevM© g‡Wj| _wjKv/WvB‡Rw÷f e¨vM|
 d¬zBW †gvRvBK g‡Wj cÖ¯Íve K‡ib- Singer & Nicolson (1972)|  AšÍt‡Kvlxq cwicv‡K mvnvh¨ K‡i- jvB‡mv‡Rvg|
 †KvlwSwjøi ¯Íi- 2wU|  Dw™¢`‡Kv‡l jvB‡mv‡Rv‡gi Aci bvg- Spherosome ev Oleosome|
 †KvlwSwjøi †cÖvwUb- 3 ai‡bi|  A‡UvjvBwmm ev A‡Uvd¨vwM N‡U- jvB‡mv‡Rv‡g|
 cøvRgv‡gg‡eª‡bi d¬zBW †gvRvBK g‡W‡ji Zij AskwU n‡jv- wjwcW|  †Kv‡l †KivwUb cÖ¯‧Z K‡i- jvB‡mv‡Rvg|
 MøvB‡KvwjwcW I MøvB‡Kv‡cÖvwUb‡K GK‡Î ejv nq- MøvB‡KvK¨vwj·|  †Kvb †Kvlxq A½vby Rxe‡`‡ni A‡K‡Rv †Kvl aŸsm K‡i- jvB‡mv‡Rvg|
 jvB‡mv‡Rvg •Zwi K‡i- MjwR e¯‧|  cÖwZwU MÖvbv‡g _vBjvK‡q‡Wi msL¨v- 10-100wU|
 G‡ÛvcøvwRgK †iwUKzjvg Avwe®‥vi, bvgKiY I cÖZ¨ÿ K‡ib- Porter (1945)|  MÖvbvg P‡µi ms‡hvM mvabKvix bvwjKvi bvg- †÷ªvgv j¨v‡gwj|
 me©cÖ_g †Kvb †Kv‡l G‡ÛvcøvRwgK †iwUKzjvg Avwe®‥…Z nq- gyiMxi åæYxq †Kv‡l|  †Kvqv‡›Uv‡Rvg cvIqv hvq- †K¬v‡ivcøv‡÷|
 G‡ÛvcøvRwgK †iwUKzjv‡gi Mv‡q `vbv`vi e¯‧ n‡jv- ivB‡ev‡Rvg|  †mw›UªIj Avwe®‥vi K‡ib- Van Benden (1887)|
 G‡ÛvcøvRwgK †iwUKzjvg Abycw¯Z- Avw`‡Kv‡l|  †mw›UªIj bvgKiY K‡ib- T. Bovery (1888)|
 G‡ÛvcøvRwgK †iwUKzjv‡gi Ae¯vb- mvB‡UvcøvR‡g|  †Kv‡li ¯^cR Ö bbÿg A½vYy- †mw›UªIj|
 Agm„Y G‡ÛvcøvRwgK †iwUKzjv‡gi ÿz`ª ÿz`ª wew”Qbœ Ask‡K ejv nq- gvB‡µv‡Rvg|  †mw›UªI‡ji Ask- 3wU|
 †cÖv‡UvcøvR‡gi KvVv‡gv wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i- G‡ÛvcøvRwgK †iwUKzjvg|  †mw›UªI‡ji cÖvPx‡i KqwU Îqx AbybvwjKv _v‡K- 9wU|
 G‡ÛvcøvRwgK †iwUKzjv‡g GbRvBg we`¨gvb- 15 ai‡bi|  †mw›UªI‡ji Pvicv‡k Aew¯Z Mvp Zij‡K ejv nq- †m‡›Uªvwùqvi|
 MVb I Kv‡Ri wfwË‡Z †Kvb †RvovwU AwaK wgjm¤úbœ- MjwR e¯‧ I  †m‡›Uªvwùqvimn †mw›UªIj‡K ejv nq- †m‡›Uªv‡Rvg|
G‡ÛvcøvRwgK †iwUKzjvg|  †mw›UªI‡ji cÖavb MVb Dcv`vb- wjwcW, †cÖvwUb I ATP|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªqv cÖ_g cÖZ¨ÿ I Avwe®‥vi K‡ib- Kolliker (1850)|  ïµvYyi †jR MV‡b mvnvh¨ K‡i- †mw›UªIj|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªqv bvgKiY K‡ib- Benda (1898)|  wbDwK¬qvm Avwe¯‥vi I cÖ_g eY©bv K‡ib- Robert Brown (1831)
 gvB‡UvKwÛªqv‡K ev‡qvcøv÷ bv‡g AwfwnZ K‡ib- Altman (1894)|  wbDwK¬qvm‡K ejv nq- †Kv‡li gw¯Í®‥ ev cÖvY‡K›`ª ev †Kw›`ªKv|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªqv‡K ejv nq- KbwWªI‡Rvg I cøvR‡gv‡Rvg|  eû wbDwK¬qvm wewkó MVb‡K ejv nq- wm‡bvmvBU|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªqv‡K ejv nq †Kv‡li- kw³Ni ev cvIqvi nvDm|  †Kv‡li 10-15% ¯vb `Lj K‡i _v‡K- wbDwK¬qvm|
 †µem Pµ, d¨vwU GwmW Pµ, ETC, Aw·‡WwUf dm‡dvivB‡jkb cÖf…wZ N‡U-  †Kvb A½vYywUi 90% AskB wbDwK¬qvm- ïµvYy|
gvB‡UvKwÛªq‡b|  †Kv‡li gvSLv‡b Ae¯vb K‡i- wbDwK¬qvm|
 mvaviYZ Dw™¢‡ì cÖwZ‡Kv‡l gvB‡UvKwÛªqv msL¨v- 300-400|  wbDwK¬qv‡mi AveiYx‡K ejv nq- wbDwK¬Ic`©v|
 †Kv‡l AšÍtwg‡_vRxex ev G‡Ûvwmgev‡qv›U wn‡m‡e _v‡K- gvB‡UvKwÛªqb I †K¬v‡ivcøv÷|  wbDwK¬qv‡mi cÖavb ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb- 2wU (†cÖvwUb I wbDwK¬K GwmW)|
 †Kv‡li Aa©¯^wbf©ikxi A½vYy- gvB‡UvKwÛªqb I †K¬v‡ivcøv‡÷|  wbDwK¬Ic`©vq †ewóZ Aa©Zij †Rwjm`„k c`v_©wU - wbDwK¬IcøvRg|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªq‡b Av½y‡ji g‡Zv cÖeaK nj - wµw÷|  wbDwK¬IcøvR‡gi Aci bvg- K¨vwiIwjç|
 ATP wm‡š‡mR bvgK- †MvjvKvi e¯‧ cvIqv hvq- gvB‡UvKwÛªq‡b  wbDwK¬Ijvm cÖ_g Avwe®‥vi K‡ib- Fontana (1781)|
 wµw÷ aviY K‡i- gvB‡UvKwÛªqv|  wbDwK¬Ijv‡mi ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb- DNA, RNA I †cÖvwUb|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªq‡bi ï®‥ IR‡b †cÖvwU‡bi cwigvY- 65%|  wbDwK¬IUvB‡Wi fvÛvi wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i- wbDwK¬Ijvm|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªqvq cÖvq KZ ai‡bi GbRvBg I †Kv-GbRvRBg cvIqv hvq- 100 ai‡bi|  †Kvl¯ LwbR wµ÷vj- K¨vjwmqvg A·v‡jU|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªq‡b cvIqv hvq- wfUvwgb-E|  †Kvl¯ LwbR wµ÷vj my‡Pi g‡Zv n‡j Zv‡K ejv nq- i¨vdvBW|
 ÿz`ª †MvjvKvi DNA cvIqv hvq- gvB‡UvKwÛªq‡b|  Av½y‡ii †_vKvi g‡Zv K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡b‡Ui wµ÷vj n‡jvwm‡÷vwj_|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªq‡bi ivB‡ev‡Rv‡gi cÖK…wZ- 70S|  wbDwK¬qv‡mi †nUv‡iv‡µvgvwUbhy³ AÂj‡K ejv nq- K¨vwiI‡Rvg|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªqvi wSwjø- wj‡cv-‡cÖvwUb mg„×|  eskMwZi aviK I evnK- †µv‡gv‡Rvg|
 gvB‡UvKwÛªqvi AšÍtc`©vi we‡kl dm‡dvwjwcW n‡jv- KvwW©Iwjwcb|  eskMwZi †f․Z wfwË wn‡m‡e AwfwnZ nq- †µv‡gv‡Rvg|
 wjwcW ms‡køl‡Yi mKj GbRvBg _v‡K- gvB‡UvKwÛªq‡b|  me©cÖ_g †µv‡gv‡Rvg Avwe®‥vi K‡ib- Strasburger (1875)|
 cøvw÷W KZ cÖKvi- 3 cÖKvi (wjD‡Kvcøv÷, †µv‡gvcøv÷ I †K¬v‡ivcøv÷)|  me©cÖ_g †µv‡gv‡Rvg kãwU eënvi K‡ib- Waldeyer (1888)|
 mvaviYZ cøvw÷W _v‡K bv- cÖvwY‡Kvl I QÎv‡K|  me©cÖ_g gvby‡li †µv‡gv‡Rvg msL¨v cÖKvk K‡ib- Painter (1921)|
 eY©nxb cøvw÷W- wjD‡Kvcøv÷|  mcy®úK Dw™¢‡` me©wb¤œ msL¨K †µvgv‡Rvg cvIqv †M‡Q- Haplopappus gracilis|
 m~‡h©i Av‡jv †c․Qvq bv- wjD‡Kvcøv‡÷|  mcy®úK Dw™¢‡` m‡e©v”P msL¨K †µv‡gv‡Rvg cvIqv †M‡Q- Poa littarosa|
 ÷vP© ev †k¦Zmvi mÂq K‡i- A¨vgvB‡jvcøv÷|  cÖvYx‡Z me©wb¤œ msL¨K †µv‡gv‡Rvg cvIqv †M‡Q- Ascaris megalocephala
 †cÖvwUb RvZxq c`v_© mÂq K‡i- A¨vwjD‡ivcøv÷| sub. sp. univalens|
 †Zj I †¯œn ev wjwcW RvZxq c`v_© mÂq K‡i- Bjv‡qvcøv÷|  cÖvYx‡Z m‡e©v”P msL¨ †µv‡gv‡Rvg cvIqv †M‡Q- Aulacantha sp.|
 R¨v‡švwd‡ji eY©- njy`|  gvbe‡`‡n †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi msL¨v- 46wU (23 †Rvov)|
 meyR e¨ZxZ Ab¨vb¨ e‡Y©i cøvw÷W¸‡jv‡K ejv nq- †µv‡gvcøv÷|  †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi †Kvb AskwU wbDwK¬Ijv‡mi cybM©Vb (wbDwK¬Ijvm MVb) AÂj
 dj I ex‡Ri we¯Íi‡Y f‚wgKv iv‡L- †µv‡gvcøv÷| bv‡g cwiwPZ- †M․Y KzÂb|
 m~h©v‡jv‡Ki Dcw¯wZ‡Z iÄK c`v_© aviY K‡i- A¨vgvB‡jvcøv÷|  †µv‡gv‡Rvg‡K iwÄZ Ki‡j Gi gaëZ©x AiwOb Ask- †m‡›Uªvwgqvi|
 me©cÖ_g Dw™¢`‡Kv‡l meyR e‡Y©i cøvw÷W jÿ K‡ib Ges †K¬v‡ivcøv÷ bvgKiY  †KvbwU eskMwZi mwµq Ask- BD‡µvgvwUb|
K‡ib- Schimper (1883)|  †Kvl wefvR‡bi †Kvb av‡c †µv‡gv‡Rvg¸‡jv V, L, J I I Gi AvKvi aviY
 meyR e‡Y©i cøvw÷W- †K¬v‡ivcøv÷‡K| K‡i- A¨vbv‡dR|
 D”P‡kÖwYi Dw™¢`‡Kv‡l KZwU †K¬v‡ivcøv÷ _v‡K- 10-40wU|  †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi gvSLv‡b †m‡›Uªvwgqvi Ae¯vb Ki‡j Zv‡K ejv nq- †gUv‡mw›UªK|
 Chalmydomonas-Gi †K¬v‡ivcøv÷- †cqvjvKvi|  †m‡›Uªvwgqvi †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi GKcÖv‡šÍ Ae¯vb Ki‡j Zv‡K ejv nq- †U‡jv‡mw›UªK|
 Spirogyra-Gi †K¬v‡ivcøv÷- mwc©jvKvi ev wdZvK…wZ|  †µvgvwUb‡K cuywZi gvjvi g‡Zv †`Lv‡j Zv‡K ejv nq- wbDwK¬I‡Rvg|
 †K¬v‡ivcøv‡÷ R¨v‡švwdj AYy we`¨gvb- 300-400wU|  gvby‡li GKwU †Kv‡l wbDwK¬I‡Rv‡gi msL¨v- cÖvq 3  107 wU|
 †K¬v‡ivcøv‡÷i g¨vwUª·‡K ejv nq- †÷ªvgv|  †µvgvwU‡bi GKK- wbDwK¬I‡Rvg|
 cÖwZwU †K¬v‡ivcøv‡÷ MÖvbvi msL¨v cÖvq- 40-60wU|  SAT K_vwUi A_©- Sine Acid Thymonuclenico|
 _vBjvK‡qW _v‡K- †K¬v‡ivcøv‡÷|
 m¨v‡UjvBU _v‡K- †Qvjvi 1bs †µv‡gv‡Rv‡g Ges gvby‡li 13, 14, 15, 21 I  RNA me©`vB Drcbœ nq- DNA †_‡K|
22 Zg †µv‡gv‡Rvg¸‡jv‡Z|  RNA-Gi KZ fvM mvB‡UvcøvR‡g _v‡K - cÖvq 90%|
 †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi 90% MVb K‡i- DNA |  RNA-Gi KZ fvM wbDwK¬qv‡m _v‡K- cÖvq 10%|
 †µv‡gv‡Rv‡g †cÖvwU‡bi cwigvY- 55%  RNA †R‡bwUK c`v_©iƒ‡c KvR K‡i - Dw™¢` fvBiv‡m|
 †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb- †cÖvwUb, wbDwK¬K GwmW (DNA I RNA)  RNA mvaviY KZ cÖKvi- 5 cÖKvi|
I wKQz avZe Avqb|  GKwU †Kv‡li †gvU RNA-Gi kZKiv KZ fvM mRNA-5-10 fvM|
 eskMZxq e¯‧i cÖavb Dcv`vb n‡”Q- wbDwK¬K GwmW (DNA I RNA)|  GKwU †Kv‡li †gvU RNA-Gi kZKiv KZ fvM t RNA-cÖvq 15 fvM|
A‡b‡Ki g‡Z, DNA|  GKwU †Kv‡li †gvU RNA-Gi kZKiv KZ fvM rRNA-cÖvq 80-90 fvM|
 me©cÖ_g wbDwK¬K GwmW Avwe®‥vi K‡ib Ges G‡ì bvg †`b wbDwK¬b -  †Kvb RNA Gi 3' cÖv‡šÍ CCA †jR Av‡Q-tRNA|
Miescher (1869)|  tRNA Gi †Kvb cÖv‡šÍ A¨vwg‡bv GwmW mshy³ nq-3' cÖv‡šÍ|
 wbDwK¬b‡K wbDwK¬K GwmW bv‡g AwfwnZ K‡ib- Altman, 1889|  tRNA memgq †Kvb avivq †em mw¾Z _v‡K-CCA|
 wbDwK¬K GwmW‡K DNA Ges RNA fvM K‡ib- Lavine|  tRNA- †Z KqwU †em wb‡q A¨vw›U‡KvWb we`¨gvb - 3wU|
 wbDwK¬K Gwm‡W bvB‡Uªv‡R‡bi cwigvY- 15%|  ivB‡evwbDwK¬q †cÖvwUb MVb K‡i- rRNA.
 AmsL¨ wbDwK¬IUvBW Gi cwjgvi- wbDwK¬K GwmW|  DNA Abywjcb m¤ú‡K© g‡Wj ev AbyKí msL¨v - 3wU|
 wbDwK¬IUvB‡Wi g~j Dcv`vb¸‡jv n‡jv- †c‡›UvR myMvi, bvB‡Uªv‡Rb †em I  DNA AYyi †iwcø‡Kkb †Kvb c×wZ‡Z nq - Aa©msiÿYkxj|
dm‡dvwiK GwmW ev A‣Re dm‡dU|  DNA Abywjc‡bi mgq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb eÛ fv‡O †Kvb GbRvBg- †nwj‡KR|
 wbDwK¬ImvB‡Wi g~j Dcv`vb¸‡jv n‡jv- †c‡›UvR, myMvi I bvB‡Uªv‡Rb †em|  DNA Abywjc‡bi AZ¨vek¨Kxq GbRvBg n‡jv - cwjgv‡iR|
 wbDwK¬IUvBW = wbDwK¬IUvBW + A‣Re dm‡dU|  DNA Abywjc‡b Abywjcb dK© Drcbœ nq - Y AvK…wZi|
 wcDwib- Gi mvaviY ms‡KZ- C5H4N4|  AcZ¨ DNA †h GbRvB‡gi cÖfv‡e KzÐwjZ nq - MvB‡iR|
 cvBwiwgwWb-Gi mvaviY ms‡KZ- C4H4N2 |  DNA Abywjc‡bi bZzb m~Î memgqB e„w× cvq-5'  3' gyLx n‡q|
 wcDwib †em¸‡jv n‡jv- A¨vwWwbb Ges ¸qvwbb|  DNA Abywjc‡bi mgq Quv‡Pi †e‡mi Abyµg ACGT n‡j bZzb m~‡Îi µg
 †c‡›UvR myMvi- ivB‡evR (RNA-‡Z) I wWAw·ivB‡evR (DNA-‡Z)| n‡e- TGCA|
 cvBwiwgwWb †em¸‡jv n‡jv- mvB‡Uvwmb, _vBwgb (DNA-‡Z _v‡K) Ges  DNA Abywjc‡b j¨vwMs m~Î m„wói mgq m„ó LÐ¸‡jv‡K ejv nq-IKvRvwK LÐ|
BDivwmj (RNA-‡Z _v‡K)|  Abywjc‡b DNA AYyi LÐ¸‡jv mshy³ K‡i- jvB‡MR|
 DNA Gi bvB‡Uªv‡Rb †em¸‡jv n‡jv- A¨vwWwbb, Iqvwbb, mvB‡Uvwmb I _vBwgb|  DNA Abywjc‡b bZzb K‡i nvB‡Wªv‡Rb eÛ •Zwi‡Z mvnvh¨ K‡i †Kvb
 RNA Gi bvB‡Uªv‡Rb †em¸‡jv n‡jv- A¨vwWwbb, ¸qvwbb, mvB‡Uvwmb I BDivwmj| GbRvBg- jvB‡MR|
 wbDwK¬ImvB‡Wi †c‡›UvR myMv‡ii KZ b¤î Kve©‡b bvB‡Uªv‡Rb †em hy³ nq- 1 b¤î|  DNA Gi wbR¯^ wbqš¿‡Y †h fzj nq Zvi bvg- Mismatch|
 wbDwK¬ImvBW MV‡bi †ÿ‡Î †c‡›UvR myMv‡ii 1 b¤î Kve©b wcDwi‡bi 9bs  Mismatch fz‡ji Kvi‡Y gvby‡li ‡Kvb †ivM nq- †Kvjb K¨vÝvi|
¯v‡bi wKsev cvBwiwgwW‡bi 1bs ¯v‡bi bvB‡Uªv‡R‡bi mv‡_ MøvB‡KvmvBW eÜbx  UV iwk¥ Øviv DNA-Gi ÿZ n‡j gvby‡l nq- w¯‥b K¨vÝvi|
w`‡q hy³ _v‡K|  RxeweÁvb †K›`ªxq cÖZ¨q - †iwcø‡Kkb, UªvÝwµckb I UªvÝ‡jkb|
 wbDwK¬ImvB‡Wi †c‡›UvR myMv‡ii 3- OH ev 5-OH Gi mv‡_ GKwU dm‡dU,  DNA ms‡KZ mRNA-‡Z ¯vbvšÍ‡ii cÖwµqv- UªvÝwµckb|
G÷vi eÜbx ev dm‡dvG÷vieÜbx Øviv hy³ n‡q wbDwK¬IUvBW MwVZ|  UªvÝwµckb †Kv_vq msNwUZ nq- mvB‡UªvcøvR‡g (Avw`‡Kvl) GKs wbDwK¬qv‡m
 Rx‡ei eskMZxq c`v_©- DNA| (cÖK…Z‡Kvl)|
 eskMwZi ivmvqwbK wfwË ev gv÷vi gwjwKDj n‡jv- DNA|  RNA (mRNA) †_‡K †cÖvwUb •Zwii cÖwµqv- UªvÝ‡jkb|
 †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi g~j ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb- DNA|  UªvÝ‡jkb †Kv_vq msNwUZ nq- mvB‡UvcøvR‡gi ivB‡ev‡Rv‡g (Avw`‡Kvl I
 †R‡bwUK Bbdi‡gk‡bi g~j GKK- DNA| cÖK…Z‡Kvl)|
 DNAAYyi g~j KvVv‡gv - wbDwK¬IUvBW|  eskMZxq Z_¨ cÖKvwkZ nq- †cÖvwUb ms‡køl‡Y|
 DNA AYyi Wvej †nwj· g‡Wj cÖ`vb K‡ib - Watson & Crick (1953)|  UªvÝwµck‡b A¨vwWwb‡bi (A) wecix‡Z cwic~iK †em- BDivwmj (U)|
 DNA AYyi wØm~ÎK g‡Wj Avwe®‥v‡ii K…wZ‡Z¡i Rb¨ †bv‡ej cyi¯‥vi jvf  ATC hw` DNA Gi Abyµg nq Zvnv‡j Drcbœ mRNA Gi Abyµg n‡e-UAG|
K‡ib- Watson, Crick I DBjwKÝ (1962)|  UªvÝwµck‡b mnvqZvKvix cÖavb GbRvBg-RNA cwjgv‡iR|
 DNA-Gi cwigvb †Kvb GK‡K cÖKvk Kiv nq- wc‡KvMÖvg|  mRNA m~ÎwU †Kvb Awfgy‡L e„w× cvq -5'  3'|
 wØm~ÎK wbDwK¬K Gwm‡Wi bvB‡Uªv‡Rb NwUZ ÿvi‡Ki µg- ATGC|  wcÖ-mRNA Gi †h As‡k UªvÝ‡jkb nq Zv‡K ejv nq- A¨v·b|
 A¨vwWwbb (A) _vBwg‡bi (T) mv‡_ hy³ nq- 2wU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb e‡Ûi gva¨‡g|  Av`k© A¨vwg‡bv Gwm‡Wi msL¨v- 20wU|
 ¸qvwbb (G) mvB‡Uvwm‡bi (C) mv‡_ hy³ nq- 3wU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb e‡Ûi gva¨‡g|  ivB‡ev‡Rv‡gi †QvU L‡Ð hy³ nq- mRNA|
 DNA AYyi Wvej †nwj‡·i cÖwZwU m¤ú~Y© cu¨vP ev N~Y©‡bi `~iZ¡-  cwj‡ccUvBW †PBb mvaviY ïiæ nq- AUG Øviv|
34Å (= 3.4nm)|  †cÖvwU‡b A¨vwg‡bv Gwm‡Wi web¨vm wbqwš¿Z nq- DNA Øviv|
 DNA AYyi †nwj‡·i e¨vm-20Å|  A¨vwg‡bv GwmW †ccUvBW eÜbx Øviv MVb K‡i - †cÖvwUb ev Avwgl|
 DNA AYyi †nwj‡· KZwU wbDwK¬IUvB‡Wi ci G‡KKwU cu¨vP m¤úbœ nq -10wU|  Rx‡ei esk avivi wbqš¿YKvix GKK- wRb|
 DNA AYyi †nwj‡·i GK avc †_‡K Aci av‡ci `~iZ¡- 3.4Å (= 0.34nm)|  eskMwZi •ewkóëvnx KYv‡K d¨v±i bvg †`b- Johann Mendel (1866)|
 DNA AYyi Wvej †nwj‡·i cÖwZ cu¨v‡P cÖvq KZwU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb eÛ _v‡K- 25wU|  wRb bvgKiY K‡ib- Johannsen (1909)|
 DNA Gi cwie„wËi g~j KviY- wgD‡Ukb|  K…wÎg wRb ms‡kølY K‡i †bv‡ej cyi¯‥vi jvf K‡ib- Har Gobinda
 ivB‡evwbDwK¬IUvB‡Wi cwjgviB n‡jv RNA| Khorana (1969)|
 GKwUgvÎ cwjwbDwK¬IUvBW †PBb Øvi MwVZ- RNA|  ÔGK wRb GK GbRvBg gZev`Õ me©cÖ_g Pvjy K‡ib- Garrool (1908)|
 ÔRxe‡bi fvlvÕ (language of life) ejv nq- †cÖvwUb‡K|  64wU †R‡bwUK †Kv‡Wi g‡a¨ ms‡KZ cÖ`vb K‡i- 61wU|
 wR‡bi MVbMZ GKK- DNA A_©vr DNA-B n‡”Q wRb|  ‡R‡bwUK †Kv‡W KqwU bvB‡Uªv‡Rb †em _v‡K- 3wU|
 wmKj †mj wn‡gv‡Møvwe‡b A¨vwg‡bv Gwm‡Wi msL¨v- 600wU|  ÷vU© †KvWb- AUG|
 Rx‡ei wR‡bi †KvwWs As©k‡K e‡j- A¨v·b|  mgvwß †KvWb n‡jv-UAA, UAG I UGA|
 wR‡bi †h Kvh©Kix GKK cwj‡ccUvBW ms‡køl K‡i- wm÷ªb|  AUG †KvWb †Kvb A¨vwg‡bv GwmW‡K wb‡`©k K‡i- wgw_Iwbb|
 wm÷ª‡bi wiKw¤^‡bkb‡hvM¨ Ask- †iKb|  UªÝ‡jkb ïiæ nq †Kvb A¨vwg‡bv GwmW Øviv- wgw_Iwbb|
 Cistron Gi wgD‡Ukb‡hvM¨ Ask- wgDUb|  †R‡bwUK †Kv‡Wi m¤ú~Y© A_© D×vi Kiv nq- 1966 mv‡j|
 wm÷ª‡bi ms‡KZevnx Ask - A¨v·b|  A¨vwg‡bv GwmW kbv³ Ki‡Z Aÿg †KvWb- 3wU|
 A¨v·b Ges BbUªb mgwš^Z wRb‡K ejv nq- w¯úøU wRb|  Rxe‡`‡ni MvVwbK I Kvh©Kix GKK Ges g~j wfwË- †Kvl|
 Z¡‡Ki eY© cÖKvk cvq- wR‡bi gva¨‡g|  †Kv‡li Avwe®‥viK I Cell kãwUi cÖeZ©K- ievU© ûK|
 Human Genome Project (HGP)-Gi Z_¨ Abyhvqx (2007) GKwU  †Kvl wb‡q Av‡jvPbvKvix we`¨v- Cytology|
wWcø‡qW gvbe †Kv‡l Kvh©Kix wR‡bi msL¨v- 30-40 nvRvi|  †KvlZË¡ cÖ`vb K‡ib- ¯øvB‡Wb I †mvqvb|
 ÿz`ªZg wR‡b 75wU wbDK¬IUvBW Ges e„nËg wR‡b 40,000wU wbDwK¬IUvBW  Rxebavi‡Yi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq mKj •RweK Kvh©µg m¤úbœ nq- †Kv‡l|
†iKW© Kiv n‡q‡Q|  Kv‡ji cwiµgvq Awf‡hvwRZ n‡Z cv‡i- †Kvl|
 gvby‡li †ÿ‡Î †µv‡gv‡Rvg 1-G me‡P‡q †ewk (2968wU) wRb Ges Y  wbDwK¬qv‡mi Dcw¯wZi wfwË‡Z †Kvl- 2 cÖKvi (Avw`‡Kvl I cÖK…Z‡Kvl)|
‡µv‡gv‡Rv‡g me‡P‡q Kg (231wU) wRb _v‡K|  wb¤œ‡kÖwYi Rx‡ei †Kvl- Avw`‡Kvl|
 wRb m¤ú‡K© A‡cib gZev` cÖPjb K‡ib- Monad and Jcob (1961)|  DbœZ †kÖwYi Rx‡ei †Kvl- cÖK…Z‡Kvl|
 mKj gvby‡li wR‡bv‡gi MVb KZ kZvsk GKB iKg-99.9%|  Avw`‡Kv‡li wefvRb cÖwµqv- A¨vgvB‡Uvwmm ev wØwefvRb|
 gvbe wR‡bv‡g we`¨gvb KZ kZvsk wRb wewfbœ •ewkó¨ cÖKv‡k AskMÖnY K‡i-  cÖK…Z‡Kv‡li wefvRb cÖwµqv- gvB‡Uvwmm I wg‡qvwmm|
gvÎ 2%|  Avw`‡Kv‡l ivB‡ev‡Rv‡gi cÖK…wZ- 70S|
 gvby‡li wR‡bv‡gi mv‡_ wk¤úwÄi Ges Mwijvi wR‡bv‡gi KZ kZvsk wgj  cÖK…Z‡Kv‡l ivB‡ev‡Rv‡gi cÖK…wZ- 70S I 80S|
i‡q‡Q- 98% Ges 97%|  D”P †kÖwbi Rx‡ei †`n‡Kv‡li †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi aib- wWcø‡qW (2n)|
 gvby‡li wR‡bvg ÿviK †Rvo Dcw¯Z- 2,900wU|  RxeRM‡Zi g‡a¨ me©v‡cÿv †QvU †Kvl- Mycoplasma bvgK PPLO|
 DNA-mRNA-†Z mÂvwqZ Z_¨- †R‡bwUK †KvW|  RxeRM‡Zi me‡P‡q eo †Kvl- DUcvwLi wWg|
 †R‡bwUK †KvW cÖKvwkZ nq- wZb Aÿi Øviv|  gvbe‡`‡ni ÿz`ªZg I `xN©Zg †Kvl- wj‡çvmvBU Ges ¯œvqy‡Kvl (wbDib)|
 weÁvbxiv K…wÎgfv‡e †R‡bwUK †KvW •Zwi K‡ib- 64wU|  gve‡`‡n †Kv‡li msL¨v- cÖvq 100 wUªwjqb (1014)|
†Kvl wefvRb
 me©cÖ_g mvgyw`ªK m¨vjvgvÛv‡ii †Kvl wefvRb cÖZ¨ÿ Ges gvB‡Uvwmm kãwU  mvB‡UvcøvR‡gi wefvRb‡K ejv nq- mvB‡UvKvB‡bwmm|
cÖeZ©b K‡ib W. Fleming|  mvB‡UvcøvR‡gi wefvRb ïiæ nq- †U‡jv‡dR `kvq|
 †KvlPµ Avwe®‥vi K‡ib Howard & Pelc|  wbDwK¬qv‡mi wefvRb‡K cÖZ¨ÿ K‡i K¨vwiIKvB‡bwmm bvg †`b- Schleicher|
 †KvlP‡µi gvB‡Uvwm‡m e¨q nq 5-10% mgq|  †Kvl wefvR‡b Af¨šÍixY DÏxcbv `vb K‡i-Cyclin Cdk †h․M|
 wbDwK¬qvm I †µv‡gv‡Rvg GKevi K‡i wefvwRZ nq- gvB‡Uvwm‡m|  ‡Kvl wefvR‡b evwn¨K DÏxcbv cÖ`vb K‡i- wewfbœ ni‡gvb I †MÖv_ d¨v±i|
 †µv‡gv‡Rvg¸‡jv‡K me©vwaK Lv‡Uv, †gvUv I ¯úó nq - †gUv‡d‡R|  B›Uvi‡dR `kvi wbDwK¬qvm n‡jv- wecvKxq wbDwK¬qvm|
 †µv‡gv‡Rvg MwZcÖvß nq †Kvb av‡c- A¨vbv‡dR|  B›Uvi‡dR Kx bvg cwiwPZ- cÖ¯‧wZ chv©q|
 AcZ¨ †µv‡gv‡Rvg †giægyLx nq- A¨vbv‡d‡R|  †KvlP‡µi †Kvb chv©‡q DNA Gi cÖwZwjcb N‡U- B›Uvi‡dR|
 Rx‡ei •`wnK e„w× N‡U- gvB‡Uvwmm wefvR‡b|  B›Uvi‡dR Gi `kv ev Dcchv©q KqwU- 3wU (G1,S I G2 `kv)|
 Rxe‡`‡ni †h‡Kv‡bv ÿZ¯vb c~iY nq- gvB‡Uvwmm cÖwµqvq|  †KvlP‡µi G1`kvq KZ kZvsk mgq e¨q nq- 30-40%|
 mKj DbœZ cÖvYxi M¨vwgU m„wó‡Z N‡U- wg‡qvwmm †Kvl wefvRb|  †KvlP‡ µi G2 `kvq KZ kZvsk mgq e¨q nq- 10-20%|
 wg‡qvwmm †Kvl wefvR‡b †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi wefvRb N‡U- GKevi; wKš‧ mvB‡UvcøvRg  †KvlP‡µi S `kvq ev ms‡kølY `kvq e¨vwqZ mgq- 30-50%|
I wbDwK¬qvm `yÕevi wefvwRZ nq|  gvB‡Uvwmm †Kvl wefvR‡bi Aci bvg- mgxKiwYK wefvRb ev c‡ivÿ wefvRb|
 evBf¨v‡j›U m„wó nq †Kvb Dcav‡c- RvB‡MvwUb|  gvB‡Uvwm‡mi d‡j GKwU †Kvl †_‡K KqwU AcZ¨ †Kvl m„wó nq-2wU|
 wg‡qvwm‡mi †Kvb Dc-ch©v‡q bb-wm÷vi †µvgvwU‡Wi Ask wewbgq N‡U- c¨vKvBwU‡b|  AcZ¨ †Kvl I gvZ…‡Kv‡li g‡a¨ †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi msL¨v mgvb _v‡K- gvB‡Uvwm‡m|
 evBf¨v‡j‡›U m„ó PviwU †µvgvwUW‡K GK‡Î e‡j- †UUªvW|  gvB‡Uvwmm msNwUZ nq- †`n‡Kv‡l (e¨wZµg-cÖvYxi ¯œvqy‡Kvl) I Rbb
 wg‡qvwmm †Kvl wefvR‡bi †Kvb ch©v‡q KvqvRgvUv `„wó‡MvPi nq- c¨vKvBwU‡b| gvZ…‡Kvl Qvov Rbbv‡½i Ab¨vb¨ †Kv‡l|
 µwmsIfv‡ii mgq m„ó KvqvRgvi AvK…wZ nq- X Gi g‡Zv|  gvB‡Uvwmm †KvlwefvR‡bi chvq©- 5wU|
 †Kvl wefvRb †K Avwe®‥vi K‡ib- †d¬wgs|  gvB‡Uvwm‡mi †Kvb av‡c wbDwK¬qvi †gg‡eªb I wbDwK¬qvjv‡mi m¤ú~Y© wejywß
 A¨vgvB‡Uvwmm Aci bvg- cÖZ¨ÿ †Kvl wefvRb| N‡U- †gUv‡dR|
 Avw`‡Kv‡li (e¨v‡±wiqv, GK‡Kvlx Rxe) wefvRb cÖwµqv- A¨vgvB‡Uvwmm|  gvB‡Uvwm‡mi `xN©¯vqx chv©‡q- †cÖv‡dR|
 wbDwK¬qv‡mi wefvRb‡K ejv nq- K¨vwiIKvB‡bwmm|  †Kvl wefvR‡bi †Kvb ch©v‡q w¯úÛj h‡š¿i m„wó nq- †cÖv- †gUv‡dR|
 †µv‡gv‡Rvgxq b„Z¨ cwijwÿZ nq †Kvl wefvR‡bi †Kvb chv©‡q - †cÖv †gUv‡dR|  c×wZMZ fv‡e m¤ú~Y© wg‡qvwmm‡K fvM Kiv nq- 2 av‡c|
 †µv‡gv‡Rvg ¸‡jv welyexq ev wbiÿxq AÂ‡j Ae¯vb K‡i †Kvb av‡c- †gUv‡dR|  †Kvb wefvRb gvB‡Uvwm‡mi Abyiƒc- wg‡qvwmm-2|
 w¯úÛj h‡š¿i welyexq AÂ‡j †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi web¨¯Í nIqv‡K ejv nq- †gUvKvB‡bwmm|  gv‡qvwm‡mi d‡j m„wó nq- M¨vwgU|
 †gUvKvB‡bwmm N‡U- †gUv‡dR chv©‡q|  †¯úv‡ivdvBwUK Dw™¢‡` †Kv_vq wg‡qvwmm N‡U- R&vB‡MvU|
 †µv‡gv‡Rvg MwZcÖvß nq †Kvb av‡c- A¨vbv‡dR|  wWcø‡qW Rx‡e Rbb‡Kvl m„wó nq- wg‡qvwm‡m|
 gvB‡Uvwm‡mi ÿY¯vqx chv©q- †cÖv-‡gUv‡dR|  eskMZxq •ewkóï cybwe©b¨vm N‡U- wg‡qvwm‡m|
 gvB‡Uvwmm †Kvl wefvR‡b †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi wØZb nq †Kvb chv©‡q - A¨vbv‡dR|  †cÖv‡dR-1 Gi †Kvb `kvq cÖvwY‡Kv‡l †mw›UªIj Awef³ _v‡K- †j‡ÞvwUb|
 A¨v‡µv‡mw›UªK †µv‡gv‡Rvg‡K A¨vbv‡dR ch©v‡q †`L‡Z †Kgb- J-Shaped|  wg‡qvwmm †Kvl wefvRb †Kvb Dcav‡c wmb¨vcwmm N‡U- RvB‡MvwU‡b|
 gvB‡Uvwmm †Kvl wefvR‡bi †Kvb chv©‡q cÖwZwU †µv‡gvwUW GKwU AcZ¨  †Kvb Dc-chv©‡q †n‡gv‡jvMvm †µv‡gv‡Rvg †Rvo evu‡a- RvB‡MvwU‡b|
†µv‡gv‡Rvg cwiYZ nq- A¨vbv‡dR|  wg‡qvwmm †Kvl wefvR‡bi †Kvb `kvq µwmsIfvi N‡U- c¨vKvBwUb|
 †Kvl wefvR‡bi †Kvb chv©‡q †µv‡gv‡Rvg¸‡jv µgk miæ, j¤^v I A`„k¨ nq-  †Kvb chv©‡q me©cÖ_g evBf¨v‡j‡›Ui `ywU †m‡›Uvwgqvi I PviwU †µvgvwUW
†U‡jv‡dR| cwijwÿZ nq- c¨vKvBwUb|
 gvB‡Uvwm‡mi †Kvb chv©q wejyß wbDwK¬qv‡mi cybtivwef©ve N‡U- wbDwK¬jv‡mi|  †nvgv‡jvMvm †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi †Rvo m„wó n‡jv- wmb¨vcwmm|
 †U‡jv‡d‡R m¨vU †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi †M․Y KzÂ‡b Avwe©fve N‡U- wbDwK¬Ijv‡mi|  †Rvoe× `ywU mgms¯ †µv‡gv‡Rvg n‡jv- evBf¨v‡j›U|
 †U‡jv‡d‡R †k‡li w`‡K †Kvb chv©‡q ïiæ nq- mvB‡UvKvB‡bwmm|  GKB †µv‡gv‡Rvg n‡Z cÖvß `ywU †µvgvwUW- wm÷vi †µv‡gvwUW|
 Rx‡ei •`wnK e„w× N‡U- gvB‡Uvwmm wefvRb|  bb-wm÷vi †µvgvwU‡Wi Ask wewbgq- µwms Ifvi|
 `ywU Dcv‡q †Kv‡li g„Zz¨ N‡U, h_v- Necrosis (cywói Afv‡e ev welv³ `ª‡eï  gv‡qvwm‡mi †cÖv‡dR-1 Gi c¨vKvBwUb Dc`kvq `„k¨gvb 'X' AvK…wZi Ask‡K
cÖfv‡e g„Zz¨) Ges Apoptosis ev, Programmed cell Death ejv nq- KvqvRgv|
 wg‡qvwm‡mi Aci bvg- n«vmg~jK †Kvl wefvRb|  wg‡qvwm‡m‡i †Kvb chv©‡q †nvgv‡jvMvm †µv‡gv‡Rvg c„_K nq- A¨vbv‡dR-1
 wg‡qvwmm †Kv_vq N‡U- wWcø‡qW I cwjcø‡qW Rx‡ei Rbb gvZ…‡Kv‡l Ges  µwmsIfv‡ii nvi wbY©q Kiv nq- †µv‡gv‡Rvg g¨v‡c|
n¨vcø‡qW Rx‡ei RvB‡MvU|  bb-wm÷vi †µvgvwU‡Wi wbw`©ó Ask fv‡½- G‡ÛvwbDwK¬‡qR|
 mKj DbœZ cÖvYxi M¨vwgU m„wó‡Z N‡U- wg‡qvwmm †Kvl wefvRb|  KvqvRgv As‡k †µvgvwUW¸‡jv †Rvov †`q- jvB‡MR GbRvBg|
 wg‡qvwm‡m GKwU gvZ…‡Kvl n‡Z KqwU AcZ¨ †Kvl m„wó nq- 4wU|  †µv‡gv‡Rvg †_‡K cÖv‡šÍÍi w`‡K KvqvRgvi Pjb- cÖvšÍxqMgb|
 †Kvb †Kvl wefvR‡b AcZ¨‡Kv‡l †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi msL¨v gvZ…‡Kv‡li †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi  wWcø‡qW Rx‡e-Uvwg©bvj gv‡qvwmm, mcy®úK Dw™¢‡`-†¯úvwiK gv‡qvwmm Ges
msL¨vi A‡a©K nq- wg‡qvwmm| QÎvK I •kev‡j- RvB‡MvwUK gv‡qvwmm N‡U|
AYyRxe
 j¨vwUb kã fvBiv‡mi A_©- wel|  wbDwK¬K Gwm‡Wi aib Abyhvqx fvBivm- 2 cÖKvi|
 fvB‡ivjwRi RbK- W.M. Stanley|  fvBiv‡mi †cÖvwUb AveiY- A¨vw›U‡RwbK|
 TMV ‡K ZvgvK cvZv †_‡K †Kjvmb cÖwµqvq c„_K K‡ib Ges †bv‡ej  wcÖqbm n‡jv- msµvgK †cÖvwUb dvBweªj|
cyi¯‥vi jvf K‡ib- W.M. Stanley (1935 & 1946)|  msµgYÿg fvBiv‡mi KYv‡K ejv nq- wfwiqb|
 A‡Kvlxq AwZAvYyexÿYxK I e¨va¨Zvg~jK ciRxex- fvBivm|  SARS Gi c~Y© iƒc- Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome|
 wifvm©-UªvÝwµckb N‡U-HIV †Z|  fvBiv‡mi †cÖvwUb wbwg©Z AveiY- K¨vcwmW|
 GKm~ÎK RNA †`Lv hvq TMV|  e¨vK‡UwiIdvh - e¨vK‡Uwiqv aŸsmKvix fvBivm|
 wØm~ÎK RNA †`Lv hvq - wiIfvBivm|  T2 e¨vK‡UwiIdvh-Gi wbDwK¬K GwmW- wØm~K DNA|
 fvBivm MwVZ-‡cÖvwUb I wbDwK¬K GwmW Øviv|  E.coli Gi †`‡n msµgY m„wó K‡i- T2 dvh fvBivm|
 AIDS †iv‡Mi c¨v‡_v‡Rb Avwe®‥…Z nq - 1984 mv‡j|  T2 dvh †`L‡Z- e¨vOvwP AvK…wZi|
 fvBiv‡mi K¨vcwm‡Wi mve BDwbU n‡jv- K¨vc‡mvwgqvq|  T2 dvh Gi †`n MwVZ- gv_v I †jR wb‡q|
 Dchy³ †cvlK †`‡n msL¨v e„w× Ki‡Z cv‡i- fvBivm|  T2 dvh-Gi gv_vwU-lofzRvKvi|
 fvBivm me©cÖ_g Avwe®‥…Z nq- Zvgv‡Ki †gvRvBK †ivM †_‡K|  T2 dvh-Gi gv_v, Kjvi I †jR •Zwi - †cÖvwUb w`‡q|
 ‡Uvev‡Kv †gvRvBK fvBiv‡mi AvKvi- `ÐvKvi|  jvBwUK dv‡hi Aci bvg- wfiæ‡j›U dvh|
 Nb‡ÿÎvKvi ev cvDiæwU AvK…wZi fvBivm- f¨vw·wbqv|  T2 e¨vK‡UwiIdv‡h KqwU wRb _v‡K- 150wU|
 DNA fvBivm- f¨vw·wbqv I dvh|  T2 dv‡hi msL¨ve„w×‡Z mgq jv‡M- 30-40 wgwbU|
 GKm~ÎK DNA fvBivm- †Kvwjdvh|  RjvZ¼ †iv‡Mi Rb¨ `vqx fvBivm- i¨vwem|
 wØm~ÎK DNA fvBivm- f¨vw·wbqv|  gvbe‡`‡n nvg, GBWm cÖf…wZi Rb¨ `vqx- fvBivm|
 †cvwjI fvBivm- †MvjvKvi|  g` wk‡íi B÷‡K aŸsmKvix fvBivm- RvB‡gvdvh|
 wRKv I HIV-RNA fvBivm|  E.coli †K aŸsmKvix AYyRxe T2 dvh|
 fvBivm‡K evnK wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv n‡”Q- wRb cÖ‡K․k‡j|  AvK…wZ Abymv‡i e¨vK‡Uwiqvi AvK…wZ nq- Kgvi b¨vq|
 k‡mï fvBivmRwbZ †iv‡Mi g‡a¨ GKwU n‡jv- wjd‡ivj|  wfweªI RvZxq e¨vK‡Uwiqvi AvK…wZ nq- Kgvi b¨vq|
 Miæi fvBivmRwbZ GKwU †ivM n‡jv- emšÍ †ivM|  †Kvb e¨vK‡Uwiqv GKKfv‡e †MvjvKvi wKš‧ gvjvi g‡Zv web¨¯Í _v‡K-
 fvBivmRwbZ †ivM- †cvwjI, emšÍ, nvg, Bbd¬z‡qÄv, nvwc©m, RjvZ¼, †W½y Streptococcus lactis|
wPKzb¸wbqv, †ncvUvBwUm BZ¨vw`|  †Kv‡li GKcv‡k^© d¬¨v‡Rjv ¸”QvKv‡i jvMv‡bv _v‡K- †mdv‡jvwUªKv‡m|
 †mvqvBb d¬z †iv‡Mi Rb¨ `vqx fvBivm- H5N1 (gvby‡li) I H1N1 (ïK‡ii)|  K°v‡mi AvK…wZ- †MvjvK…wZ|
 jvj wUDwjc dz‡j eY©‣ewPÎ¨ m„wó K‡i- fvBivm|  eûiƒcx e¨vK‡Uwiqv n‡jv- Rhizobium|
 fvBivm msµwgZ GKwU gvivZ¥K †ivM - †cu‡ci wis¯úU|  ¯^vfvweK e¨vK‡Uwiqvi MV‡b Abycw¯Z- †µvgv‡Uv‡dvi|
 †cu‡ci wis¯úU msµwgZ nq- PRSV Øviv|  e¨vK‡Uwiqv euvP‡Z cv‡i me©wb¤œ- (– 17) †m ZvcgvÎvq|
 PRSV-Gi evnK wn‡m‡e †iv‡Mi we¯Ívi NUvq- GwdW|  e¨vK‡Uwiqvi †Kvl- cÖvK‡Kw›`ªK|
 †cu‡ci wis¯úU †ivM cÖ_g jÿ Kiv hvq- fvi‡Zi gnviv‡óª|  e¨vK‡Uwiqvi ivB‡ev‡Rv‡gi cÖavb KvR- †cÖvwUb ms‡kølY Kiv|
 PRSV fvBiv‡mi `ywU UvBc n‡jv- P UvBc I W UvBc|  e¨vK‡Uwiqvi mvB‡UvcøvR‡gi e„ËvKvi DNA †K e‡j- cøvRwgW|
 PRSV- Gi AvK…wZ- `ÐvK…wZ|  e¨vK‡Uwiqvi †KvlwSwjøi cÖK…wZ- •elg¨‡f`¨|
 PRSV-Gi AveiYx- Abycw¯Z|  e¨vK‡Uwiqvi MÖvg †b‡MwUf A½ n‡jv- wcwj|
 †cu‡ci wis¯úU †iv‡M fxlYfv‡e K‡g hvq- Dw™¢‡ì e„w×|  e¨vK‡Uwiqv esk we¯Ívi K‡i- wZb Dcv‡q|
 Potyviridac †Mv‡Îi AšÍf©~³- PRSV|  e¨vK‡Uwiqvi ¯^vfvweK Rbb- wØwefvRb ev evBbvwi wdkb|
 †ncvUvBwUm GKwU- fvBivmRwbZ †ivM|  e¨vK‡Uwiqvi †h․b Rb‡bi bvg- KbRy‡Mkb|
 hK…‡Zi cÖ`vnRwbZ mgm¨v- †ncvUvBwUm|  E.coli Gi we‡kl ai‡bi †h․bRbb- eskMwZi cybtms‡hvM|
 HAV nq- G›Uv‡iv fvBiv‡mi Kvi‡Y|  eskMwZi cybtms‡hv‡Mi d‡j m„ó AcZ¨ †Kvl nq- wgkÖ Pwi‡Îi|
 HVB Gi myßKvj- 45-180 w`b|  cÖRvwZi wfwË‡Z e¨vK‡Uwiqvi A½R Rbb- `yB cÖKvi|
 me‡P‡q †ewk givZ¥K †ncvUvBwUm- †ncvUvBwUm we Ges wm|  e¨vK‡Uwiqvi wØwefvR‡b mgq jv‡M- 30 wgwbU|
 mywbw`©ó †Kv‡bv A¨vw›UfvBivm Avwe®‥vi nqwb- †ncvUvBwU‡mi|  wKQz wKQz e¨vK‡Uwiqvi A½R Rbb N‡U- gyKz‡jv`Mg cÖwµqvq|
 †ncvUvBwUm †ivM cÖwZ‡iva Kiv hvq- wUKv MÖnY K‡i|  gyKz‡jv`&M‡gi gva¨‡g eske„w× K‡i- Rhodopseudomonas|
 RwÛ‡mi Ab¨Zg cÖavb KviY- fvBivm †ncvUvBwUm|  mwc©jvKvi e¨vK‡Uwiqv-Spirillum sp.
 wjfvi weKj Ae¯vq i³ RgvU euva‡Z cv‡i- 25 †m‡KÛ|  e¨vK‡UwiqiNwUZ †ivM- K‡jiv, h²v, UvBd‡qW, abyósKvi, wmwdwjm,
 †ncvUvBwUm we fvBiv‡mi wbDwK¬K GwmW- DNA| M‡bvwiqv, †jeyi K¨vsKvi, av‡bi eøvBU BZ¨vw`|
 UªwcK¨vj AÂ‡ji GKwU mvaviY R¦i- †W½y|  cv‡Ui Avuk Qvov‡Z mvnvh¨ K‡i- Clostridium|
 †W½y fvBiv‡mi evnK wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i- GwWm gkKx|  wfUvwgb DrcbœKvix e¨vK‡Uwiqv- Escherichia sp.
 †W½y R¦i GKwU-d¬¨vwf fvBivmRwbZ †ivM|  E.coli gvby‡li A‡š¿ †Kvb wfUvwgb •Zwi K‡i- B12|
 GwWm gkvi esk we¯Ívi N‡U-Ave× cwi®‥vi cvwb‡Z|  abyósKv‡ii Rb¨ `vqx- Clostridium tetani|
 fvBivm msµg‡Yi 2-7 w`‡bi (KviI g‡Z 4-6 w`b) g‡a¨ jÿY †`Lv hvq-  UvBd‡q‡Wi Rb¨ `vqx - Salmonella typhi|
†W½y R¦‡ii|  M‡bvwiqv GK ai‡bi- †h․b †ivM|
 †W½y‡Z †Kvb i³KwYKvwU A¯^vfvweKfv‡e K‡g hvq-‡cøU‡jU|  Kzô †iv‡Mi Rb¨ `vqx- e¨vK‡Uwiqv|
 †W½y R¦i‡K ejv n‡q _v‡K- Break bone fever|  eUzwjRg GK ai‡bi- e¨vK‡UwiqvNwUZ †ivM|
 jÿY Abymv‡i †W½y R¦i- wZb cÖKvi|  e¨vK‡Uwiqvi gyL¨ f‚wgKv we`¨gvb- RxecÖhyw³‡Z|
 †W½y R¦‡ii fvBiv‡mi †m‡ivUvBc i‡q‡Q- PviwU|  bvB‡Uªv‡Rb mseÜbKvix e¨vK‡Uwiqv- Rhizobium|
 †W½y fvBivm `ªæZ msL¨v e„w× K‡i- gkKxi †`‡n|  Acetobacter- Gi mvnv‡h¨ A¨vj‡Kvnj †_‡K •Zwi nq- wf‡bMvi|
 c„w_ex‡Z Avwe®‥…Z cÖ_g AYyRxe n‡jv- e¨vK‡Uwiqv|  `y»wk‡í eëüZ e¨vK‡Uwiqv- Lactobacillus|
 e¨vK‡UwiIjwRi RbK- Robert Koch|  av‡bi eøvBU †iv‡Mi Rb¨ `vqx- Xanthomonas oryzae|
 me©cÖ_g e¨vK‡Uwiqvi Dcw¯wZ jÿ K‡ib- Leeuwenhoek (1675)|  av‡bi eøvBU †iv‡Mi Rb¨ AbyKzj ZvcgvÎv- 22-30 †m.|
 e¨vK‡Uwiqvi bvgKiY K‡ib - Rvg©vb weÁvbx Ehrenberg (1829)|  K‡jiv †iv‡Mi Rb¨ `vqx e¨vK‡Uwiqv- KgvK…wZi|
 mij AYyexÿY hš¿ Avwe®‥vi K‡ib- weÁvbx Leeuwenhoek|  av‡bi eøvBU †ivM we¯Ívi jvf K‡i- evZv‡mi Øviv|
 e¨vK‡Uwiqv k‡ãi A_© - `Ð|  evsjv‡`‡k Gi cÖPzi dmjnvwb N‡U- av‡bi wjc eøvBU|
 AvYyexÿwYK, ÿz`ªZg I mijZg Rxe n‡jv- e¨vK‡Uwiqv|  K‡jiv †iv‡Mi Rb¨ `vqx e¨vK‡Uwiqv n‡jv- Vibrio cholerae|
 e¨vK‡Uwiqvi †KvlcÖvPx‡ii cÖavb Dcv`vb- gyivwgK GwmW (wgD‡Kv‡ccUvBW)|  Avjyi ¯‥¨ve †ivM m„wóKvix AYyRxe- Steptomyces scabies|
 e¨vK‡Uwiqvi Pjbv½- d¬¨v‡Rjv|  Vibrio cholerae †_‡K wbtm„Z c`v_©- G›Uv‡ivUw·b|
 e¨vK‡Uwiqvi K¨vcmy‡ji Aci bvg- ¯øvBg ¯Íi|  Ôg¨v‡jwiqvÕ kãwUi AvÿwiK A_©- Ô`~wlZ ev Lvivc evqyÕ|
 e¨vK‡Uwiqv‡K ï®‥Zv †_‡K myiÿv †`q- K¨vcmyj|  Ôg¨v‡jwiqvÕ kãwUi DrcwË- BZvwjqvb kã †_‡K|
 g¨v‡jwiqv †iv‡Mi RxevYy- Plasmodium|  †¯úv‡ivR‡qU †`L‡Z- gvKz AvK…wZi|
 g¨v‡jwiqv SzuwKgy³ †`k- A‡÷ªwjqv|  g¨v‡jwiqv RxevYyi AvµgYKvix ch©vq †Kv_vq _v‡K- gkKxi jvjvMÖwš‡Z|
 g¨v‡jwiqv †ivM m„wó K‡i Plasmodium-Gi -4 cÖRvwZ|  g¨v‡jwiqv RxevYyi eû wbDwK¬qvmhy³ Ae¯v- mvBR›U|
 Plasmodium-Gi RxebP‡µ cÖ‡qvRb- 2wU †cvlK|  ‡¯úv‡ivR‡qU †_‡K †gUvwµ‡Þv‡g‡ivR‡qU `kv ch©šÍ †c․uQv‡Z RxevYyi mgq
 gvby‡li †`‡n m¤úbœ nq Plasmodium-Gi- A‡h․b Rbb ev mvB‡RvMwb| jv‡M- 7-10 w`b|
 Plasmodium-Gi DIwm‡÷ †¯úv‡iv‡Rv‡qU msL¨v- 10 nvRvi|  g¨v‡jwiqv ciRxexi RxebP‡µi cÖ_g †Kvb av‡c wn‡gvR‡qb bvgK eR©¨ c`v_©
 webvBb Uviwkqvb g¨v‡jwiqvi RxevYy- Plasmodium vivax| Rgv nq- mvBR›U `kv|
 g¨vwjMb¨v›U Uviwkqvb g¨v‡jwiqvi Rb¨ `vqx-P.falciparum|  g¨v‡jwiqv R¦i m„wói ch©v‡q ciRxexi †Kvb `kv †`Lv hvq- †g‡ivR‡qU|
 Plasmodium malariae-Gi mywßKvj- 18-40 w`b|  Gwi‡_ªvmvBwUK mvB‡RvMwb mgvß n‡Z mgq jv‡M- 48-72 N›Uv|
 g¨v‡jwiqv RxevYyi †Kvb cÖRvwZi myßve¯v me‡P‡q Kg- P.falciparum|  g¨v‡jwiqv ciRxexi wWcø‡qW `kv- RvB‡MvU, DIwK‡bU I DIwm÷|
 gvbe‡`‡n †ncvwUK mvB‡RvMwbi me©‡kl avc- †g‡ivR‡qU|  P.vivax-Gi M¨vwg‡UvMwb †Kv_vq m¤úbœ nq- gkKxi µ‡c|
 gvbe‡`‡n Gwi‡_ªvmvBwUK mvB‡RvMwbi me©‡kl avc- M¨vwg‡UvmvBU|  G·d¬v‡R‡jkb †Kv_vq N‡U- gkKxi µ‡c|
 †ncvwUK mvB‡RvMwb ‡Kv_vq N‡U- hK…‡Z|  g¨v‡jwiqv ciRxexi wg‡qvwmm N‡U- DIwm‡÷|
 Gwi‡_ªvmvBwUK mvB‡RvMwbi †Kv_vq N‡U- †jvwnZ i³KwYKvq|  g¨v‡jwiqv R¦‡ii jÿY cÖKvk cvq- Gwi‡_ªvmvBwUK mvB‡RvMwb‡Z|
 gkKxi †h․b Rb‡bi gva¨‡g Drcbœ me©‡kl avc- †¯úv‡ivR‡qU|  mvdbvm© KYv †`Lv hvq- A¨vwge‡qW Uªv‡dvR‡q‡U|
 gvbe‡`‡n AvµgYKvix g¨v‡jwiqv RxevYyi cÖ_g `kv- †¯úv‡ivR‡qU|  g¨v‡jwiqv ciRxex wmM‡bU wis m„wó K‡i- †jvwnZ i³KwYKvq|
 g¨v‡jwiqv RxevYyi †h `kv cÖ_g hK…r †Kvl AvµgY K‡i-‡¯úv‡ivR‡qU|  we‡kî cÖ_g g¨v‡jwiqv cÖwZ‡laK wUKv- Mosquirix/RTSS|
 gkKxi jvjvMÖwš †_‡K g¨v‡jwiqv RxevYyi †h `kv gvbe‡`‡n cÖ‡ek K‡i-
‡¯úv‡ivR‡qU|
bMœexRx I Ave„ZexRx Dw™¢`

 c„w_exi me‡P‡q `xN©Zg e„ÿ-†iW DW wUª (Sequoia sempervirens)|  Rev dzj Jlwa wn‡m‡e eëüZ nq- Ak^‡© ivM I i³ Avgvkq wPwKrmvq|
 evsjv‡`‡k KZ cÖRvwZi bMœexRx Dw™¢` cÖvK…wZKfv‡e R‡b¥- 5|  Malvaceae †Mv‡Îi civM‡iYy- eo I KÈwKZ|
 bMœexRx Dw™¢‡ì †`n- †¯úv‡ivdvBwUK|  evsjv‡`‡k Malvaceae †Mv‡Îi cÖRvwZi msL¨v- 42wU|
 bMœexRx Dw™¢‡`- Mfv©kq _v‡K bv, Kv‡RB dj Drcbœ bv| wW¤^K Dcw¯Z wKš‧  Malvaceae †Mv‡Îi d‡ji aib- K¨vcmyj|
m½x‡Kvl Abycw¯Z|  †Xuom †h †iv‡Mi Dck‡g eëüZ nq- eûg~Î|
 wb‡l‡Ki c~‡e© km¨ Drcbœ nq- wRgv‡bv¯úv‡g©|  Malvaceae †Mv‡Îi g~j- cÖavb g~j|
 bMœexRx Dw™¢‡` civMvqb nq- evqyi gva¨‡g|  Malvaceae †Mv‡Îi civMavbx- e„°vKvi|
 Cycas Dw™¢` cÖvK„wZKfv‡e R‡b¥- PÆMÖv‡gi evwiqvWvjv e‡b|  Malvaceae †Mv‡Îi cys¯Íe‡Ki MVb- GK¸”QK|
 cvg dvb© bv‡g cwiwPZ- Cycas|  Malvaceae †Mv‡Îi `‡ji cy®úcÎ web¨vm- fvj‡fU|
 Cycas- Gi cvZv- cÿj †h․wMKcÎ|  Malvaceae †Mv‡Îi Dw™¢`- Rev (Hibiscus rosa- sinensis),
 Cycas- Gi G‡Ûv¯úvg© ev km¨- n¨vcø‡qW| †Xuom (Abelmoschus esculentus), Kvc©vm Zzjv (Gossypium
 Cycas- Gi g~j- †Kvivj‡qW| herbaceum) BZ¨vw`|
 Cycas- Gi cÖavb g~j- ¯^í¯vqx|  RvZxq dz‡ji •eÁvwbK bvg- Nymphaea nouchali|
 Cycas- Gi KvÛ Ave„Z _v‡K- ¯vqx cÎg~j Øviv|  c„w_exi me‡P‡q cÖfvekvjx Dw™¢`‡Mvôx- Ave„ZexRx|
 Cycas- Gi †Kvivj‡qW g~‡j evm K‡i- Anabaena Ges Nostoc|  Ave„ZexRx Dw™¢` R‡b¥ bv- G›UvK©wUKvq|
 wg‡_vRxweZ jÿ Kiv hvq- Cycas pectinata.  c„w_exi me‡P‡q DPzu Ave„ZexRx- Shorea faguetiana|
 Cycas I Ginkgo biloba n‡jv- RxešÍ Rxevk¥|  c„w_exi/we‡kî me‡P‡q †QvU Ave„ZexRx Dw™¢`- Wolffia microscopica|
 †Kvb mcy®úK Dw™¢‡` AvwK©‡Mvwbqv cvIqv hvq- Cycas- G|  evsjv‡`‡ki ÿz`ªZg Ave„ZexRx- Wolffia arrhiza|
 Cycas- Gi †÷ªvwejvm- GKwjw½K|  Magnoliophyta- Gi AšÍM©Z †kÖwYi msL¨v- 2wU|
 Dw™¢`Kz‡ji me©e„nr ïµvYy cvIqv hvq- Cycas- G|  Liliopsdia ej‡Z eySvq- GKexRxcÎx Dw™¢`|
 Cycas-Gi †gMv‡¯úv‡ivwdÕj †`L‡Z- mv‡ci dYvi g‡Zv|  Magnoliopsida ej‡Z eySvq- wUªcø‡qW|
 cyswj½a‡ii cÖ_g †Kvl- cys‡iYy|  Ave„ZexRx Dw™¢‡ì mm¨- wUªcø‡qW|
 ¯¿xwj½a‡ii cÖ_g †Kvl- ¯¿x‡iYy|  A_©‣bwZKfv‡e ¸iæZ¡c~Y© Ave„ZexRxi msL¨v- 1000|
 wgDwm‡jRhy³ KwP A½ _v‡K- Malvaceae †Mv‡Î|  Ave„ZexRx Dw™¢‡ì DrcwË¯j- wbiÿxq AÂj|
 evsjv‡`k Malvaceae †Mv‡Îi cvcwi web¨vm- UzB‡÷W|  Ave„ZexRx Dw™¢`‡K Magnoliopohyta- Gi AšÍfz©³ K‡ib- µbKzB÷|
 Malvaceae †Mv‡Îi Agivweb¨vm- Aÿxq|  †Ucvj Kvi Ask- cy®úcyU|
 dj cvK‡j wbP †_‡K Dci eivei †d‡U hvq- wmwjKzqv|  Poaceac †Mv‡Îi Dw™¢‡ì (av‡bi) gÄywi- ¯úvBK‡jU|
 kxl©‡`kxq Agivweb¨vm †`Lv hvq- jvjcvZv|  av‡ib ïb¨ Møyg- 2 wU|
 eûcÖvšÍxq Agiv web¨vm- mwilv/‡cu‡c|  Poaceac †Mv‡Îi dz‡ji Dw™¢‡ì aib- UªvB‡givm|
 K…òP‚ov dz‡ji cy®úweb¨vm- Bw¤^ª‡KU|  Poaceac †Mv‡Îi Dw™¢‡ì (av‡bi) dj- K¨vwiIcwmm|
 Bw¤^ª‡KU cy®úcÎweb¨vm cvIqv hvq- KvjKvmy›`v|  Poaceac †Mv‡Îi Dw™¢‡ì civMavbx - me©gyL|
 Poaceac †Mv‡Îi c~e© bvg- Gramineae|  evsjv‡`k cÖvß evu‡ki cÖRvwZi msL¨v- 28wU|
wUmy¨ I wUmy¨Zš¿
 wefvRb ÿgZv Abymv‡i wUmy¨ mvaviYZ- 2 cÖKvi|  wbDwK¬qvm Abycw¯Z- mxfb‡j|
 mKj cÖKvi g~j I weU‡ci kx‡l© _v‡K †h wUmy¨- fvRK wUmy¨|  GKB ai‡bi wUmy¨ wb‡q MwVZ nq- wUmy¨Zš¿|
 †Kvl¸‡jv GKZ‡j wefvwRZ nq- wie fvRK wUmyï|  wUmyZš¿ Kq fv‡M wef³- 3 fv‡M|
 RvB‡jg wUmyï Ask- UªvwKW,†f‡mj|  GwcWvgv©j wUmy¨Zš¿ MwVZ nq- cÖvBgvwi kxl©K fvRK wUmy¨ †_‡K|
 eû‡Kvlx UªvB‡Kvg‡K ejv nq- †Kv‡jUvm©|  Dw™¢‡ì evB‡ii ¯Íi- GwcWvwg©m|
 cÎiÜ« eÜ I †Lvjv wbqš¿Y K‡i- iÿx‡Kvl|  GwcWvgv©j wUmy¨Zš¿ MwVZ- c¨v‡ibKvBgv|
 Dw™¢‡` k¦mb N‡U- cÎi‡Ü«i gva¨‡g|  g~j‡iv‡g- GK‡Kvlx|
 nvBWv‡_vW †`Lv hvq- KPz, U‡g‡Uv, ÷ª‡ewi, Nvm BZ¨vw`‡Z|  g~jZ¡K‡K ejv nq- Gwc‡eøgv|
 cvZvi MÖvDÛ wUmy¨‡K ejv nq- †g‡mvwdj|  Dw™¢‡` M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i wewbgq N‡U- cÎi‡Ü«i gva¨‡g|
 w÷wji cÖwZiÿv ¯Íi wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i- G‡ÛvWvwg©m|  GwcWvwg©‡m ewntcÖvPx‡ii ¯Íi- wKDwUKj|
 K¨vm‡cwiqvb w÷ªc _v‡K- AšÍtZ¡‡K|  Dw™¢` cvwb I LwYR jeY †kvlY K‡i- g~j‡iv‡gi gva¨‡g|
 g~jR Pvc wbqš¿Y K‡i- G‡ÛvWvwg©m|  †cwimvBKj ¯Íi n‡Z fv¯‥zjvi evÛjmn †K›`ª ch©šÍ As‡ki bvgÑ w÷wj|
 cv‡Ui Auvk- †m‡KÛvwi †d¬v‡qg wUmy¨|  AatZ¡‡Ki wbP n‡Z Avi¤¢ K‡i †cvwimvBKj Dci ch©šÍ Ask n‡jv-K‡U©·|
 cwiYZ RvB‡jg wUmyï mRxe †Kvl- RvB‡jg c¨v‡ibKvBgv|  mvaviYZ MÖvDÛ wUmy¨Zš¿ MwVZ nq- c¨v‡ibKvBgv n‡Z|
 g¾vi cÖavb KvR- Lv`¨ mÂq|  AšÍtw÷jxq AÂ‡ji Ask- cwiPµ ev †cwimvBKj, g¾viwk¥ I g¾v|
 †gUvRvB‡jg †K‡›`ªi w`‡K I †cÖv‡UvRvB‡jg cwiwai w`‡K- RvB‡jg G·vK© (g~‡j)|  MÖvDÛ wUmy¨Z‡š¿i cÖK…wZ- AmgmË¡|
 †gUvRvB‡jg cwiwai w`K I †cÖv‡UvRvB‡jg †K‡›`ªi w`‡K- RvB‡jg GÛvK© (KvÐ)|  G‡ÛvWvwg©m I fv¯‥yjvi evÛ‡ji gaëZ©x AÂj- †cwimvBKj|
 GKexRcÎx Dw™¢‡ì Kv‡Ði fv¯‥zjvi evÛj- RvB‡jg wUmyï MV‡b A‡bKUv  †cwimvBKj MwVZ- c¨v‡ibKvBgv Øviv|
‘V’ ev ‘Y’ AvK…wZi|  †`‡ni KvVv‡gv MVb K‡i- K‡Uª©·|
 cv_iKzwP †Mv‡Îi Dw™¢‡` iv‡Î cÎiÜ« †Lvjv _v‡K, w`‡b eÜ _v‡K|  c¨v‡ibKvBgv †Kv‡li AvK…wZ- †MvjvKvi|
 bMœexRx Dw™¢‡ì †d¬v‡qg wUmy¨‡Z m½x‡Kvl _v‡K bv|  K‡U©· MwVZ nq- c¨v‡bKvBgv †Kvl n‡Z|
 cv‡Ui Avuk ev÷ dvBevi|  RvB‡jg I †d¬v‡qg wUmy¨ wb‡q MwVZ- fv¯‥zjvi wUmy¨Zš¿|
 wefvRb mÿg wUmy¨- fvRK wUmy¨|  fv¯‥zjvi wUmy¨Zš¿ m„wó nq- †cÖvKvw¤^qvg n‡Z|
 fvRK wUmyï †Kvlmg~n- AvšÍ‡Kvlxq dvuKwenxb|  Ae¯v‡bi wfwË‡Z fv¯‥zjvi evÛj-3 cÖKvi|
 †Kvl wefvRb Abymv‡i fvRK wUmy¨ mvaviYZ 3 cÖKvi|  †K›`ªxq fv¯‥zjvi e¨vÛj- 2 cÖKvi|
 fvRK wUmyï wefvRb N‡U- gvB‡Uvwmm cÖwµqvq|  mgwØcvk^©xq fv¯‥zjvi evÛj †`Lv hvq- wØexR cÎx Kv‡Û †hgb: jvD, Kzgov BZ¨vw`|
 KK© K¨vw¤^qvg- †m‡KÛvwi ev †M․Y fvRK wUmy¨|  gy³ mgcvk^©xq fv¯‥yjvi evÛj †`Lv` hvq- wØexR cÎx Kv‡Û|
 Dw™¢` •`N©¨ e„w× N‡U- kxl©¯ fvRK wUmyï Rb¨|  mKj cy®úK ev Ave„ZexRx Dw™¢‡ì g~†j _v‡K- Aixq fv¯‥zjvi evÛj|
 K¨vw¤^qvg- cvk©^xq fvRK wUmy¨|  ¯úvBK‡jU cy®úweb¨vmhy³ Dw™¢‡ì Kv‡Û- cwienb Kjv¸”Q PµvKv‡i mw¾Z|
 ¯vqx wUmyï DrcwË nq- fvRK wUmy¨ n‡Z|  nvB‡Wªv‡mw›UªK ev RvB‡jg †Kw›`ªK Dw™¢`- Pteris, Selaginella, Lycopodium,
 gvm fvRK wUmy¨- K‡U©·| Psilotum BZ¨vw`|
 ZiæY g~‡ji fvRK wUmy¨- wie fvRK wUmy¨|  †j‡Þv‡mw›UªK ev †d¬v‡qg †Kw›`ªK Dw™¢`- Yucca, Dracaena|
 Mv‡Qi Z¡K I cvZv m„wó K‡i- †cøU fvRK wUmy¨|  GKexRxcÎx Dw™¢‡ì g~‡ji Gwc‡eøgv- wKDwUKjwenxb|
 Dw™¢‡ì AvqZb e„w× K‡i- †cøU fvRK wUmy¨|  g~‡ji fv¯‥zjvi evÛj- Aixq|
 KvR Abymv‡i fvRK wUmy¨¸‡jv n‡jv- †cÖv‡UvWvg©,‡cÖv- K¨vw¤^qvg I MÖvDÛ †gwi‡÷g|  GKexRcÎx g~‡j Abycw¯Z- nvB‡cvWvwg©m ev AatZ¡K|
 †m‡KÛvwi fvRK wUmyï D`vniY- B›Uvid¨vwmKzjvi K¨vw¤^qvg, KK© K¨vw¤^qvg|  wØexRcÎx Dw™¢‡ì Kv‡Û Dcw¯Z- g¾viwk¥|
 Dw™¢‡ì Z¡K m„wó K‡i- †cÖv‡UvWvg©|  GKexRcÎx Dw™¢‡ì g~‡j RvB‡jg I †d¬v‡qg ¸‡”Qi msL¨v-6 Gi AwaK|
 MÖvDÛ †gwi‡÷g wUmy¨ wefvwRZ n‡q m„wó K‡i- g¾v|  wØexRcÎx Dw™¢‡ì g~‡j fv¯‥zjvi ev‡Û‡ji msL¨v mvaviYZ- 2 †_‡K 4 wU|
 Kv‡Ði cwiwa e„w×i Rb¨ `vqx- K¨vw¤^qvg wUmy¨|  wmfbj I m½x‡Kvl Øviv MwVZ nq- †døv‡qg wUmy¨|
 Gwc‡eøgvi cÖavb KvRÑ LwbR jeY †kvlY|  fzÆvi Kv‡Ûi GwcWvwg©‡mi evB‡ii †KvlcÖvPx‡i wKDwUKj- cyiæ|
 g¾v I †cwimvB‡K‡ji mv‡_ †hv‡hvM iÿv K‡i- g¾viwk¥|  fzÆvi Kv‡Ûi nvB‡cvWvwg©‡m MwVZ †¯‥¬‡ibKvBgv †Kvl Øviv|
 bvB‡Uªv‡Rb Lv`¨ mÂq K‡i- cwiPµ|  fzÆvi Kv‡Ûi MÖvDÛ wUmyï †Kvl¸‡jv- †MvjvKvi ev wW¤^vKvi|
 g¾v webó n‡q MnŸi m„wó K‡i- Kzgov|  KPzi g~‡ji fv¯‥zjvi evÛ‡ji cÖK„wZ- Aixq|
 AšÍt‡d¬v‡q‡gi KvR- Lv`¨ cwienb Kiv|  fzÆvi g~‡ji fv¯‥zjvi (GKexRcÎx Kv‡Ûi) evÛj- e× mgcvk©^xq|
Dw™¢` kvixiZË¡
 MøvB‡KvjvBwmm cÖwµqvq †gvU ATP Drcbœ nq- 4wU|  Dw™¢`‡`‡n mÜvb cvIqv †g․‡ji msL¨v- 57wU|
 †Kjwfb P‡µi wewµqv m¤úbœ nIqvi cig DòZv- 10-25C|  wecvKxq kw³i eënvi Qvov †kvlY n‡jv- wbw®…q †kvlY|
 mv‡jvKms‡kølY Ges k¦mb- Dfq cÖwµqv †Kv_vq cwijwÿZ- meyR Dw™¢`|  †Kvli‡m H+ Avq‡bi cwie‡Z© cÖ‡ek K‡i- K+|
 Dw™¢` †Kv‡l †KvbwU k¦m‡bi cÖavb A½- gvB‡UvKwÛªqv|  †KvlwSwjøi ewntZ‡j RviY N‡U- mvB‡Uv‡µv‡gi|
 CAM Dw™¢`- †LRyi|  mvB‡Uv‡µvg weRvwiZ nq- †KvlwSwjøi AšÍtZ‡j|
 evqygÛj n‡Z CO2 M¨vm †Kvb cÖwµqvi cvZvq cÖ‡ek K‡i- e¨vcb|  Dw™¢‡ì jeY †kvlY `ªæZ n«vm K‡i- Aw·‡R‡bi wb¤œZvcgvÎv|
 †Kvb eY© KwYKvi Rb¨ d‡ji is njy` nq- weUvR¨vwšb|  Dw™¢‡ì wecvKxq wµqvi mv‡_ RwoZ- Av‡jv|
 LwbR jeY †kvl‡Yi we‡kl Dc‡hvMx AÂj- kxl©g~j|  †jwmw_b gZev`wU n‡jv- mwµq cwi‡kvlY gZev`|
 k¦mb wµqvi nvi wbqš¿Y K‡i- Aw·‡Rb|  mwµq Avqb †kvlY gZev` †`b- jy‡ÛMvW©|
 GKB ZvcgvÎv I evqygÐjxq Pv‡c †Kv‡bv c`v‡_©i AwaKZi Nb ¯vb n‡Z  Avqb en‡bi Rb¨ cøvRgv‡gg‡eª‡bi A‡f`¨ As‡k _v‡K- evnK|
AwaKZi Kg ¯v‡bi w`‡K we¯Ívi jvf Kivi cÖwµqv‡K e‡j- e¨vcb|  Dw™¢`‡`‡n cÖ‡¯^`‡bi cÖavb A½- cvZv|
 cÎiÜ« iv‡Z †Lvjv I w`‡b eÜ _v‡K- giæR Dw™¢‡`|  cÖ‡¯^`‡bi nvi ev‡o †Kvb Ae¯vq- ZvcgvÎv evo‡j|
 GKB `ªveKwewkó `ywU wfbœ Nb‡Z¡i `ªeY‡K •elg¨‡f`¨ wSwjø Øviv c„_K ivL‡j  iÿx‡Kv‡li wN‡i _v‡K- mnKvix †Kvl|
†Kvb cÖwµqvwU N‡U- Awf¯ªeY|  iÿx‡Kv‡li KvR- Lv`¨ •Zwi|
 P700 bvgK cÖwZwµqv iÄK †Kvb e‡Y©i Av‡jvK me©vwaK †kvlY K‡i- AwZ jvj|  wbgw¾Z cÎiÜ« †`Lv hvq- giæR Dw™¢‡`|
 m~h©v‡jv‡Ki kw³ eënvi K‡i ATP •Zwi Kivi cÖwµqv- d‡Uvdm‡dvivB‡jkb|  cÎiÜ« †Lvjv I e‡Üi KviY- iÿx‡Kv‡li UviMvq †cÖvmvi I Am‡gvwUK †cÖmvi|
 C3 Dw™¢‡` Kve©b weRviY cÖwµqvq (K¨vjwfb P‡µ) cÖ_g ¯vqx c`v_©-3-  AmsL¨ †K¬v‡ivcøv÷ _v‡K- c¨vwj‡mW c¨v‡ibKvBgv|
dm‡dvwMømvwiK GwmW (3-Kve©b)|  Dw™¢‡ì †Kvb kixie„Ëxq cÖwµqvi gva¨‡g kw³ I cvwbi AcPq nq- cÖ‡¯^`b|
 Ôj Ae wgwbgvgÕ cÖ¯Íve K‡ib- weÁvbx wjweM|  cÖ‡¯^`‡bi me‡P‡q ¸iæZ¡c~Y© cÖfveK- Av‡jv|
 k¦m‡bi MøvB‡KvjvBwmm av‡c 1 AYy Møy‡KvR †f‡O Kq AYy cvBiæwfK GwmW  evZv‡mi Avv‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv e„w× †c‡j cÖ‡¯^`b- Kg‡Z _v‡K|
Drcbœ nq-2|  iÿx‡Kv‡li AvK…wZ-Aa©P›`ªvK…wZ ev e„°vKvi|
 1 AYy Møy‡KvR †_‡K Drcbœ 2 AYy cvBiæwfK GwmW n‡Z 2 AYy CO2 ,2 AYy  †÷g¨vUv Lyj‡Z `vqx- K+|
NADH + H+ Ges A¨vwmUvBj CO-A m„wó nq|  cvwb mvg¨Zv iwÿZ nq- cÖ‡¯^`‡bi gva¨‡g|
 g¨vwjK GwmW‡K cÖfvweZ K‡i- gvwjK wWnvB‡WªvwR‡bR GbRvBg|  cÎi‡Üi gva¨‡g cÖ‡¯^`b nq- 90-95%|
 mevZ k¦m‡b 1 AYy Møy‡KvR m¤ú~Y©RvwiZ n‡q me©vaywbK avibvq †gvU 36 Aby  g~j I Kv‡Ûi AbycvZ e„w× †c‡j- cÖ‡¯^`‡bi nvi e„w× cvq|
ATP (cÖPwjZ aviYvq 38 AYy ATP) Drcbœ nq, wKš‧ ETC-G 32 AYy Ges  iÿx‡Kvl CO2 Gi NbZ¡ e„w× †c‡j cÎiÜ« eÜ n‡q hvq|
†µem P‡µ 24 AYy ATP Drcbœ nq|  Dw™¢‡ì cÎiÜ« eÜ n‡q hvq I cÖ‡¯^`b Kg nq- 35 ZvcgvÎvq|
 †Kvgj cvbx‡qi cÖavb Dcv`vb- mvBwUªK GwmW|  †Kv‡l AwaK cwigvY cvwb cÖ‡ek K‡i- Awf¯ªewYK Pv‡ci d‡j|
 Pv cvZv cÖwµqvRvKi‡Y mvnvh¨ K‡i- Bacillus megatherium|  cÖ‡¯^`‡bi nvi †ewk- cÖmvwiZ cvZvq|
 e¨vK‡Uwiqv †Kvb †ÿ‡Î eëüZ nq- `y» wk‡í|  cvZvq cÎi‡Ü«i cwigvY †ewk n‡j- cÖ‡¯^`b †ewk nq|
 AZ¨vek©Kxq Dcv`v‡bi msL¨v (¯^vfvweK e„w× I weKv‡ki Rb¨)- 17 wU|  Photosynthesis kãwU me©cÖ_g eënvi K‡ib- weÁvbx ev‡b©m|
 Dw™¢‡ì cÖ‡qvRbxq gvB‡µvwbDwUª‡q›Um- 8wU|  mv‡jvKms‡køl‡Yi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb- CO2, H2O, †K¬v‡ivwdj I m~hv©‡jvK|
 Dw™¢` gvwU n‡Z †kvlY K‡i- bvB‡Uªv‡Rb|  †Kvb wewµqvi mgq †m․ikw³ ivmvqwbK kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq- mv‡jvKms‡køl‡b|
 †Kvb Avqb Dw™¢` me‡P‡q `ªæZMwZ‡Z †kvlb K‡i- K+,NO3–|  mv‡jvKms‡køl‡Y Av‡jvK chv©‡q Drcbœ nq- NADPH2 I ATP|
 †Kvb Avq‡bi †kvlY nvi me‡P‡q gši MwZ‡Z P‡j- SO42–, Ca2+|  mv‡jvKms‡kølY cÖwµqvi CO2 weRvwiZ n‡q •Zwi K‡i- kK©iv|
 †Kvb Dcv`vbwU Dw™¢` gvwU †_‡K AwaK gvÎvq MÖnY K‡i- Mg++|  mv‡jvKms‡kølY Gi cÖwµqvi Aci bvg- RviY-weRviY wewµqv|
 LwbR jeY cwi‡kvwlZ nq- Avqb wn‡m‡e|  †Kvb Av‡jv‡Z me‡P‡q †ewk mv‡jvKms‡kølY nq- jvj|
 gvwU¯ Dcv`vb Dw™¢` †kvlY K‡i-g~‡ji Øviv|  R¨všwd‡ji eY© - njy`|
 Rxe‡Kv‡l wewfbœ c`v‡_©i †kvlY wbf©i K‡i- Nb‡Z¡i Dci |  wcM‡g›U wm‡÷g- I(PS-I) Gi †K¬v‡ivwdj- P700|
 ZvcgvÎv e„w× n‡j mvaviYZ Dw™¢‡ì jeY cwi‡kvlY- ev‡o|  wcM‡g›U wm‡÷g- I(PS-I) Gi †K¬v‡ivwdj- P700|
 Pjbkxj wjwcW - cøv‡÷vKzBbb|  k^m‡bi Z„Zxq avc - †µem Pµ|
 Avqib-mvjdvi †cÖvwUb- †dwiwWw·b|  †µem P‡µi Aci bvg- mvBwUªK GwmW Pµ|
 APwµq d‡Uvdm‡dvivB‡jk‡bi Drcbœ ATP G msL¨v -1|  †µem P‡µi wewµqvmg~n msNwUZ nq- gvB‡UvKwÛªqv‡Z|
 m~h©v‡jv‡Ki kw³ eënvi K‡i ATP •Zwi Kivi cÖwµqv- d‡Uvdm‡dvivB‡jkb|  †µem P‡µ Drcbœ cÖ_g c`v_©- mvBwUªK GwmW|
 mv‡jvKms‡køl‡Y Av‡jvK chv©‡q N‡U- cvwbi fvOb|  mvBwUªK GwmW P‡µ wbM©Z nvB‡Wªv‡Rb MÖnY K‡i- FAD|
 Av‡jvK chv©‡q wbM©Z nq- O2|  A·v‡jv GwmwUK Gwm‡Wi Dci KvR K‡i- A¨vj‡Wv‡jR|
 K¨vjwfb P‡µ CO2 MÖnxZv †K- ivBey‡jvR 1, 5-wemdm‡dU|  †µem P‡µ cÖwZ AYy A¨vwmUvBj Co-A n‡Z Drcbœ CO2 - 2 AYy|
 3PGA †Kvb cÖwµqvi gva¨‡g Drcbœ nq- K¨vjwfb Pµ|  A·v‡jv GwmwUK Gwm‡W Kve©b msL¨v- 4|
 mv‡jvKms‡køl‡Yi d‡UvjvBwm‡m Drcbœ M¨vm k^m‡bi †Kvb chv©‡q eëüZ nq-  A·v‡jv GwmwUK GwmW †_‡K mvBwUªK GwmW •Zwii mgq †Kvb GbRvBg
mvBwUªK GwmW P‡µ| eëüZ nq- mvB‡UªU wmb‡_R|
 C3 Dw™¢`- AwaKvsk bMœexRx Dw™¢`, eªv‡qvdvBUm, †Uwi‡WvdvBUm,  kw³ Drcv`‡bi cÖavb †K›`ª ejv nq- †µem Pµ‡K|
mv‡jvKms‡kølYKvix •kevj, AwaKvsk Ave„ZexRx Dw™¢`, we‡kl K‡i  †Kvb av‡c NADH2 RvwiZ nq- B‡jKUªb cÖevn Z‡š¿|
wØexRcÎx Dw™¢` (†hgb: cvU, Avg, Rvg, wjPz BZ¨vw`)| †ek wKQz GKexRcÎx  Aw·‡WwUf dm‡dvivB‡jk‡b Kx Drcbœ nq- ADP, Pi I B‡jKUªb wg‡j ATP|
Dw™¢‡Ì C3 Pµ †`Lv hvq| †hgb: avb,Kjv|  cÖvšÍxq Rvi‡Y GK AYy NADH+ + H+ n‡Z Drcbœ ATP -3wU|
 n¨vP I ¯ø¨vK P‡µ (C4 P‡µ) ev C4 Dw™¢‡ì Drcbœ 1g ¯vqx c`v_©- A·v‡jv  gvB‡UvKwÛªqvi AvšÍtwSwjø‡Z mvvRv‡bv _v‡K- B‡jKUªb evnK|
A¨vwmwUK GwmW|  ETC- Gi cÖ_g B‡jKUªb MÖnxZvi KvR K‡i - d¬v‡fv‡cÖvwUb|
 fzÆv Dw™¢‡` Gi MÖvnK †h․M Kq ai‡bi- 2|  ETC- G B‡jKUª‡bi me©‡kl MÖnxZv n‡jv Aw·‡Rb|
 `yB ai‡bi †K¬v‡ivcøv÷ cvIqv hvq- Av‡L|  mv‡jvKms‡køl‡Yi d‡UvjvBwm‡m Drcbœ M¨vm k^m‡bi †Kvb chv©‡q eëüZ nq-
 mv‡jvKms‡kølY cÖwµqvq Drcbœ Lv`¨- kK©iv| B‡jKUªb UªvÝ‡cvU© Z‡š¿|
 C4 Dw™¢` - Poaceae, Cyperaceae BZ¨vw` †Mv‡Îi GKexRcÎx Dw™¢` †hgb:  †j․‡ni RviY- weRviY- mvB‡Uv‡µv‡g|
Bÿz, Mg, fzÆv, IU, evwj©, gy_v, Nvm, BZ¨vw`, Ges wØexRcÎx Dw™¢` †hgb:  Cyt-a3 n‡Z B‡jKUªb ¯vbvšÍwiZ nq-evqy¯ O2 G|
Euphorbia spp, Amaranthus sp. BZ¨vw`|  ev‡qvjwRK¨vj K‡qb ev •Re gy`ªv ejv nq- ATP †K|
 †h †Kvlxq A½vYyi msL¨ve„w× †c‡j wek^ Dòvqb Kg‡e- †K¬v‡ivcøv÷|  6NADH2 + 2FADH2 + 2GTP = 24wU ATP
 KZ ZvcgvÎvq mv‡jvKms‡køl‡Yi nvi me‡‡P‡q †ewk|  mevZ k^m‡b 1 AYy Møy‡KvR m¤ú~Y© RvwiZ n‡q mev©aywbK avibvq †gvU 36 AYy
 mv‡jvKms‡køl‡Yi cÖ‡qvRbxq kw³ Av‡m- m~h© n‡Z| ATP (cÖPwjZ aviYvq 38 AYy ATP) Drcbœ nq wKš‧ ETC- G 32 AYy ATP
 mv‡jvKms‡køl‡Yi m¤úbœ nq- cvZvi †g‡mvwd‡j| Ges †µem P‡µ 24 AYy ATP Drcbœ nq|
 evZv‡m CO2 Gi NbZ¡- 0.03 - 0.04%|  AevZ k^m‡b 1 AYy ÕMøy‡KvR †_‡K KZ AYy ATP Drcbœ nq - 2 AYy|
 cÖ‡¯^`‡bi nvi m‡ev©”P - 10-25 †m. ZvcgvÎvq|  AevZ k^m‡bi chv©q- 2wU|
 cÖavb k^mwbK Dcv`vb- kK©iv (Møy‡KvR)|  AevZ k^m‡bi Møy‡KvR †f‡O Drcbœ nq- j¨KwUK GwmW|
 k^mb cÖwµqvq †KvbwU O2 Øviv RvwiZ nq- C6H12O6 (kK©iv)|  C÷ †Kvl, e¨vK‡Uwiqvq (E. coli) N‡U- AevZ k^mb|
 k^mb cÖwµqvq wbM©Z nq- CO2|  C‡÷i GbRvBg - RvB‡gR|
 k^mb cÖavbZ- 2 cÖKvi (mevZ I AevZ k^mb)|  †cwk †Kv‡l AevZ k^m‡b Drcbœ nq- j¨vKwUK GwmW|
 mevZ k^m‡bi chv©q-4wU (Kv‡iv g‡Z cÖavbZ 3wU)|  AevZ I mevZ k^m‡bi Kgb c_- MøvB‡KvjvBwmm|
 MøvB‡KvjvBwmm KZ AYy ATP AYy LiP nq- 2|  †Kvgj cvbx‡qi cÖavb Dcv`vb- mvBwUªK GwmW|
 mevZ I AevZ k^m‡bi Awfbœ avc- MøvB‡KvjvBwmm|  mvBwUªK GwmW Drc‡bœi cÖwµqv n‡jv- MvuRb|
 MøvB‡KvjvBwm‡mi Aci bvgÑ EMP|  AevZ k^mbKvix Rxemg~n‡K fvM Kiv hvq- 2 fv‡M|
 k^m‡bi MøvB‡KvjvBwmm av‡c 1 AYy Møy‡KvR †f‡O Kq AYy cvBiæwfK GKwU  Aw·‡Rb Dcw¯wZ mn¨ Ki‡Z cv‡i bv - Clostridium|
Drcbœ nq-2|  cvUMvQ n‡Z Avuk wb®‥vk‡b mvnvh¨ K‡i- Clastridium bunricum|
 MøvB‡KvjvBwmm m¤úbœ Ki‡Z KZwU GbRvBg KvR K‡i- 10wU|  Lactobacillus helveticus, Streptococcus lactis, e¨vK‡Uwiqv †Kvb †ÿ‡Î
 cvBiæwfK GwmW KZ Kve©bwewkó- 3| eëüZ nq- `y» wk‡í|
 MøvB‡KvjvBwmm cÖwµqvq gyL¨ welq- cvBiæwfK GwmW m„wó|  AYyRx‡ei ATP Drcv`‡bi c_‡K ejv nq- MvuRb|
 MøvB‡KvjvBwm‡m wbU Drcbœ c`v_©- 2 AYy ATP 2 AYy NADH + H' Ges 2  MvuRb cÖwµqvq Drcbœ Lv`¨-mqvmm|
AYy cvBiæwfK GwmW|  †Kv‡li mKj wecvKxq wµqv m¤úbœ nq- †cÖv‡UvcøvR‡g|
 cvBiæwfK GwmW n‡Z A¨vwmUvBj Co-A m„wói mgq Drcbœ nq- CO2 I  k^mb cÖwµqvq GbRvB‡gi Kvh©ÿgZv wbqš¿b K‡i- ZvcgvÎv|
NADH + H'|  mvaivYiZ k^m‡b RvwiZ nq- kK©iv|
 1 AYy Møy‡KvR †_‡K Drcbœ 2 AYy cvBiæwfK GwmW n‡Z 2 AYy CO2 2 AYy  Pwe© RvZxq c`v‡_©i k^mwbK †Kv‡k›U (RQ)- 0.7|
NADH + H' Ges `yB AYy A¨vwmUvBj Co-A m„wó nq|  mevZ k^m‡b Møy‡KvR k^mwbK nvi (RQ) -1
 A¨vwmUvBj Co-A †Z Kve©b msL¨v- 2|  Dw™¢‡ì k^mb nvi e„w×‡Z mnvqZv K‡i- A¨v‡gvwbqvg bvB‡UªU|
 k^m‡bi evwn¨K cÖfveK- Aw·‡Rb cÖvc¨Zv|  cwi‡ek CO2 Gi NbZ¡ e„w× †c‡j-k^m‡bi nvi K‡g|
 k^m‡bi nv‡i me©wb¤œ ZvcgvÎv- 40-45 †m.|  evqygÛ‡ji Aw·‡R‡bi NbZ¡ 0.3% Gi wb‡P n‡j- k^mb Kg nq|
 k^m‡bi Af¨šÍixb cÖfveK- GbRvBg, LwbR jeY BZ¨vw`|
Rxe cÖhyw³
 'Biotechnology' kãwU me©cÖ_g cÖeZ©b K‡ib- Karl Ereky  wiKw¤^‡b›U DNA •Zwi Kivi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq GbRvBg n‡jv- DNA Ligase
 wUmy¨ KvjPv‡ii RbK- G. Haberlandt| I Restriction endonuclease|
 †KbwU cÖvPxb •Re cÖhyw³- wUmy¨ KvjPvi|  cøRwgW cvIqv hvq-e¨vK‡Uwiqvi (E.coli) mvB‡UªvcøvR‡g|
 wUmy¨ KvjPv‡ii Rb¨ eëüZ Dw™¢`vsk n‡jv- G·cøv›U|  me©cÖ_g E.coli e¨vK‡Uwiqv †Kv‡l cøvRwgW Avwe®‥vi K‡ib- Laderberg|
 wUmy¨ KvjPv‡ii Rb¨ †g․wjK cywó- Avev` gva¨g|  eZ©gv‡b †KvbwU eënvi K‡i wiKw¤^‡b›U DNA kbv³ Kiv nq- DNA †cÖve|
 wUmy¨ KvjPv‡i eëüZ Dw™¢‡ì wefvRbÿg A½- kxl©gyKzj|  wUKv •Zwi Kiv hvq †Kvb cÖhyw³i gva¨‡g- RxecÖhyw³|
 kxl©gyKzj, civM‡iYy eëüZ nq- wUmy¨ KvjPv‡i|  SIT (Sterial Insect Technique) cÖhyw³ eëüZ nq †Kvb wk‡í- K…wl wk‡í|
 UwU‡cv‡UwÝ bvgKiY K‡ib- Morgan|  mycvi ivB‡m †Kvb wfUvwgb _v‡K- wfUvwgb A|
 n¨vcø‡qW Pviv Drcv`b Kiv hvq- civM‡iYy KvjPvi K‡i|  Bbmywjb •Zwi‡Z fvBiv‡mi msµgY, RjvZ¼ I K¨vÝvi cÖwZ‡iva K‡i-
 civMavbx Avev‡ì gva¨‡g •ZwiK…Z Dw™¢`- n¨vcø‡qW| B›Uvi‡dib|
 mvBweªW kãwU †Kvb cÖwµqvi mv‡_ RwoZ- wUmy¨ KvjPvi|  K¨vÝvi †iv‡Mi wPwKrmvq eëüZ nq- Interferon|
 †ivMgy³ Dw™¢` cvIqv hvq- åæY ev †gwi‡÷g KvjPvi K‡i|  B›Uvi‡dib I Bbmywjb †Kvb ai‡bi c`v_©- †cÖvwUb|
 wUmy¨ KvjPvi c×wZ‡Z Drcbœ åæY‡K ejv nq- †mvgvwUK Ggeªv‡qv|  cvwb‡Z †Zj †kva‡b eëüZ nq- Pseudomonas aeruginosa|
 wiKw¤^‡b›U wWGbG †UK‡bvjwR cÖ‡qv‡M m„ó Rxe‡K ejv nq- UªvÝ‡RwbK Rxe|  Bt- †e¸b Drcbœ Kivi Rb¨ eënvi Kiv nq- Bacillus thuringiensis|
 wRb ev cøvRwg‡Wi wbw`©ó Ask KZ©‡b eëüZ GbRvBg ev •RweK Qzwi ev  UªvÝ‡RwbK cÖvYx †_‡K cÖ_g Drcvw`Z nq- Human- antitrypsin|
ev‡qvjwRK¨vj bvBd ev AvYweK KuvwP- †iw÷ªKkb GbRvBg|  Ôgv÷vi eø-y wcÖ›U ejv nq- wR‡bvg‡K|
 wRb ev DNA LÛ‡K †Rvov jvMv‡bvi Rb¨ eëüZ GbRvBg-jvB‡MR|
¸”Q †bUIqvK© 4.0 kU© mv‡Rkb RxeweÁvb wØZxq cÎ
cÖvYxi wewfbœZv I †kÖwYweb¨vm

 cøvK‡qW AuvBk †`Lv hvq †h cÖvYx‡Z- nv½i|  wØc` bvgKiY cÖeZ©b Kiv nq- 1758 mv‡j|
 Vorticella †Kvb ce©f~³ cÖvYx- Protozoa|  wØc` bvgKi‡Yi kãØq †Kvb fvlvq n‡Z n‡e- j¨vwUb|
 †Kvgjvw¯ wewkó gv‡Q †Kvb ai‡bi AvuBk _v‡K- Placoid|  wÎc` bvgKi‡Yi c` KqwU- 3wU (MY, cÖRvwZ I DccÖRvwZ)|
 “Flower of the sea” †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì ejv nq- wbWvwiqv|  wÎc` bvgKiY cÖeZ©b K‡ib- Schlegel (1844)|
 †mdv‡jvKW©vUv Dcc‡e©i D`vniY- Branchiostoma lanceolatum|  cÖvwYRM‡Z cÖavb ce© KqwU- 9wU|
 †kÖwYKi‡Yi †h †Kv‡bv av‡ci Rb‡Mvôx‡K ejv nq- U¨v·b|  cÖK…wZ‡Z bb-KW©vUv cÖvYxi msL¨v KZ fvM- 95-97%|
 †kÖwYweb¨v‡mi me©wb¤œ avc- cÖRvwZ|  bb-KW©vUv `‡ji cÖavb ce©- 8wU|
 Hickman et al. (2008) Abymv‡i cÖvwYRM‡Z me©‡gvU ce©- 33wU|  cÖvwYRM‡Z we`¨gvb c‡e©i g‡a¨ KW©vUv RvZxq ce©- 1wU|
 MVbMZfv‡e mijZg cÖvYx n‡jv- Spongilla|  Porifera c‡e©i bvgKiY K‡ib- Robert Grant (1836)|
 †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYxiv eûiƒcZv cÖ`k©b K‡i- Cnidaria|  Porifera c‡e©i cÖvYxi mvaviY bvg- ¯úÄ|
 Cnidaria cieZ©x me c‡e©i cÖvYxB wUª‡cøveøvw÷K|  eû‡Kvlx cÖvYx‡ì g‡a¨ †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYxiv cÖvPxbZg- Porifera.
 BD‡ivKWv©Uv‡ì mvMi †dvqviv bv‡g WvKv nq|  wQ`ªvj cÖvYx ejv nq- Porfera c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì|
 †mdv‡jv KWv©Uv‡ì fjøvKvi cÖvwY bv‡g WvKv nq|  bvwjZš¿ Dcw¯Z- Porifera c‡e©|
 c„w_exi gvwU, evqy I cvwb‡Z emevmKvix mKj cÖvYxi g‡a¨ †h wRbMZ, cÖRvwZMZ,  Porifera c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì †`ncÖvPx‡ii wQ`ª‡K ejv nq- Aw÷qv|
AvšÍtcÖRvwZMZ ev ev¯‧Zš¿MZ •ewPZ¨ †`Lv hvq Zv‡K ejv nq- cÖvwY‣ewPÎ¨|  MVbMZfv‡e mijZg cÖvYx n‡jv- Spongilla.
 cÖK…wZ‡Z cÖvwY‣ewPÎ¨- 3 cÖKvi (wRbMZ, cÖRvwZMZ I ev¯ÍZvwš¿K •ewPÎ¨)|  Porifera c‡e©i cªvYxiv †KvbwUi gva¨‡g Lv`¨, Aw·‡Rb I kyµvYy MÖnY K‡i- bvwjZš¿|
 c„w_exi wewfbœ AÂ‡j wfbœ wfbœ Rjevqyi m‡½ RxeRM‡Zi wg_w¯…qvq m„wó nq- ev‡qvg|  †Kvb c‡e©i c~Y©v½ cÖvYxiv wbðj- Porifera|
 i‡qj †e½j UvBMvi I wms‡ni g‡a¨ †Kvb ai‡bi wfbœZv we`¨gvb-  cÖevj †Kvb ce©fz³- Cnidara|
AvšÍtcÖRvwZK wfbœZv|  †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì mgy‡`ªi dzj ev mgy‡`ªi Rain Forest ejv nq- Cnidaria.
 cÖvwYwe`¨vi RbK n‡jv- A¨vwi÷Uj|  †Rwjwdk †Kvb c‡e©i- Cnidaria.
 Rxem¤úª`vq, cÖK…wZ I cÖvK…wZK m¤ú` msi¶‡Yi AvšÍR©vwZK †emiKvwi ms¯v-  cÖevj MVbKvix Dcv`vb n‡jv- KvBwUb I Pzb|
IUCN|  Kjv msMVb gvÎvi ce© n‡jv- Cnidaria.
 ICZN Gi c~Y©iƒc- International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.  wbWvwiqvb‡ì `skb A½vby n‡jv- †bgv‡Uvwm÷|
 c„w_ex‡Z Rxe‣ewP‡Îï nU¯ú‡Ui msL¨v- 25wU|  Cnidaria c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì †`nvf¨šÍ‡ii MnŸi n‡jvwm‡j‡›Uib|
 †kÖwYweb¨v‡mi RbK- K¨v‡ivjvm wjwbqvm|  wm‡j‡›Ui‡bi KvR- cwicvK-msenb|
 AvaywbK †kÖwYweb¨vmwe`¨vi RbK- K¨v‡ivjvm wjwbqvm|  †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYxiv eûiƒcZv cÖ`k©b K‡i- Cnidaria.
 U¨v‡·vbwg‡Z Av‡jvwPZ cÖavb welq n‡jv- kbv³KiY, bvgKiY Ges †kÖwYKiY|  †Kvivjm I †Rwjwdk n‡jv- Cnidaria c‡e©i|
 †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYxi †`‡n GKB Kv‡R wb‡qvwRZ †Kvl¸‡jv Kjv MVb K‡i  mvMi-cvLv ejv nq- Cnidaria c‡e©i MM©wbqv‡K|
Ae¯vb K‡i- Cnidaria|  cÖ_g wÎ¯Íix cÖvYxwewkó ce©- Platyhelminthes|
 K¨v‡ivjvm wjwbqv‡mi weL¨vZ MÖš- Systema Nature|  Platyhelminthes c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì ejv nq- P¨vÞvK…wg (flat worm)|
 †g‡mvwMøqv †`Lv hvq- wØ¯Íix cÖvYx‡Z (nvBWªv)|  cÖ_g wUmy¨-A½ gvÎvi MVb †`Lv hvq- Platyhelminthes c‡e©|
 åƒY¯Íi m„wóKvix `kv n‡jv- M¨v÷yªjv|  wkLv †Kvl (†iPbZ‡š¿i †Kvl) †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYxi •ewkó¨- Platyhelminthes.
 ¯œvqyZš¿ m„wó nq- G‡±vWvg© †_‡K|  hK…r K…wgi •eÁvwbK bvg- Fasciola hepatica.
 k¦mbZš¿ m„wó nq- G‡ÛvWvg© †_‡K|  Nematoda c‡e©i bvgKiY K‡ib- Gegenbaur (1851)|
 wm‡jvg m„wó nq- †g‡mvWvg© †_‡K|  Nematoda c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì mvaviY bvg- myZvK…wg ev †MvjK…wg|
 wm‡jv‡gi wfwË‡Z cÖvYx‡ì KqwU fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq- 3wU (wm‡jvgwenxb  A½-Zš¿ gvÎvi MVb m¤úbœ cÖvYx †`Lv hvq cÖ_g †Kvb c‡e©- Nematoda.
cÖvYx, AcÖK…Z wm‡jvghy³ cÖvYx I cÖK…Z wm‡jvghy³ cÖvYx)|  me©cÖ_g m¤ú~Y© †c․wóKbvwj we`¨gvb _v‡K †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì- Nematoda.
 †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì cÖK…Z LÛvwqZ cÖvYx wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv Kiv nq- Annelida|  †h․b wØiƒcZv †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYx‡Z †`Lv hvq- Nematoda.
 wem`„k LÐvq‡bi D`vniY- cZ‡½i †`n|  †MvjK…wgi jvf©v `kvi bvg- i¨vewUwWdg©|
 †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvwYi †`‡n U¨vMgvUv †`Lv hvq- Arthropoda.  Loa loa †Kvb c‡e©i AšÍf©y³- Nematoda.
 wPswoi †`‡n KqwU U¨vMgv- 2wU|  Mollusca c‡e©i bvgKiY K‡ib- Johnston|
 Insecta †kÖwYi cÖvYx‡ì U¨vMgvwU n‡jv- wkive¶|  big †`n ev K‡¤^vR cÖvYx bv‡g cwiwPZ- Mollusca c‡e©i cÖvYx|
 Arthropoda c‡e©i cÖvYx‡Z wK¬‡f‡Ri aib n‡jv- Aixq wK¬‡fR|  cÖvwYRM‡Zi wØZxq e„nËg ce©- Mollusca.
 Chordata c‡e©i cÖvYx‡Z wK¬‡f‡Ri aib n‡jv- wØcvk¦©xq wK¬‡fR|  Mollusca c‡e©i cÖvYxi †`n Avei‡Yi bvg- g¨v›Uj|
 cÖwZmvg¨ Kq cÖKvi- 5 cÖKvi (†Mvjxq, Aixq, wØ-Aixq, wØcvk¦©xq I AcÖwZmvg¨)|  Mollusca c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì †LvjK •Zwi nq- g¨v›U‡ji ¶i‡Y|
 †kÖwYKi‡Yi †h †Kv‡bv av‡ci Rb‡Mvôx‡K ejv nq- U¨v·b|  Mollusca c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì msenbZš¿- Aa©gy³ ai‡bi|
 †kÖwYKi‡Yi Avewk¨K avc KqwU- 7wU|  Mollusca c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì Shell •Zwi nq- K¨vjwmqvg|
 †kÖwYweb¨v‡mi me©wb¤œ avc- cÖRvwZ|  gyL wee‡i Ôi¨vWzjvÕ bvgK Ask _v‡K †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYx‡Z-Mollusca.
 †kÖwYweb¨v‡mi me‡P‡q eo GKK- Phylum.  Annelida c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì ejv nq- „Ringed worms‟ev A½ywigvj|
 me©cÖ_g Species k‡ãi cÖeZ©b K‡ib- John Ray.  m¤ú~Y© LÐKvqb †`Lv hvq- Annelida c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì|
 Annelida c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì jvf©vi bvg- †Uªv‡Kv‡dvi|  j¨vg‡cÖ dzjKvi‡Ü«i msL¨v- 7 †Rvov|
 Annelida c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì cÖavb †iPb A½- †bwd«wWqv|  †Kvb †kÖwYi cÖvYxi †`n m¤ú~Y© †Kvgjvwš wbwg©Z- Chondrichthyes|
. Pjb A½ wmwU ev c¨viv‡cvwWqv †`Lv hvq- Annelida c‡e©|  Scoliodon laticaudus Gi AvuBk- cø¨vK‡qW|
 †Ku‡Pvi ev‡qvjwRK¨vj bvg- Metaphire posthuma.  †nUv‡ivmvK©vj †jR cvIqv hvq †Kvb †kÖwY‡Z- Chondrichthyes|
 Arthropoda c‡e©i bvgKiY K‡ib- Von Sieobold (1845)|  nvO‡ii cy”Q cvLbv †Kvb ai‡bi- †nUv‡ivmvK©vj|
 cÖvwYRM‡Zi me‡P‡q e„nËg ce©- Arthropoda (cÖvq 80%)|  RxweZ gv‡Qi KZ fvM Actinopterygii †kÖwYfz³- 96%|
 †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYxiv mwÜc`x cÖvYx wn‡m‡e cwiwPZ- Arthropoda.  †Kvb †kÖwYi gv‡Qi AšÍtK¼vj Aw¯gq- Actinopterygii|
 wn‡gvwmj cvIqv hvq- Arthropoda-c‡e©|  Actinopterygii †kÖwYfz³ gv‡Qi AuvBk †Kvb ai‡bi-mvB‡K¬v‡qW I wUb‡qW|
 Arthropoda c‡e©i cÖvYxi msenbZš¿ †Kvb ai‡bi i³c~Y©-wn‡gvwjç|  †nv‡gvmvK©vj †jR cvIqv hvq †Kvb †kÖwY‡Z- Actinopterygii.
 Arthropoda c‡e©i cÖvYxi cÖavb †iPb A½- gvjwcwRqvb bvwjKv|  iwk¥gq cvLbvwewkó gvQ n‡jv- Actinopterygii.
 Mj`v wPswoi •eÁvwbK bvg- Macrobrachium rosenbergii|  Bwjk †Kvb †kÖwYfz³ cÖvYx- Actinopterygii.
 Echinodermata c‡e©i bvgKiY Kiv n‡q‡Q †Kvb •ewkó¨ †_‡K- KuvUvgq Z¡K|  wcÐKvi cvLbvwewkó gv‡Qi †kÖwY n‡jv- Sarcopterygii.
 †Kvb c‡e©i mKj cÖvYx mvgyw`ªK- Echinodermata.  weÁvbx‡ì aviYvg‡Z, †Kvb cÖvwYi gvQ †_‡K ¯jPi cÖvYxi Avwef©ve N‡U‡Q- Sarcopterygii.
 ewntK¼vj K›UKgq- Echinodermata c‡e©i|  jvswdk †Kvb †kÖwYi AšÍf©y³- Sarcopterygii.
 mgy`Zª viv Gi cÖwZmvg¨Zv- cÂAixq|  cy”Q cvLbv WvBwdmvK©vj- Sarcopterygii.
 Echinodermata ce©fz³ cÖvYx‡ì Pjb A½- bvwjKv c`|  Sarcopterygii †kÖwYi •ewkó¨ n‡jv- M¨vb‡qW AvuBk|
 cvwb msenbZš¿ Dcw¯Z: Echinodermata- c‡e©|  cÖ_g ¯jPi I PZz®ú`x †giæ`Ðx cÖvYxi †kÖwY- Amphibia|
 Echinodermata Gi msenbZ‡š¿i KvR K‡i- †cwiwngvjZš¿|  †Kvb cÖvYxi RxebP‡µ dzjKv k¦mb we`¨gvb- e¨vO|
 Echinodermata-i RxebP‡µ †Kvb ai‡bi jvf©v we`¨gvb- gy³ mšÍiYkxj |  Amphibia †kÖwYfz³ cÖvYxi jvf©v †KvbwUi mvnv‡h¨ k¦vmKvh© Pvjvq- dyjKv|
 Chordata c‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì Rxe‡b KZwU †g․wjK •ewkó¨ we`¨vgb- 4wU  DfP‡ii cðvrc‡` Av½y‡ji msL¨v- 5wU|
(¯œvqyi¾y, b‡UvKW©, Mjwejxq dzjKv iÜª I cvqy cðvr †jR)|  Kzwg‡ii Z¡K †Kvb ai‡bi AuvBk Øviv Ave„Z-GwcWvg©vj|
 K‡W©U‡ì i³msenbZš¿ †Kvb cÖK…wZi-e× cÖK…wZi|  kxZj i³wewkó cÖvYx- mvc (Naja naja)|
 Chordata c‡e©i Dcce© KqwU- 3wU (Urochordata, Cephalochordata &  ürwcÐ Am¤ú~Y© 4 cÖ‡Kvôwewkó- Reptilia-†ì|
Vertebrata)|  m¤ú~Y© Pvi cÖ‡Kvôwewkó ürwcÐ †Kvb mixm„‡c †`L‡Z cvIqv hvq- Kywgi|
 K‡W©U‡ì ürwcÛ †`‡ni- A¼xqZ‡j|  me‡P‡q `xN©Rxex cÖvYx- K”Qc|
 Urochordata Dcc‡e©i AšÍf©y³ †kÖwY KqwU- 3wU (Larvacea, Thaliacea &  Aves †kÖwYfz³‡ì †Kvb c` Wvbvq cwiYZ nq- AMÖc`|
Ascidiacea)|  cwicvKZ‡š¿ _wjKvKvi µc Ges †cwkgq wMRvW© _v‡K †Kvb †kÖwYi cÖvYx‡ì-Aves.
 Urochordata Dcc‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì †Kvb As‡k b‡UvKW© _v‡K- †j‡R|  evsjv‡`‡ki RvZxq cvwLi •eÁvwbK bvg- Copsychus saularis|
 Ascidia-i †`‡n Kxiƒc jvf©v `kv we`¨gvb- U¨vW‡cvj|  weeZ©wbK w`K †_‡K me‡P‡q AvaywbK †Kvb †kÖwYi cÖvYxiv- Mammalia|
 gv‡qv‡Uvg bvgK †cwk †`Lv hvq- Cephalochordata Dcc‡e©i cÖvYx‡Z|  ¯Íb¨cvqx‡ì e¶ I Dì MnŸi‡K c„_K iv‡L- Wvqvd«vg|
 Cephalochordata Dcc‡e©i cÖvYx‡ì gyLwQ`ª †ewóZ AveiY n‡jv- IivjûW|  ga¨”Q`vi Dcw¯Z ev Presence of diaphragm †Kvb †kÖwYi cÖvYxi •ewkó¨- Mammalia|
 †Kvb Dcc‡e©i cÖvYx‡`‡n b‡UvKW© †gi`‡Û cwiYZ nq- Vertebrata.  Mammalia †kÖwYfz³ cÖvYx‡ì K‡ivwUK ¯œvqy- 12 †Rvov| |
 †giæ`Ðx cÖvYx‡ì cÖavb †iPb A½- e„° ev wKWwb|  gvbyl †Kvb †kÖwYfz³ cÖvYx- Mammalia.
 †Kvb †kÖwYi gvQ¸‡jv n¨vMwdk bv‡g cwiwPZ- Myxini|  gvby‡li •eÁvwbK bvg- Homo sapiens.
 Myxini †kÖwYi cÖvYxi dzjKvi‡Ü«i msL¨v- 5-15 †Rvov|  evsjv‡`‡ki RvZxq cïi •eÁvwbK bvg- Panthera tigris.
 Cephalaspidomorphi †kÖwYfz³ gvQ¸‡jvi mvaviY bvg- j¨vg‡cÖ|  Mammalia †kÖwYi Do‡Z m¶g cÖvYx- ev`yo|
cÖvYxi cwiwPwZ
 MÖxK iƒcK_vi mv‡_ RwoZ- Kwl©Kv|  ev`vwg e‡Y©i Hydra cÖRvwZ- Chlorohydra oligactis.
 nvBWªvi `yB ¯Í‡ii gv‡S †`Lv hvq- †g‡mvwMøqv|  Hydra vulgaris-Gi KqwU Kwl©Kv _v‡K- 6-10wU|
 nvBWªvi wb‡WvmvBU me‡P‡q †ewk _v‡K- Kwl©Kvq|  nvBWªv- gvsmvkx|
 †bgv‡Uvwm‡÷i wb¤œcvÖ ‡šÍ 1wU †cuPv‡bv myZvi g‡Zv Ask‡K ejv nq- j¨v‡mv|  Hydra-Gi †`n KqwU As‡k wef³- 3wU|
 nvBWªvi Lv`¨- Crustacea RvZxq ÿz`ªvKvi Av‡_ª©v‡cvWv cÖvYx, gv‡Qi wWg, †QvU  Hydra-Gi Kwl©Kvi ewntcÖvPx‡ii AmsL¨ †QvU Ask‡K ejv nq- †bgv‡Uvwm÷ e¨vUvwi|
†QvU K…wg, ÿz`ª cZ½, KxUcZ‡½i jvf©v, iwUdvi BZ¨vw`|  †Kvb FZz‡Z nBWªvi ch©vß Lv`¨ _v‡K- MÖx®§|
 wg‡_vRxex cÖRvwZ- meyR nvBWªv (Chlorohydra viridissima) I meyR •kevj  nvBWªvi GwcWvwg©‡m †Kvl KqwU- 7wU (†cwk-AveiYx †Kvl, B›Uiw÷wkqvj
(Zoochlorella sp.)| †Kvl, ms‡e`x †Kvl, ¯œvqy †Kvl; MÖwš †Kvl, Rbb †Kvl I wb‡WvmvBU †Kvl)|
 cyÄvwÿi GKK IgvwUwWqvg hv `k©b GKK wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i|  nvBWªvi M¨v‡÷ªvWvwg©‡m †Kvl KqwU- 5wU (cywó †Kvl, B›Uviw÷wkqvj †Kvl,
 †gvRvBK ev G‡cvwRkb cÖwZwe¤^ D¾¡j Av‡jv‡Z MwVZ nq| ms‡e`x †Kvl, ¯œvqy †Kvl I MÖwš †Kvl)|
 mycvi cwRkb cÖwZwe¤^ Aby¾¡j Av‡jv‡Z MwVZ nq|  nvBWªvi ewntZ¡‡K mgMÖ Ask Ry‡o Ae¯vb K‡i- †cwk-AveiYx †Kvl|
 nvBWªv Avwe®‥vi K‡ib- Aveªvnvg †Uª¤^‡j (1700- 1784)|  nvBWªvi G‡ÛvWvwg©‡mi †h †Kv‡bv †Kvl •Zwi Ki‡Z cv‡i- B›Uviw÷wkqvj †Kvl|
 nvBWªvi e‡M©i bvg- Hydroida.  nvBWªvi ms‡hvMKvix ¯Íi- †g‡mvwMøqv|
 evsjv‡`‡k nvBWªvi myjf cÖRvwZ †KvbwU- Hydra vulgaris|  nvBWªvi M¨v‡÷ªvWvwg©‡m _v‡K bv- wb‡WvmvBU, Rbb‡Kvl|
 gv‡qvwbg †`Lv hvq- †cwk AveiYx †Kv‡l|  †Kvb kw³i gva¨‡g Nvmdwos Ab¨vb¨ Av‡_©ªv‡cvWv †_‡K DbœZ-`„wókw³|
 nvBWªvi wKDwUKj m„wó nq †Kvb †Kv‡li wbtm„Z i‡m- †cwk AveiYx †Kvl|  Nvmdwos-Gi g¯Í‡K I‡mwji msL¨v- 3wU|
 nvBWªvq cybiærcwË I gyKzj m„wóZ Ask †bq- B›Uviw÷wkqvj †Kvl|  Nvmdwos-Gi A¨v‡›Ubvi Ask- 3wU|
 nvBWªvi ¶Yc` m„wó I MjvatKi‡Y mvnvh¨ K‡i- MÖwš †Kvl|  Nvmdwos Gi d¬¨v‡Rjvi LÛ KqwU- 25wU|
 wb‡WvmvBU cvIqv hvq- nvBWªvq|  g¯Í‡Ki KZZg LÐ‡K A¨v‡›Ubv Aew¯Z- 2q|
 wnc‡bvUw·‡bi ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb¸‡jv- †dbj I †cÖvwUb|  Nvmdwos Gi gy‡Lvcv‡½i msL¨v KqwU- 5wU (j¨veªvg, g¨vw·jv, g¨vwÛej,
 wb‡WvmvB‡U eo Zx² KuvUvi g‡Zv Ask‡K ejv nq- eve©| j¨vweqvg Ges nvB‡cvd¨vwis·)|
 nvBWªv‡Z KZ ai‡bi †bgv‡Uvwm÷ †`Lv hvq- 4 ai‡bi (‡cwbU¨v›U, fj‡f›U,  cZ‡½i cv‡q Coxa Gi c‡i †Kvb Ask- Trochanter|
†÷ªc‡Uvwjb MøywUb¨v›U I †÷wiIwjb MøywUb¨v›U)|  Nvmdwos Gi †Kvb gy‡Lvcv½wU †`L‡Z Pvcv PvKwZi g‡Zv- j¨veªvg|
 eve© I evwe©Dj hy³ †bgv‡Uvwm÷ n‡jv- †cwbUª¨v›U/w÷‡bvwUj|  Lv`¨ †K‡U wPev‡bvi mvnvh¨ K‡i- g¨vwÛej|
 †Kvb †bgv‡Uvwm‡÷ wnc‡bvUw·b _v‡K- †cwbUª¨v›U|  Kv‡W©v †Kvb Dcv‡½i Ask- g¨vw·jv|
 †Kvb †bgv‡Uvwm÷ AvZ¥i¶vq Ask †bq- †cwbUª¨v›U|  j¨vwmwbqv †Kvb Dcv‡½i Ask- g¨vw·jv|
 AvKv‡i me©v‡c¶v ¶z`ª †bgv‡Uvwm÷- †÷wiIwjb MøywUb¨v›U|  g¨vw·jvwi cv‡íi KvR- Lv‡`ï ¯^v` MÖn‡Y mvnvh¨ Kiv|
 AuvVv‡jv im ¶iY I wkKvi AvUKv‡Z mvnvh¨ K‡i- †÷ªc‡Uvwjb MøywUb¨v›U I  ÿz`ª †Pvqvj bv‡g cwiwPZ- g¨vw·jv|
†÷wiIwjb MøywUb¨v›U|  Nvmdwos-Gi eÿ AÂ‡j KZ †Rvov k¦vmiÜ« _v‡K- 2 †Rvov|
 †Kvb ai‡bi †bgv‡Uvwm‡÷i m~ÎK Pvey‡Ki b¨vq KuvUvhy³- †÷ªc‡Uvwjb MøywUb¨v›U|  Nvmdwos-Gi AMÖfv‡Mi miæ I k³ WvbvØq‡K ejv nq- †UMwgbv|
 fj‡f›U- m~Î‡Ki AMÖfvM eÜ|  GwjUªv‡K ejv nq- †UMwgbv|
 m~ÎK Lv‡Uv I KuvUvwenxb †bgv‡Uvwm÷ n‡jv- fj‡f›U|  Nvmdwos-Gi cÖwZwU cv KZwU L‡Û wef³- 5wU (K·v, †UªvK¨v›Uvi, wdgvi,
 GKevi eëüZ †bgv‡Uvwm‡÷i cwiYwZ- †`‡n cwicvK nq| wUweqv I Uvm©vm)|
 nvBWªvi Lv`ë¯‧‡K ¶z`ª ¶z`ª KYvq cwiYZ K‡i- d¬¨v‡Rjvhy³ cywó †Kvl|  cv‡qi wÎfzRvKvi ÿz`ª Ask‡K ejv nq- †UªvK¨v›Uvi|
 Hydra-Gi †`‡n †KvbwU K¼vj wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i- †g‡mvwMøqv ev  Uvimv‡mi cÖwZwU LÐ‡K ejv nq- Uv‡m©vwgqvi|
†g‡mvj¨vwgjv|  Nvmdwos-Gi cv‡qi †Kvb AskwU me‡P‡q j¤^v- wUweqv|
 Hydra-Gi †Kvb †Kvl eyèy` •Zwi K‡i- MÖwš †Kvl|  KZZg LÐKwUi UviMvg cvqyi Dc‡i †cøU Gi g‡Zv AveiY •Zwi K‡i- GKv`k|
 wfwË wSwj iƒ‡c KvR K‡i- †g‡mvwMøqv|  †c․wóKZš¿ KZwU Ask wb‡q MwVZ-2wU (†c․wóKbvwj I †c․wóKMÖwš)|
 nvBWªvi Lv`¨ bq- †QvU Nvm|  Nvmdwos‡qi †c․wóKbvwji †cÖv‡±vwWqv‡gi Ask- wMRvW©|
 nvBWªvi ewnt‡Kvlxq cwicvK msNwUZ nq- wm‡j‡›Ui‡b|  gyLwQ`ª †_‡K wMRvW© ch©šÍ we¯Í…Z- †÷v‡gvwWqvg|
 nvBWªvi †`nMnŸi‡K M¨v‡÷ªvfv¯‥zjvi MnŸi ejvi KviY- †c․wóKZš¿ I  Nvmdwos-Gi cwicvKbvwji wÎ‡KvYvKvi MVbwUi bvg- wMRvW©|
msenbZ‡š¿i KvR K‡i|  LwbR jeY, A¨vwg‡bv GwmW †kvlY K‡i- †iKUvg ev gjvkq|
 nvBWªvi Pj‡b mnvqZv K‡i- †cwkZš‧ I †bgv‡Uvwm÷|  †iKUv‡g KZwU †iKUvj c¨vwcjv _v‡K- 3 †Rvov|
 nvBWªvi jywcs I mgvimwës Pj‡b mnvqZv K‡i- MøywUb¨v›U †bgv‡Uvwm÷| . Nvmdwos-Gi KZ †Rvov jvjvMÖwš _v‡K- 1 †Rvov|
 nvBWªvi `ªæZ Pjb cÖwµqv- mgvimwës|  †ncvwUK wmKvi Aci bvg- M¨vw÷ªK wmKv|
 A¨vwgevi g‡Zv Pjb m¤úbœ nq- MøvBwWs Pj‡b|  Nvmdwos-Gi †ncvwUK wmKvi msL¨v- 12wU|
 nvBWªvi axi MwZi Pjb- MøvBwWs|  Nvmdwos-Gi i³ msenbZš¿- gy³ ai‡bi|
 †Kvb cÖvYx A‡h․bI †h․b `yÕfv‡eB cÖRbb m¤úbœ K‡i- nvBWªv|  Nvmdwos-Gi wn‡gvwm‡j KZwU cÖ‡Kvô ev mvBbvm Av‡Q- 3wU (†cwiKvwW©qvj
 nvBWªvi cÖRbb nq- wØ-wefvRb, gyKz‡jv`Mg I †h․b Dcv‡q| mvBbvm, †cwiwf‡mivj mvBbvm I †cwiwbDivj mvBbvm)|
 nvBWªvi ¯^vfvweK A‡h․b cÖRbb- gyKz‡jv`Mg|  wn‡gvwj‡çi Ask- eY©nxb cøvRgv, i³KwYKv I wn‡gvmvBU|
 me©cÖ_g Hydra-Gi cybtiærcwËi ¶gZvi K_v D‡jøL K‡ib-†Uª¤^‡j|  Nvmdwos-Gi ü`h‡š¿i cÖ‡Kvô-7wU|
 nvBWªv Dfwj½ n‡jI- ¯^wb‡lK N‡U bv|  Nvmdwos-Gi ü`h‡š¿i ¯ú›`b cÖwZ wgwb‡U- 100-110 evi|
 nvBWªvi Kwl©Kv I †bgv‡Uvwm÷ cvi¯úvwiK mn‡hvwMZvq †h KvRwU‡Z Ask  Nvmdwos-Gi i³ msen‡bi c_- g¯Í‡Ki mvBbvm †cwiwbDivj mvBbvm
MÖnY K‡i bv- Rbb cÖwµqv| †cwiwfmv‡ij mvBbvm †cwiKvwW©qvj mvBbvm ü`hš¿|
 nvBWªvq GKwU DImvBU †_‡K m„wó nq- 3wU †cvjvi ewW I GKwU DIwUW|  Nvmdwos-Gi ¯úvBivKj ev k¦vmiÜ«- 10 †Rvov|
 Nvmdwos Gi †`‡ni Ask- 3wU (g¯ÍK, e¶ I Dì)|  Nvmdwos Gi ¯úvBivKj‡K cwi‡ewóZ K‡i iv‡L- †cwiwUªg|
 Nvmdwos Gi Avei‡Yi bvg- KvBwUb|  UªvwKqvi cÖvPxi- 3 ¯Íi wewkó|
 Nvmdwos †Kvb †kÖwYfz³- Insecta.  wUwbwWqv †`L‡Z- AvswUi b¨vq|
 Nvmdwos Gi †MvÎ- Acrididae.  wUwbwWqv Nvmdwos-Gi †Kvb Z‡š¿ cvIqv hvq- k¦mbZ‡š¿ (UªvwKqvjZ‡š¿)|
 Nvmdwos Gi M‡Yi bvg- Poekilocerus.  Nvmdwos-Gi cÖavb †iPb A½- gvjwcwRqvb bvwjKv|
 Nvmdwos- Dw™¢`‡fvRx|  gvjwcwRqvb bvwjKv MVbKvix †Kvl- Gwc‡_wjqvg|
 evsjv‡`‡k Nvmdwos Gi KZwU †MvÎ I cÖRvwZ Av‡Q-2wU I 20wU (KviI g‡Z 28wU)|  Nvmdwos-Gi `k©b GKK- IgvwUwWqvg|
 Nvmdwos-Gi †`‡n †gvU L‡Ûi msL¨v- 14wU|  cÖwZwU cyÄvwÿi IgvwUwWqvi msL¨v- cÖvq 2 nvRvi|
 Nvmdwos-Gi D`‡i LÐ‡Ki msL¨v- 11wU|  †j‡Ýi g‡Zv KvR K‡i- Kwb©qv|
 Nvmdwos-Gi †`n LÐ‡Ki KvBwUb wbwg©Z cyiæ I k³ c„ôxq †Lvjm‡K e‡j- UvM©vg|  Kwb©qv‡Rb †Kv‡li ÿi‡Y m„wó nq- Kwb©qv|
 Nvmdwos-Gi cÖwZ‡`n LÐ‡Ki k³ AveiY‡K ejv nq- †¯‥¬ivBU|  Nvmdwos-Gi wµ÷vjvBb †Kv‡Yi KvR- IgvwUwWqv‡g Av‡jv cÖ‡ek|
 Nvmdwos Gi g¯Í‡Ki ewntK¼v‡ji Ask bq- I‡mwj|  Nvmdwos-Gi cyÄvwÿi †Kvb AskwU Av‡jv MÖnY K‡i- IgvwUwWqvg|
 †iwUbvj ev †iwUbyjvi †Kv‡li msL¨v- 7/8wU|  iæB gv‡Qi ürwc‡Ði e„nËg cÖ‡Kvô- A¨vwUªqvg|
 †iwUbyjvi †Kv‡li ÿi‡Y m„wó nq- i¨ve‡Wvg|  ürwc‡Ði me©‡kl cÖ‡Kvô- †fw›UªKj|
 cÖwZwU IgvwUwWqvg‡K ci¯úi c„_K iv‡L- †iwUbvj wm_|  †fw›UªKj †Kv_vq Db¥y³ nq- evj¦vm AvU©vwiImvm|
 Nvmdwos-Gi ms‡e`x A‡½i msL¨v- 5wU|  iæB gv‡Qi i³ cÖev‡ni w`K- mvBbvm †f‡bvmvm A¨vwUªqvg †fw›UªKj evj¦vm AvU©vwiImvm|
 Nvmdwos-Gi ¯¿xRbbZ‡š¿i Ask- ïµavbx|  iæB gv‡Qi †ÿ‡Î mwVK: dzjKv Awj›` wbjq evj¦vm A¨vIU©v|
 Nvmdwos-Gi mycvicwRkb `k©‡b- AvBwik AveiY msKzwPZ _v‡K|  iæB gv‡Qi ürwc‡Ði †ÿ‡Î mwVK- CO2 hy³ i³ cv¤ú K‡i|
 ïµvYy mvgwqK Rgv _v‡K- ¯úvg©vw_Kvq|  eªvw¼qvj agwb KZ cÖKvi- 2 cÖKvi (AšÍe©vnx I ewne©vnx)|
 KLb Nvmdwos-Gi †h․b wgjb N‡U- MÖx‡®§i †k‡l|  eªvw¼qvj agwbi †Mvov ùxZ n‡q MVb K‡i- evj¦vm AvU©vwiImvm|
 †Kvb mgq ch©šÍ Nvmdwos wWg cvov Ae¨vnZ iv‡L- kirKvj|  †f›Uªvj A¨vIU©vi cÖwZ cvk †_‡K KqwU agwb †ei nq- 4wU|
 Nvmdwos-Gi IwfcwRUi eëüZ nq- wW¤^ Z¨v‡M|  iæB gv‡Qi ürwcÐ n‡Z dzjKvq i³ mieivn K‡i- Gdv‡i›U ev AšÍe©vnx eªvw¼qvj agwb|
 Nvmdwos †gvU KZwU wWg cv‡o- 200wU|  A¼xq gnvagwb m„wó nq- evj¦vm AvU©vwiImvm †_‡K|
 wWg cvovi ci †Kvb Nvmdwos gviv hvq- cys I ¯¿x DfqB|  cvk¦©xq agwb ev j¨vUvivj A¨vIU©v MVb K‡i- 1g I 2q ewne©vnx eªvw¼qvj agwb|
 Nvmdwos-Gi wW¤^vYy Kx ai‡bi- †m‡›Uªv‡jwm_vj|  j¨vUvivj A¨vIU©v I K¨v‡ivwUW agwb wgwjZ n‡q MVb K‡i- agwb ejq ev
 WvqvcR g~jZ †Kvb Kv‡ji Rb¨- kxZ| mviwKDjvm †mdvwjKvm|
 Nvmdwos-Gi iƒcvšÍi- Am¤ú~Y© iƒcvšÍi|  iæB gv‡Qi wkivZš¿ KqwU fv‡M wef³- 2wU (wm‡÷wgK wkivZš¿ I †cvU©vj wkivZš¿)|
 Am¤ú~Y© iƒcvšÍ‡ii †ÿ‡Î wkï Ae¯v‡K ejv nq- wbç|  iæB gv‡Qi †`‡ni mgv‡bi Ask †_‡K i³ msMÖn K‡i- KvwW©bvj wkiv|
 Nvmdwos-Gi iƒcvšÍ‡ii mwVK µg- wWg jvf©v wcDcv Bgv‡Mv|  †c․wóKbvwji wewfbœ Ask I evqy_wj †_‡K i³ msMÖn K‡i- †ncvwUK †cvU©vj wkiv|
 Nvmdwos wbç †_‡K c~Y©v½ Ae¯vq cwiYZ n‡Z †Lvjm Z¨vM K‡i- 5 evi|  hK…‡Z i³ mieivn K‡i- †ncvwUK †cvU©vj wkiv|
 Nvmdwos-Gi †gvPb ni‡gvb- GKWvBmb|  †jR AÂj †_‡K i³ msM„nxZ nq †Kvb wkivi gva¨‡g- KWvj ev cy”Q wkiv|
 iæB gv‡Qi †kÖwYi bvg- Actinopterygii|  Wvb I evg e„‡° cÖ‡ek K‡i h_vµ‡g- Wvb cðvr KvwW©bvj wkiv I †ibvj †cvU©vj wkiv|
 Kvc© gv‡Qi †MvÎ- Cyprinidae.  iæB gv‡Qi dzjKvi msL¨v- 4 †Rvov|
 cÖv_wgK ch©v‡q iæB gv‡Qi Lv`¨- cø¨v¼Ub|  iæB gv‡Qi dzjKv‡K eiv nq- n‡jveªv¼|
 AvOzwj‡cvbv `kvi cÖavb Lv`¨- cÖvYx cø¨v¼Ub|  iæB gv‡Qi k¦mb A½- dzjKv|
 iæB gvQ KZ ZvcgvÎvi wb‡P euvP‡Z cv‡i bv- 14 †mjwmqvm|  dzjKv m~Î Ave„ZKvix Gwc‡_wjqv‡g Kx _v‡K- i³RvwjKv|
 iæB gvQ eQ‡i Kqevi †h․b cwicK¡Zv jvf K‡i- 2-3 evi|  iæB gv‡Qi cÖwZ cv‡k¦© KZwU dzjKv AvP© _v‡K- 4wU( KviI g‡Z 5wU)|
 iæB gvQ wWg cv‡o- Ryb-RyjvB (Ryb-AvMó)|  iæB gv‡Qi evqy_wji cÖ‡Kvô- 2wU|
 iæB gv‡Qi †`‡ni Ask- 3wU (g¯ÍK, †`nKvÐ I †jR)|  iæB gv‡Qi evqy_wj‡Z we`¨gvb M¨vm¸‡jv n‡jv- Aw·‡Rb, bvB‡Uªv‡Rb I Kve©b WvBA·vBW|
 iæB gv‡Qi †`‡ni A¼xh Z‡j wQ‡`ªi msL¨v- 3wU|  evqy_wji wbDg¨vwUK bvwj hy³ _v‡K- MÖvmbvwj ev Abœbvwji mv‡_|
 iæB gv‡Qi KZ ai‡bi cvLbv Av‡Q- 5 ai‡bi (c„ô- cvLbv, eÿ-cvLbv,  evqy_wj AšÍtK‡Y©i-I‡q‡ewiqvb AwmK‡ji m‡½ hy³ _v‡K|
†kÖvwY-cvLbv, cvqy-cvLbv I cy”Q-cvLbv)|  iæB gv‡Qi evqy_wji cÖavb KvR¸‡jv n‡jv- k¦mb cwiPvjbv, D`w¯wZq A½,
 iæB gv‡Qi KvbKzqvi ev Kvb‡Kvi †cQ‡bi cvLbv‡K ejv nq- eÿ-cvLbv| fvmvj A½, Av‡cwÿK ¸iæZ¡ wbqš¿Y, gva¨vKl©Y †K›`ª iÿv, kã m„wó, cÖwZaŸwb
 iæB gv‡Q KZ ai‡bi hyM¥ cvLbv- 2 ai‡bi (eÿ-cvLbv I †kÖvwY-cvLbv)| m„wó I ms‡e`x A½|
 iæB gv‡Qi cÖavb Pjb A½- cy”Q cvLbv|  iæB gv‡Qi wWg wbwl³ nIqvq KZ NÈv ci jvf©vi gv_vq †µvgv‡Uv‡dvi †`Lv
 †Kv_vq ms‡e`x †Kvl _v‡K- cvk¦© †iLvq| hvq- 12 NÈv|
 iæB gv‡Qi cy”Q cvLbv †Kvb ai‡bi- †nv‡gvmvK©vj|  iæB gv‡Qi †ÿ‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨- ev‡e©j|
 iæB gv‡Qi AvuBk- mvBK¬‡qW ai‡bi|  cÖRbb b`x‡Z iæB gv‡Qi ZvcgvÎv KZ _v‡K- 27.30†m.|
 iæB gv‡Qi ¯úk© Bw›`ª‡qi KvR K‡i- cvk¦©xq †iLv|  evsjv‡`‡ki †Kvb b`x‡Z iæB gv‡Qi cÖvK…wZK cÖRbb nq- nvj`v b`x|
 Labeo rohita-Gi AvuB‡ki †K›`ª‡K ejv nq- †dvKvm|  ewntwb‡lK N‡U- iæB gv‡Q|
 iæB gv‡Qi AvuB‡ki e„w× †ewk nq- mvavibZ emšÍKv‡j I MÖx‡®§|  KZ NÈvi g‡a¨ iæB gv‡Qi wWg †_‡K jvf©v nq- 15-18 NÈv|
 iæB gv‡Qi AvuB‡ki cÖavb ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb- Pzb I †Kvjv‡Rb Zš‧|  iæB gv‡Qi †iYy †cvbvi •`N©¨- 5.8 wg.wg.|
 gv‡Qi cÖavb cÖwZiÿvKvix A½- AvuBk|  KZ NÈvi ci jvf©vi evqy_wj wW¤^vKvi aviY K‡i- 72 NÈv|
 iæB gv‡Qi ev gv‡Qi ürwc‡Ûi cÖ‡Kv‡ôi msL¨v- 2wU (A¨vwUªqvg I †fw›UªKj)|  avbx‡cvbv n‡Z mgq jv‡M- 96 NÈv|
 iæB gv‡Qi ürwc‡Ûi Dc-cÖ‡KvôwU n‡jv- mvBbvm †f‡bvmvm|  iæB gv‡Qi gy‡Li `yÕcv‡k ev‡e©j †`Lv hvq- 15 w`b ci|
 †fbvm nvU© ev wkiv ürwcÐ cvIqv hvq- gv‡Q|  Av½ywj †cvbvi eqm- 9-30 w`b|
 iæB gv‡Qi ürwcÐ‡K AwfwnZ Kiv nq- †fbvm nvU© ev wkiv nrwcÐ bv‡g|
 iæB gv‡Qi ürwc‡Ð _v‡K bv- †Kvbvm AvwU©wiImvm|
cwicvK I †kvlY
 AMœ¨vkq n‡Z wbtm„Z nq- Bbmywjb|  †ccwm‡bv‡Rb bvgK wbw®…q GbRvBg mwµq nq- HCl Gi mvnv‡h¨|
 †Kvb wfUvwgb cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq- wfUvwgb-B|  ÿz`ªv‡š¿i Ask- wWI‡Wbvg, †RRybvg I Bwjqvg|
 GKRb my¯ gvbyl cÖwZw`b jvjv ÿiY K‡i- 1200-1500 wgwjwjUvi|  e„n`‡š¿i Ask- 3wU (wmKvg, †Kvjb I gjvkq)|
 gvbe‡`‡ni cvK¯jxi M¨vw÷ªK MÖwš †_‡K cÖwZw`b- cÖvq 2 wjUvi M¨vw÷ªK Rym ÿwiZ nq|
 ¯~jZv cÖwZ‡iv‡ai Ilya- Orlistat (Xenical), Suprenza (Phentermine),  hK…‡Z †Kvb Dcv`vb †_‡K wfUvwgb A Drcbœ nq- K¨v‡ivwUb|
Lorcaserin (Belviq) BZ¨vw`|  wgkÖ MÖwš n‡jv- AMœ¨vkq|
 cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq wfUvwgb- wfUvwgb we I wm|  Lv`¨ cwicvKKvix GbRvBg AMœ¨vk‡qi †Kvb Ask †_‡K wbtm„Z nq- ewntÿiv Ask|
 i³‡¯ªv‡Z _vKv AwZwi³ Møy‡KvR †_‡K hK…r mwÂZ cwjm¨vKvivBW n‡jv- MøvB‡Kv‡Rb|  cwicvKKvix GbRvBgmg~n A‡š¿ mwµq nq- G‡›Uv‡ivKvB‡b‡Ri mvnv‡h¨|
 wRnŸvi wcQ‡bi As‡ki ¯^v`‡KviK mvnvh¨ K‡i- wZ³Zv Abyf‡e|  AvB‡jUm Ae j¨v½vin¨v‡Ý †Kvl¸‡”Qi msL¨v- 10 jvL|
 Uvqvwjb I gj‡UR cvIqv hvq- jvjvq|  MøyKvMb I Bbmywjb wbtm„Z nq- AMœ¨vkq n‡Z|
 †¯œn RvZxq c`v_©‡K d¨vwU GwmW I wMømvi‡j cwiYZ K‡i- jvB‡cR|  i‡³ Møy‡Kv‡Ri cwigvY evovq- MøyKvMb|
 wbw¯…q wUªcwm‡bv‡Rb‡K mwµq wUªcwm‡b cwiYZ K‡i-G›Uv‡ivKvB‡bR GbRvBg|  i‡³ Møy‡Kv‡Ri cwigvY Kgvq- Bbmywjb|
 GKRb my¯ gvby‡li †`‡n Lv`¨ m¤ú~Y© i~‡c cwicvK n‡Z 24 †_‡K 72 N›Uv mgq jv‡M|  Avwgl cwicvKKvix GbRvBg- wUªcwmb|
 Lv‡`ï 90% †kvlY N‡U ÿz`ªv‡š¿, evKx 10% msNwUZ nq e„n`vš¿ I cvK¯jx‡Z|  wbw®…q Dr‡mPK ev GbRvBg n‡jv- RvB‡gv‡Rb|
 gvbe‡`‡ni me‡P‡q eo I ¸iæZ¡c~Y© cwicvK MÖwš hK…Z|  c¨vbwµIRvBwgb bv‡g cwiwPZ- †Kv‡jwm‡÷vKvBwbb|
 G‡›UwiK mœvqyZš¿‡K weÁvbxMY gvby‡li wØZxq gw¯Í®‥ bvg w`‡q‡Qb  cvK¯jx‡Z M¨vw÷ªK Rym ÿi‡Y evav †`q- wm‡µwUb|
 kK©iv ev Kv‡e©vnvBW‡WªvU RvZxq Lv`¨ cwicv‡Ki d‡j Drcbœ nq- Møy‡KvR|  cwicvK GbRvBg ÿi‡Y AMœ¨vkq‡K DÏxß K‡i- †Kv‡jwm‡÷vKvBwbb|
 Avwgl ev †cÖvwUb RvZxq Lv`¨ cwicv‡Ki d‡j Drcbœ nq- A¨vwg‡bv GwmW|  wcË_wj‡K msKzwPZ K‡i- †Kv‡jwm‡÷vKvBwbb|
 †¯œn ev wjwcW RvZxq Lv`¨ cwicv‡Ki d‡j Drcbœ nq- d¨vwU GwmW I wMømvij|  †cwi‡÷¨vjwmm wbqš¿Y K‡i- gv‡qb‡UwiK †cø·vm|
 gvby‡li jvjv MÖwš- 3. †Rvov (c¨v‡ivwUW MÖwš, mveg¨vwÛeyjvi ev mveg¨vw·jvwi  M¨vw÷ªb ni‡gvb ÿwiZ nq- cvK¯jxi cÖvPxi †_‡K|
MÖwš I mvewj½qvj MÖwš)|  cwicv‡K mvnvh¨Kvix ni‡gvb- wm‡µwUb|
 jvjvi‡m cvwbi cwigvY- 95.5%|  gw¯Í‡®‥i †Kvb As‡k jvjv‡K›`ª Aew¯Z- †gWzjvq|
 `ya ùv‡Z Abycw¯Z _v‡K- wcÖ‡gvjvi|  cvPK i‡mi AwZÿiY wbqš¿Y K‡i- †mvgv‡Uv÷¨vwUb|
 GKRb c~Y© eq¯‥ gvby‡li wb‡Pi †Pvqv‡j †gvjvi ùv‡Zi msL¨v- 6wU|  wfwjøKvBwjb ni‡gvb ÿwiZ nq- ÿz`ªv‡š¿i wfjvB †_‡K|
 †gvjvi ùv‡Zi KvR- Lvevi Pe©b Kiv I †clb Kiv|  Lv‡`ï P‚ovšÍ cwicvK m¤úbœ nq- ÿz`ªv‡š¿|
 GKRb 6 eQ‡ii evwjKvi ùv‡Zi ms‡KZ (ICPM)-I2C1P0M2|  Bgvjwmwd‡Kk‡b f‚wgKv iv‡L- wcËim|
 gyLMnŸ‡i †Kvb cÖKvi Lv‡`ï cwicvK ïiæ nq- kK©iv|  j¨vK‡UR GbRvBg †Kvb Lv`¨ cwicv‡Ki mv‡_ RwoZ- kK©iv|
 Uvqvwjb wbtm„Z nq- jvjvMÖwš †_‡K|  my‡µR n‡jv- Avwš¿K im|
 kK©iv cwicvKKvix GbRvBg- Uvqvwjb|  †RRybv‡g Lv`¨ cwicv‡K mnvqZv K‡i- Avwš¿K im|
 Lv`ë¯‧ cvK¯jx‡Z KZ mgq Ae¯vb K‡i- 2-6 NÈv|  ÿz`ªv‡š¿ Me‡jU †Kvl _v‡K- wgD‡Kvmv ¯Í‡i|
 †Kvb GbRvBg A¤øxq cwi‡e‡k AwaK Kvh©Kix- †ccwmb|  gvby‡li A‡š¿ wfjvB _v‡K- 50 nvRvi|
 M¨vw÷ªK Rym ÿiY wbqš¿Y K‡i- M¨vmwUªb ni‡gvb|  gvB‡µvwfjvBmg~n GKwÎZ n‡q •Zwi K‡i- eªvk eW©vi|
 cvK¯jx wbtm„Z M¨vw÷ªK Ry‡m Abycw¯Z- A¨vgvB‡jR|  cwi‡kvl‡Yi GKK- wfjvB|
 gvbe‡`‡ni cvK¯jx‡Z M¨vw÷ªK MÖwši msL¨v- cÖvq 4 †KvwU|  ÿz`ªv‡š¿ cvwb †kvlY nq- Awf¯ªeY cÖwµqvq|
 cvK¯jxi cÖvPx‡ii c¨vivUvBj †Kvl †_‡K wbtm„Z nq- HCl|  wg‡mwj ÿz`ªv‡š¿i AveiYx Kjvq †kvwlZ nq- e¨vcb cÖwµqvq|
 GKRb cÖvßeq¯‥ gvby‡li hK…‡Zi IRb- cÖvq 1.5-2.00 †KwR|  KvB‡jvgvB‡µv‡bi Dcv`b- †cÖvwUb I wjwcW|
 gvbe‡`‡ni me‡P‡q eo MÖwš- hK…r|  Lv‡`ï AcvP¨ As‡ki MuvRb N‡U- e„n`v‡š¿|
 gvby‡li hK…‡Zi evwn‡ii w`‡K Ave„ZKvix c`©vi bvg- wMømb&m K¨vcmyj|  e„n`‡š¿ wg‡_vRxex e¨vK‡Uwiqv cÖRvwZi msL¨v- 500|
 gvby‡li hK…Z Ae¯vbKvix g¨v‡µv‡d‡Ri bvg- Kzdvi †Kvl|  cwicvK e‡R©¨ we`¨gvb cvwbi KZfvM †Kvj‡b cybt‡kvwlZ nq- 80%|
 gvby‡li hK…‡Zi me‡P‡q eo LÐvskwU n‡jv- WvbLÛ|  gj wb®‥vwkZ nIqvi c~‡e© †Kvj‡b Rgv _vK‡Z cv‡i- 36 NÈv|
 wcË •Zwi nq- hK…‡Z|  Møy‡KvR m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c cwi‡kvwlZ nq- †RRybv‡g|
 hK…‡Zi IRb mgMÖ †`‡ni IR‡bi- 3-5%|  A¨vwg‡bv GwmW cwi‡kvl‡Y mvnvh¨ K‡i- wfUvwgb B6|
 gvbe‡`‡ni •Re ivmvqbvMvi- hK…r|  e„n`‡š¿ DrcbœKvix wfUvwgb n‡jv- K I dwjK GwmW|
 Kuffer‟s cell _v‡K- hK…‡Z|  e„n`‡š¿ cÖwZw`b KZ MÖvg Av`©ª gj •Zwi nq- 135 MÖvg|
 kK©iv hK…‡Z mwÂZ nq- MøvB‡Kv‡Rbiƒ‡c|  •`wnK IR‡b kZKiv KZ fv‡Mi †ewk †g` _vK‡j ¯zjZv ejv nq- 20 fvM|
 hK…r Kx cwigvY i³ mÂq K‡i ivL‡Z cv‡i- 1500 Nb †mwg.| †`‡ni IRb (†KwR)
 hK…‡Z cÖvq- 500 ai‡bi •Re ivmvqwbK wewµqv m¤úbœ nq|  weGgAvB = †`‡ni D”PZv (wgUvi)2
 hK…‡Z cÖvq- 100 MÖvg MøvB‡Kv‡Rb mÂq _v‡K|  1.25 wgUvi (125 †mw›UgwUvi) D”PZv I 55 †KwR IR‡bi GKRb e¨w³i
 bbKv‡e©vnvB‡WªU Drm †_‡K Møy‡KvR •Zwii cÖwµqv‡K ejv nq- Møy‡KvwbI‡R‡bwmm| BMI n‡”Q- cÖvq 35.20|
 hK…‡Z Møy‡KvwbI‡R‡bwmm cÖwµqvq Møy‡KvR ms‡køwlZ nq- A¨vwg‡bv GwmW I  †cÖvwUb cwicvKKvix GbRvBg bq- A¨vgvB‡jR|
wMømvij n‡Z|  †ccwm‡bi †ÿ‡Î †KvbwU mZ¨ bq- Bnv AMœ¨vkq †_‡K wbtm„Z nq|
 AkK©iv †_‡K kK©iv m„wói cÖwµqv n‡jv- Møy‡KvwbI‡R‡bwmm|  ¯j z Zvi mwnZ m¤úK©hy³ †ivM- K‡ivbvwi nvU© wWwRR|
 wn‡gv‡Møweb †f‡O Drcbœ †cÖvwUb As‡ki bvg- †Møvweb|  ¯zjZvi mv‡_ m¤úK©hy³ †ivM bq- UvBc-1 Wvqv‡ewUm †gjvBUvm|
 hK…r †Kvl wcËjeY •Zwi K‡i- †÷i‡qW n‡Z|  AMœ¨vk‡qi Avjdv †Kvl †_‡K wbtm„Z nq- MøyKvMb|
 wcËim ÿwiZ nq- hK…r n‡Z|  jvjvMÖwš †_‡K wbtm„Z nq- wgDwmb, Uvqvwjb, gj‡UR|
 hK…‡Z Aiwbw_b P‡µi gva¨‡g •Zwi nq- BDwiqv|  Avwgl RvZxq Dcv`vb wKš‧ GbRvBg bq- Mvgv †MøvweDwjb|
 BDwiqv •Zwi nq cÖavbZ- hK…‡Z|  DBm©vs bvwj Aew¯Z- AMœ¨vk‡q|
 A¨v‡cbwW· n‡jv- wmKv‡gi Ask|  Avwgl RvZxq Lv`¨ cwicv‡K mvnvh¨ K‡i- †ccwmb|
 wm‡µwUb- AMœ¨vkq im wbtmiY wbqš¿Y K‡i|  M¨vw÷ªK im wbtm„Z nq- M¨vw÷ªb ni‡gv‡bi cÖfv‡e|
 gvby‡li wRnŸvi AMÖfv‡M †Kvb ai‡bi ¯^v`‡KviK (Taste bud) _v‡K- wgóZv|  †¯œn RvZxq c`v_©‡K d¨vwU GwmW I wMømvi‡j cwiYZ K‡i- jvB‡cR|
 Uvqvwjb I gj‡UR cvIqv hvq- jvjvq|  Dr‡mPK ev GbRvBg _v‡K bv- wcËi‡m|
 AMœ¨vkq †_‡K wbtm„Z cvPK im n‡jv- A¨vgvB‡jR|  gvby‡l †iwbb ni‡gvb •Zwi nq- e„‡°|
 cvK¯jxi cÖvPx‡i evB‡i †_‡K wfZ‡ii w`‡K ¯Íi¸‡jv †hfv‡e web¨¯Í _v‡K;  gyLMnŸ‡i AvswkK cwicvK N‡U- kK©iv|
†m‡ivmv  Aby‣`N©¨ †cwk¯Íi e„ËvKvi †cwk¯Íi mvewgD‡Kvmv  ÿz`ªv‡š¿i me©ewnt¯ Kjv¯Íi‡K ejv nq- †m‡ivmv|
gvmwKDjvwim wgD‡KvmwgD‡Kvmv|  wR‡jwU‡bR GbRvBg wR‡jbwUb‡K †f‡½ Drcbœ K‡i- †cc‡Uvb|
 hK…Zbvwj wcËbvwji mv‡_ wgwjZ n‡q Awfbœ wcËbvwj •Zwi K‡i| GB Awfbœ  Me‡jU †Kvl- wgDKvm wbt¯ªvex GK‡Kvlx MÖwš|
bvwj f¨vUvi Gi A¨v¤úyjv bvgK bvwji gva¨‡g Db¥y³ nq- wWI‡Wbv‡g|  ÿz`ªvš¿ †_‡K wbtm„Z nq- †cÖvwj‡WR|
 AMœ¨vk‡qi I hK…‡Zi kbv³Kvix •ewkó¨- †jvweI‡ji gv‡S mvBbym‡qW bvgK duvKv  jvjvi‡mi- wKQzUv A¤øxq|
¯vb Av‡Q|  gvbe‡`‡ni †Kv_vq †KvjvwR‡bR GbRvBg cvIqv hvq- AMœ¨vkq i‡m|
 cvK¯wj‡Z cvZjv HCI •Zwi K‡i- c¨vivBUvj †Kvl|  ÿz`ªv‡šÍi dm‡dvjvB‡cR wjwcW‡K mijxK…Z K‡i †Kvb Dcv`vbwU •Zwi K‡i- d¨vwU GwmW|
 cvK¯jxi nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW wbtmiY wbqš¿Y K‡i- M¨vw÷ªb|  M¨vw÷ªK Rym (Gastric Juice)-G cvwbi cwigvY- 99.45%|
 †cÖvwU‡bi cwicvK- cvK¯jx‡Z ïiæ n‡q ÿz`ªv‡š¿ †kl nq|  wcË_wji KvR wbqš¿Y K‡i- †Kv‡jwm‡÷vKvBwbb|
 wfjvB‡qi KvR n‡”Q- †kvlY AÂj e„w× Kiv|  wgDwmb wbtm„Z nq- Gwc‡_wjqvj †Kvl †_‡K|
i³ I msenb
 gvbe‡`‡ni i‡³i Av‡cw¶K ¸iæZ¡ cvwbi †P‡q KZ ¸Y †ewk- 1.06-1.07|  gvby‡li i‡³i pH Gi gvÎv Ñ 7.35-7.45|
 †k¦Z i³KwYKvi RxevYy aŸsm Kivi cÖwµqv‡K ejv nq- d¨v‡MvmvB‡Uvwmm|  ¯^vfvweK Ae¯vq i‡³i ZvcgvÎv Ñ 36-38 †mjwmqvm|
 †cm‡gKvi †mÝi¸‡jv‡K Kx ejv nq- B‡jK‡UªvW|  i‡³i Av‡cwÿK ¸iæZ¡ Ñ cÖvq 1.065|
 i³i‡m A‣Re c`v‡_©i cwigvY- 0.9%|  me©cÖ_g i³ msenbZ‡š¿i cwiKíbv K‡ib Ñ DBwjqvg nv‡f©|
 ürwcÛ †h Aveib Øviv Ave„Z _v‡K Zv‡K wK e‡j- †cwiKvwW©qvg|  i‡³i Dcv`vb¸‡jv Avjv`v Kivi Rb¨ †mw›UªwdDMvj hš¿‡K wgwb‡U Nyi‡Z nq
 †Kvb i³ KwbKv d¨v‡MvmvB‡Uvwmm cÖwµqvq RxevYy aŸsm K‡i- †k^Z i³ KwYKv| Ñ 3000 evi K‡i 30 evi|
 i‡³i wng †_‡K Avqib m‡i †M‡j AYyi evwK Ask †_‡K Drcbœ nq-  i‡³i i³im Ñ 55%|
wewjfviwWb|  i‡³i i³KwYKv Ñ 45%|
 Aw·‡Rb cwienb ÿgZv n«vm K‡i †KvbwU- CO|  c~Y©eq¯‥ gvby‡li †`‡n cøvRgvi cwigvY Ñ 3 wjUvi|
 KZ mv‡j †`‡n ¯vcb †hvM¨ †cm‡gKvi Avwe®‥…Z nq- 1961|  cøvRgvi cwigvY †`‡ni IR‡bi 5%|
 40 eQi eq®‥ GKRb cyiy‡li †`‡n †jvwnZ KwYKvi msL¨v KZ- 50-54 jÿ|  i³i‡m cvwbi cwigvY Ñ 90%|
 åƒYxq Ae¯vq †jvwnZ i³KwYKv m„wó nq- hK…r, wcønv I _vBgv‡m|  i³i‡mi cøvRgv †cÖvwUb Ñ A¨vjeywgb, †MøvweDwjb, †cÖv_ªw¤^b, dvBweª‡bv‡Rb,
 D‡Ui (¯Íb¨cvqx) †jvwnZ i³KwYKvq- wbDwK¬qvm _v‡K| wn‡gv‡Møvweb BZ¨vw`|
 †jvwnZ i³KwYKv ev Gwi‡_ªvmvBU aŸsm nq- hK…r I cøxnvq|  i³ i‡m bvB‡Uªv‡Rb NwUZ A‡cÖvwUb c`v_© Ñ wµ‡qwUwbb|
 †jvwnZ i³KwYKv •Zwii cÖwµqv‡K ejv nq- Gwi‡_ªv‡cv‡qwmm|  i‡³ A¤ø I ÿv‡ii fvimvg¨ iÿv K‡i Ñ cøvRgv|
 my¯ †`‡n cÖwZ 100 wgwjwjUvi i‡³ wn‡gv‡Møvweb _v‡K- cÖvq 16 MÖvg|  †jvwnZ i³KwYKvi KZ fvM cvwb Ñ 60-70%|
 cÖwZwU †jvwnZ i³KwYKvq wn‡gv‡Møvweb _v‡K- 29 wc‡KvMÖvg|  i‡³ is jvj nq Ñ wn‡gv‡Møvwe‡bi Kvi‡Y|
 gvby‡li i³ RgvU euvavi ¯^vfvweK mgq- 4-5 wgwbU|  R‡b¥i 20 eQi eqm ch©šÍ †jvwnZ i³KwYKv m„wó nq Ñ wn‡gvmvB‡Uveøv‡÷|
 i³bvwji ms‡KvPb NwU‡q i³cvZ n«vm K‡i- †miv‡Uvwbb|  cÖwZ Nb wgwjwgUv‡i i‡³ †jvwnZ KwYKvi msL¨v 50 jv‡Li †P‡q KZUzKz Kg
 †`‡ni m¤§yL AÂj †_‡K CO2 hy³ i³ msMÖn K‡i- EaŸ© gnvwkiv| n‡j Zv‡K i³¯^íZv ejv nq Ñ 25%|
 †`‡ni cðvr AÂj †_‡K CO2 hy³ i³ msMÖn K‡i- wb¤œ gnvwkiv|  †jvwnZ i³KwYKvi msL¨v KZ n‡j cwjmvB‡_wgqvi m„wó nq Ñ 65 jv‡Li †ewk|
 evBKvmwcW ev gvBUªvj KcvwUKvi Ae¯vb- evg Awj›` I evg wbj‡qi gv‡S|  †jvwnZ i³KwYKvi Avqy¯‥vj Ñ cÖvq 120 w`b ev 4 gvm|
 mwVK µg- SAN AVN  evÛj Ae wnR  cviwKbwR Zš‧|  Aw·‡Rb cwien‡b mnvqZv K‡i Ñ Gwi‡_ªvmvBU|
 gvby‡li i³Pvc wbY©‡qi h‡š¿i bvg- wùM‡gvg¨v‡bvwgUvi|  wewjiæweb I wewjfvwW©b Drcbœ K‡i Ñ †jvwnZ i³KwYKv|
 D”P i³Pv‡ci Kvi‡Y ü`h‡š¿ †Kvb RwUjZv †`Lv hvq- B‡¯‥wgK nvU© wWwRR|  cÖvß eq¯‥ gvby‡li cÖwZ Nb wgwjwgUv‡i i‡³ wjD‡KvmvBU ev †k¦Z i³KwYKvi
 ürwc‡Ði wSwjøi cÖ`vn‡K ejv nq- †cwiKvW©vBwUm| msL¨v Ñ 5-8 nvRvi|
 K‡ivbvwi agwbi g‡a¨ i³ cÖevn e„w×i Rb¨ †Ìqv nq- bvB‡UªvwMømvwib|  †k¦Z i³KwYKvi msL¨v e„w× cvq Ñ wjD‡Kvwgqv K¨vÝv‡i|
 GKB mv‡_ kix‡i i‡³ Aw·‡R‡bi NbZ¡ I ür¯ú›`‡bi cwigvcK h‡š¿i bvg-  gvbe‡`‡n †k¦Z i³KwYKvi cwigvY 4000dl Gi †P‡q K‡g †M‡j †mB
cvjm& Aw·wgUvi| Ae¯v‡K ejv nq Ñ Leukopenia|
 gvby‡li ¯^vfvweK i³Pvc KZ (wm‡÷vj: Wvqv‡÷vj- 120mm : 80mm)|  †jvwnZ I †k¦Z i³KwYKvi AbycvZ Ñ 600 t 1|
 wn‡gv‡Møvweb †Kvb ai‡bi †cÖvwUb- †gUv‡jv‡cÖvwUb|  `vbv`vi wjD‡KvmvBU Ñ wbD‡Uªvwdj, †e‡mvwdj I BIwm‡bvwdj|
 Wvb Awj›` I Wvb wbj‡qi ms‡hvM¯‡j UªvBKvmwcW KcvwUKv _v‡K|  A`vbv`vi wjD‡KvmvBU Ñ g‡bvmvBU I wj‡çvmvBU|
 GKRb c~Y©eq¯‥ gvby‡li †`‡n i³ _v‡K Ñ cÖvq 5-6 wjUvi|  wbD‡Uªvwdj KwYKvi wbDwK¬qv‡mi †jve msL¨v Ñ 2Ñ7 wU|
 i³ †`‡ni †gvU IR‡bi Ñ cÖvq 7-8% i³|  BIwmb iÄ‡K BIwm‡bvwd‡ji eY© nq Ñ jvj|
 †ncvwib •Zwi I wbtmiY K‡i Ñ †e‡mvwdj|  wb¤œ gnvwkiv I Wvb A¨vwUªqv‡gi ms‡hvM¯‡j Aew¯Z Ñ BD‡÷wkqvb KcvwUKv|
 †e‡mvwdj BIwmb iÄ‡K aviY K‡i Ñ bxj eY©|  ürwc‡Ûi Wvb A¨vwUªqv‡gi mv‡_ hy³ _v‡K Ñ EaŸ© I wb¤œ gnvwkiv|
 †e‡mvwd‡ji wbDwK¬qvm †`L‡Z Ñ e„ËvKvi|  ürwc‡Ûi cÖvPxi †_‡K Wvb Awj‡›` i³ wb‡q Av‡m Ñ K‡ivbvwi wkiv|
 g‡bvmvB‡Ui DrcwË nq bv Ñ jwmKvq|  cvj‡gvbvwi ev dzmdzmxq wkiv †_‡K O2 hy³ i³ msMÖn K‡i Ñ evg Awj›` ev
 †k¦Z i³KwYKvi cÖavb KvR Ñ RxevYy fÿY Kiv| evg A¨vwUªqvg|
 A¨vw›UewW m„wó K‡i Ñ wj‡çvmvBU|  dzmdzm †_‡K O2 hy³ i³ †`n ch©šÍ †c․Qvq| cvj‡gvbvwi wkiv  evg
 †k¦Z i³KwYKvi KvR n‡jv Ñ †ncvwib •Zwi| Awj›`  evg wbjq  gnvagwb|
 i³bvwiKvi Af¨šÍ‡i i³RgvU †iva K‡i Ñ †e‡mvwdj|  evBKvmwcW ev gvBUªvj KcvwUKvi Ae¯vb Ñ evg Awj›` I evg wbj‡qi gv‡S|
 †`‡ni AvYyexÿwYK •mwbK Ñ wj‡çvmvBU|  cvj‡gvbvwi agwbi gy‡L _v‡K Ñ †mwgjybvi ev Aa©vP›`ªvK…wZ KcvwUKv|
 i‡³ cÖ‡ekK…Z K…wgi jvf©v Ges †`‡ni A¨vjvwR©K A¨vw›UewWi weiæ‡× KvR  ürwc‡Ûi †Kvb KcvwUKvq wZbwU Kv¤ú _v‡K bv Ñ evg Gw›UªI‡fw›UKzjvi ev
K‡i Ñ BIwm‡bvwdj| evBKvmwcW KcvwUKvq|
 g‡bvmvB‡Ui KvR Ñ d¨v‡MvmvB‡Uvwmm|  mwVK µg Ñ cvj‡gvbvwi wkiv  evg A¨vwUªqvg  evg †fw›UªKj  A¨vIUv©|
 ÿz`ªZg i³KwYKv Ñ _ª‡¤^vmvBU ev AbyPwµKv eve †cøBU‡jU|  cvj‡gvbvwi wkiv cÖ‡ek K‡i Ñ evg A¨vwUªqv‡g|
 cÖvßeq¯‥ gvby‡l AYyPwµKvi msL¨v cÖwZ NbwgwjwgUv‡iÑ 1.5 jvL-4 jvL|  agwbi DrcwË nq Ñ ürwcÛ †_‡K|
 AbyPwµKv •Zwi nq Ñ †gMvK¨vwiImvBU †_‡K|  cÖvß eq¯‥ my¯ e¨w³i ür¯ú‡›ì nvi Ñ 70-80 evi|
 AbyPwµKvi Avqy®‥vj Ñ cÖvq 5-10 w`b|  KvwW©qvK ev ürP‡µi mgqKvj Ñ 0.8 †m‡KÛ|
 AYyPwµKvi cÖavb KvR Ñ i³ ZÂb|  25 eQi eq¯‥ GKRb e¨w³i ür¯ú›`b wgwb‡U 80 evi n‡j Zvi KvwW©qvK
 wn‡gvv÷¨vwUK cøvM MVb K‡i Ñ AbyPwµKv/_ª‡¤^vmvBU| P‡µi mgqKvj Ñ 0.75 †m‡KÛ|
 i³ZÂb cÖwµqv wbqš¿YKvix d¨v±i Ñ 13wU|  A¨vwUªqv‡gi Wvqv‡÷vj Ñ 0.7 †m‡KÛ; A¨vwUªqv‡gi wm‡÷vj Ñ 0.1 †m‡KÛ;
 i³ ZÂb NUv‡bvi c×wZ‡K ejv nq Ñ wn‡gv÷¨vwmm| †fw›UªK‡ji wm‡÷vj Ñ 0.3 †m‡KÛ Ges †fw›UªK‡ji Wvqv‡÷vj Ñ 0.5 †m‡KÛ|
 evZv‡mi ms¯ú‡k© _ª‡¤^vmvBU Drcbœ K‡i Ñ _ª‡¤^vcøvw÷b|  A¨vwUªqv‡gi ms‡KvPb ïiæ nq Ñ mvB‡bv A¨vwUªqvj †bv‡W|
i³ ZÂ‡bi Rb¨ mwVK µg Ñ †cÖv‡_ªvw¤^b _ª‡¤^vcøvw÷b  Ca
++
 _ªw¤^b|  KvwW©qvK P‡µi †Kvb `kvi mgqKvj 0.1 †m‡K‡Û Ñ Awj‡›ì wm‡÷vj|
 gvby‡li i³ RgvU euvavi g~j Dcv`vb bq Ñ jwmKv|  †fw›UªK‡ji wm‡÷v‡ji mgq †Kvb k‡ãi m„wó nq Ñ jve m`„k|
 i³ Rgvi euvavi ci Lo is m`„k †h Zij c„_K nq Zv‡K ejv nq Ñ wmivg|  Wve m`„k 2q kãwU Drcbœ nq ü`wc‡Ûi †Kvb `kvq-†fw›UªK‡ji Wvqv‡÷vj|
 i³i‡mi †Kvb Dcv`vbwU wmiv‡g _v‡K bv Ñ dvBweª‡bv‡Rb |  KvwW©qvK P‡µi †Kvb `kvq CO2 hy³ i³ A¨vIUv©q cÖ‡ek K‡i-†fw›UªK‡ji wm‡÷vj|
 jwmKv‡Z Rjxq As‡ki cwigvY Ñ 94%|  gvby‡li ürwc‡Û †fw›UªK‡ji wm‡÷vj n‡j Ñ †mwgjybvi KcvwUKv Ly‡j hv‡e|
 jwmKvi Dcv`vb Ñ wj‡çvmvBU, A¨vw›UewW, cøvRgv †cÖvwUb BZ¨vw`|  gvby‡li i³msenb Ñ wØ-Pµxq msenb|
 gvby‡li †`‡n jwmKvi cwigvY Ñ 4-8 wjUvi|  i‡³i MwZc‡_i mwVK µg: Wvb Awj›`  Wvb wbjq  dzmdzm  evg Awj›`|
 `y‡ai gZ mv`v jwmKv‡K ejv nq Ñ KvBj|  ürwc‡Ûi ms‡KvPb cÖmviY †Kvb ai‡bi wbqš¿Y c×wZ Ñ gv‡qv‡RwbK wbqš¿Y|
 jwmKvi Av‡cwÿK ¸iæZ¡ Ñ 1.0151|  †cm‡gKv‡ii Ae¯vb ürwc‡Ûi †Kv_vq Ñ Wvb Awj‡›`|
 jwmKvi KvR Ñ †`niÿvi KvR Ges BwgDwbwU e„w×|  ürwc‡Ûi ms‡KvPb cÖmviY †Kvb ai‡bi wbqš¿Y c×wZ Ñ gv‡qv‡RwbK wbqš¿Y|
 Kjvi‡mi KZfvM jwmKv Øviv wb®‥vwkZ nq Ñ 10%|  SAN (cÖvK…wZK †cm‡gKvi) Gi †ÿ‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨ Ñ Kvh©KvwiZv K‡g †M‡j K¬vwšÍ
 A‡š¿i cÖvPx‡ii jwmKvbvwj‡ì ejv nq Ñ j¨vKwU‡qj| I k¦vmKó Abyfe nq|
 †`n Af¨šÍ‡ii i³ RgvU bv euvavi KviY Ñ i‡³i `ªæZMwZ|  msiwÿZ Q›` wbqvgK ejv nq Ñ AVN (Atrio-ventricular node)|
 jwmKvZš¿ MwVZ Ñ jwmKv, jwmKv RvjK, jwmKvbvwj Ges jwmKvMÖwš wb‡q|  SAN †_‡K cÖwZ wgwb‡U M‡o KZwU ¯ú›`b Drcbœ nq Ñ 72 evi|
 gvbe‡`‡n jwmKv MÖwši msL¨v Ñ cÖvq 400-700|  AV Node wgwb‡U KZevi ¯ú›`b Av‡eM Drcbœ K‡i Ñ 50 evi|
 gvbe‡`‡ni me‡P‡q eo jwmKvMÖwš Ñ wcønv|  SAN †_‡K AVN G ürDÏxcbv †c․Qv‡Z mgq jv‡M Ñ 0.15 †m‡KÛ|
 my¯ gvby‡li RxeÏkvq ürwcÛ ¯úw›`Z nq Ñ 2600 wgwjqb evi|  wn‡Ri evÛ‡ji ¯ú›`b nvi cÖwZ wgwb‡U Ñ 36 evi|
 RxeÏkvq ürwc‡Ûi cÖwZwU †fw›UªKj †_‡K i³ †ei K‡i Ñ 155 wgwjqb Ub|  cviwKbwR Zš‧ cÖwZ wgwb‡U KZ evi ¯ú›`b Av‡eM Drcbœ K‡i Ñ 30-35 evi|
 cÖwZ wgwb‡U gvbe ür¯ú›`b N‡U 70-75 evi hv mvivw`‡b 100,000 evi, eQ‡i  ürwc‡Ûi ms‡KvPb nvi Kgvq Ñ c¨vivwmgc¨v‡_wUK ¯œvqy|
3,600,000 evi Ges 70 eQi eq¯‥ GKRb gvby‡li mvivRxe‡b 2.5 wewjqb evi|  ür¯ú›`‡bi nvi e„w× K‡i Ñ GwWªbvwjb ni‡gvb|
 cyiæ‡li †ÿ‡Î ürwc‡Ûi IRb Ñ 300 MÖvg|  e¨v‡ivwi‡mÞi Ñ 2 iKg|
 ürwc‡Ûi AveiY Ñ †cwiKvwW©qvg|  A¨vIwU©K Av‡P© Aew¯Z Ñ AvUv©wiqvj e¨v‡ivwi‡mÞi|
 ürwc‡Ûi cÖvPx‡ii Af¨šÍixY Zij‡K ejv nq Ñ †cwiKvwW©qvj d¬zBW|  K¨v‡ivwUW mvBbv‡m Aew¯Z Ñ D”PPvc e¨v‡ivwi‡mÞi|
 ürwc‡Ûi cÖvPxi wbwg©Z Ñ KvwW©qvK †cwk Øviv|  AvqZb e¨v‡ivwi‡mÞ‡ii Ae¯vb Ñ eo wm‡÷wgK wkiv, cvj‡gvbvwi wkiv Ges
 ürwc‡Ûi cÖvPx‡ii ¯Íi Ñ 3wU (GwcKvwW©qvg, gv‡qvKvwW©qvg I G‡ÛvKvwW©qvg)| ürwc‡Ûi Wvb Awj›` I wbj‡qi cÖvPx‡i|
 ürwc‡Ûi KcvwUKv •Zwi nq Ñ G‡ÛvKvwW©qvg ¯Íi n‡Z|  i‡³i AvqZb wbqš¿‡Y f~wgKv iv‡L Ñ AvqZb e¨v‡ivwi‡mÞi|
 ürwc‡Ûi †Kvb As‡ki gv‡qvKvwW©qvg me©v‡cÿv cyiæ Ñ evg wbjq (evg †fw›UªKj)  †`‡ni mg¯Í i³ cÖwZ 20 †m‡K‡Û GKevi mgMÖ gvbe‡`‡n cwiågY K‡i|
 ürwc‡Ûi ms‡KvPb cÖmvi‡Y mwµq f~wgKv i‡q‡Q Ñ gv‡qvKvwW©qvg ¯Í‡ii|  gvby‡li i³Pvc wbY©‡qi h‡š¿i bvg Ñ wùM‡gvg¨v‡bvwgUvi|
 B›UviK¨v‡j‡UW wW¯‥ _v‡K Ñ KvwW©qvK †cwk‡Z|  wb¤œ i³Pvc Øviv m„ó RwUjZvi bvg Ñ wmbKc|
 gvby‡li ürwc‡Ûi cÖ‡Kvô Ñ 4wU (2wU Awj›` I 2wU wbjq)  D”P i³Pv‡ci Kvi‡Y †K›`ªxq ¯œvqyZ‡š¿i RwUjZvi bvg Ñ †÷ªvK|
 Wvb I evg wbjq †Kvb c`v© Øviv wef³ Ñ AvšÍtwbjq c`©v|  K‡ivbvwi agwb i³ msenb K‡i †Kv_vq Ñ ürwc‡Û|
 †cm‡gKvi ürwc‡Ûi †Kvb cÖ‡Kv‡ô Aew¯Z Ñ Wvb Awj‡›`|  AšÍt¯ K¨v‡ivwUW agwb i³ msenb K‡i †Kv_vq Ñ gw¯Í‡¯‥|
 evû, MÖxev cÖf…wZ AÂj †_‡K i³ msMÖn K‡i †Kvb wkiv Ñ mve‡K¬wfqvb wkiv|  ür-dzmdzm hš¿ eëüZ nq Ñ ürwc‡Ûi evBcvm mvR©vwi‡Z|
 A¨vbRvBbvi KviY Ñ ür‡cwk‡Z j¨vKwUK GwmW Rgv|  wek¦e¨vcx i³k~b¨Zvi cÖavbZg KviY Ñ †j․n NvUwZ|
 A¨vbRvBbvi e¨_vi ¯vwqZ¡ Ñ 5-30 wgwbU|  cvj‡gvbvwi msen‡bi Ask bq Ñ gnvagwb|
 KZ eQ‡ii gwnjv‡ì †ÿ‡Î A¨vbRvBbv †ewk †`Lv hvq Ñ 65 eQi|  †dvmv Ifvwjm ürwc‡Ûi †Kv_vq Ae¯vb K‡i- åæ‡Yi ürwc‡Ûi AvšÍtAwj›` c`©vi Mv‡Î|
 ür‡cwk‡Z Achv©ß i³ mieiv‡ni d‡j m„wó nq Ñ nvU© A¨vUvK|  ürwcÛ‡K wewfbœ cÖ‡Kvô wef³ K‡i Ñ G‡ÛvKvwW©qvg|
 nvU© A¨vUv‡Ki Aci bvg gv‡qvKvwW©qvj BbdvK©kb|  †Kvb †k¦ZKwYKvi wbDwK¬qvmwU `yB †jvewewkó Ñ BIwm‡bvwdj|
 i³ RgvU euvav‡bv †_‡K iÿv K‡i Ñ A¨vmwcwib|  wm‡÷vwjK I Wvqv‡÷vwjK Pv‡ci AšÍidj‡K ejv nqÑ cvjm& †cÖkvi|
 K…wÎg †cm‡gKv‡ii e¨vUvwi wK‡mi •Zwi Ñ wjw_qvg|  i³ mieiv‡ni weKí c_ m„wó Kiv nq †Kvb wPwKrmvi gva¨‡g Ñ evBcvm mvR©vwi|
 K…wÎg †cm‡gKvi †Kvb avZz Øviv •Zwi Kiv nq Ñ UvB‡Uwbqvg|  K‡ivbvwi agwbi jy‡gb eÜ n‡q †M‡j †Kvb cwiw¯wZ •Zwi n‡Z cv‡i Ñ nvU© A¨vUvK|
 I‡cb nvU© mvR©vwii cÖavb Dcvq Ñ 3wU|  dzmdzmxq agwb enb K‡i Ñ Doxygenated blood|
 agwb Mv‡Î cøvK Rgvi cÖwµqv‡K ejv nq Ñ Av‡U©wiI‡¯‥¬‡ivwmm|  gvbe i‡³ we`¨gvb evdvi `ªeY Ñ CH3COONa + CH3COOH|
 nvU© A¨vUvK, nvU© †dBwjDi I A¨bRvBbv †_‡K gyw³i mnR Dcvq Ñ GbwRIcøvw÷|  †Kvb †iv‡Mi wPwKrmvq A¨vmwcwib eënvi Kiv nq Ñ ü`‡ivM|
 wbDwK¬qvmwenxb †Kvl Ñ †jvwnZ i³KwYKv|  †KvbwU Awe‡fw`Z I AvRxeb wefvRbÿg †Kvl Ñ i³ †Kvl|
 gvby‡li ¯^vfvweK i³ÿiYKvj Ñ 1-4 wgwbU|  gvbe‡`‡ni ürwc‡Ûi A¯^vfvweK ¯ú›`b‡K ejv nq Ñ A¨vwi_wgqv|
 ü`h‡š¿i †ivM wbY©‡q cÖv_wgK cixÿv Ñ BwmwR|  i³- Zij †hvRK Kjv|
 K‡ivbvwi agwb miæ n‡q hvIqv wbY©‡q eëüZ nq Ñ GbwRIMÖvg|
k¦mb I k¦vmwµqv
 k¦m‡bi mgq Lv`¨w¯Z •¯wZK kw³ cwibZ nq- Zvckw³‡Z|  nuvwP (sneeze) k¦mbZ‡š¿i GKwU we‡kl ai‡bi cÖwZeZ©x wµqv hv bvwmKvi
 gvby‡li cÖavb k¦mb A½ dzmdzm| wgDKvm c`©v †_‡K †Kv‡bv cÖ`vwnK e¯‧‡K cwi®‥vi K‡i| m‡e©v”P †iKW©K…Z
 k¦mb c_ ïiæ nq- m¤§yL bvmviÜ« †_‡K| nuvwPi MwZ 165 wK‡jvwgUvi/N›Uv|
 bvwmKvi AvK…wZ-wÎ‡KvYvKvi|  mvi‡dKU¨v›U cvIqv hvq- A¨vjwfIjv‡m|
 bvmvc‡_i AvK…wZ-wÎ‡KvYvKvi|  mvi‡dKU¨v‡›Ui KvR- RxevYy (e¨vK‡Uwiqv) aŸsm Kiv|
 bvmvc‡_i KvR-QuvKwbi b¨vq|  k¦mbZ‡š¿i †Kvb As‡k O2 Ges CO2 Gi wewbgq N‡U- A¨vjwfIjv‡m|
 †Kvb c‡e©i cÖvYx‡Z Aw·‡Rb mivmwi †`n‡Kv‡l M„nxZ nq-Porifera|  gvbeåæ‡Y KZ mßvn eq‡m mvi‡dKU¨v›U ÿiY ïiæ nq- 23 mßvn|
 kã Drcbœ K‡i-j¨vwism|  KZ mßvn Av‡M gvbeåæY‡K ¯^vaxb Aw¯Í‡Z¡i AwaKvix MY¨ Kiv nq bv-24 mßvn|
 ¯îh‡š¿ †Kvgjvw¯ ev ZiæYvw¯i msL¨v-9wU|  eÿ I Dì MnŸi‡K c„_K iv‡L-Wvqvd«vg|
 gvbe dzmdz‡m we`¨gvb mKj ‣KwkK bvwjKv‡K ci¯úi mshy³ Ki‡j Gi †gvU  A¨vbwRI‡Ubwmb-I †K A¨vbwRI‡Ubwmb-II G iƒcvšÍwiZ K‡i-dzmdzm|
•`N©¨ n‡e cÖvq 1600 wK‡jvwgUvi|  ewntk¦m‡bi ch©vq-2wU|
 Lv`¨ ¯îh‡š¿ cÖ‡e‡k evav cvq- GwcMøwU‡mi Kvi‡Y|  Wvqvd«vg †cwki ms‡KvP‡bi Rb¨ `vqx- †d«wbK ¯œvqy|
 j¨vwis· MnŸ‡i †fvKvj Kv‡W©i msL¨v-6wU|  `yB ck©yKvi gv‡Si †cwk n‡jv- B›Uvi‡Kv÷vj †cwk|
 †KvbwUi K¤ú‡bi d‡j kã m„wó nq- †fvKvjKW©|  gvby‡li wekÖvg Kv‡j k¦mb nvi-14-18 evi|
 Wvb eª¼v‡mi kvLv-3wU|  beRvZK wkïi k¦mb nvi-40 evi|
 A¨vjwfIjvm bvwji ùxZ AMÖfvM n‡jv-A¨vwUªqvg|  GKRb my¯ gvbyl cÖwZ wgwb‡U cÖvq M‡o 16 evi, cÖwZ N›Uvq 960 evi,
 mwVK cÖevnwPÎ: UªvwKqv  eª¼vB  eªw¼Ij  A¨vjwfIjvi bvwj  cÖwZw`b 23040 ev, cÖwZ eQi 8.4 wgwjqb evi Ges 80 eQi eq‡mi Rxe‡b
A¨vjwfIjvi _wj  A¨vjwfIjvm| †gvU 672.768 wgwjqb evi k¦vm MÖnY K‡i|
 dzmdz‡m evqycÖev‡ni mwVK MwZc_: j¨vwis·  UªvwKqv  eª¼vB  A¨vjwfIwj|  gw¯Í‡®‥ k¦vmwµqv wbqš¿‡Yi †K›`ª-4wU (cb‡m 1 †Rvov I †gWyjvq 1 †Rvov)|
 gvbe‡`‡ni k¦mbZ‡š¿i evqy cwienb AÂj bq- A¨vjwfIjvi bvwj|  Nb‡Z¡i cÖwZ ms‡e`x †K‡gvwi‡mÞi¸‡jv †Kv_vq _v‡K- †gWzjvq|
 dzmdz‡mi Avei‡Yi bvg-cøyïv|  i‡³ CO2 Gi Dcw¯wZ‡Z †Kvb †K›`ª DÏxwcZ nq- A¨vwbDw÷K †K›`ª|
 †mivm d¬zBW †Kvb A½‡K iÿv K‡i- dzmdzm‡K|  nuvwP cÖwZeZ©x wµqvi mnvqK- Ajd¨v±wi ¯œvqy|
 †mivm d¬zBW cvIqv hvq- dzmdz‡m|  k¦vmbvwj‡Z A¯^vfvweK e¯‧ cÖ‡ek Ki‡j m„wó nq- Kuvwk cÖwZeZ©x wµqv (mnvqK
 Wvb dymdz‡m †jve -3wU (mywcwiqi †jve, wgWj †jve I Bbwdwiqi †jve) †fMvm ¯œvqy)|
 evg dzmdz‡m †jve-2wU (mywcwiqi †jve I Bbwdwiqi †jve)|  gvby‡li k¦m‡b kZKiv KZfvM O2 cøvRgvi †f․Z `ªeYiƒ‡c cwievwnZ nq-2%|
 Wvb dzmdz‡m †jvweI‡ji msL¨v-10wU|  GKwU wn‡gv‡Møvweb AYy Kq AYy Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ hy³ nq- 4 AYy|
 evg dzmdz‡m †jvweI‡ji msL¨v -8wU|  KZfvM CO2 i‡³i cøvRgvi mv‡_ hy³ nq-5%|
 gvby‡li dymdz‡m †gvU KqwU †jve we`¨gvb- 5wU|  i‡³ CO2 cwien‡bi gva¨g bq- Kve©b g‡bvA·vBW|
 dymdz‡mi MVbMZ I Kvh©MZ GKK-A¨vjwfIjvm|  †jvwnZ i³KwYKvq Kve©wbK GwmW cÖ¯‧wZi wewµqvq mnvqZv K‡i-A¨vbnvB‡WªR|
 A¨vjwfIjvm †Kv_vq cvIqv hvq- dzmdz‡m|  gvby‡li i‡³i k¦vmiÄK- wn‡gv‡Møvweb|
 gvby‡li dzmdz‡m A¨vjwfIjvB i‡q‡Q- cÖvq 70-90 eM©wgUvi AvqZb Ry‡o|  †jvwnZ KwYKvi KZfvM wn‡gv‡Møvweb-33%|
 gvby‡li dzmdz‡m A¨vjwfIjvB Gi msL¨v-70 †KvwU|  i‡³ wng I †Møvwe‡bi AbycvZ-1t25|
 A¨vjwfIjv‡mi cÖvPxi wbwg©Z- †¯‥vqvgvm ev AvBkvKvi Gwc‡_wjqvg Øviv|  c~Y©eq¯‥ gvby‡li mgMÖ i‡³ KZ MÖvg †j․n _v‡K- 4-5 MÖvg|
 k¦vmbvwj‡Z wgDKvm m„ó cÖ`vn‡K ejv nq- eª¼vBwUm|
 mvBbvm cÖ`v‡ni Kvi‡Y nq- mvBbymvBwUm|  K…wÎg k¦vm cÖk¦v‡m wkï‡ì †ÿ‡Î wgwb‡U dzu w`‡Z nq-20-25 evi|
 gvby‡li mvBbv‡mi msL¨v-4wU (g¨vw·jvwi, d«›Uvj, G_gqWvj I †ùbqWvj  c¨vivb¨vmvj mvBbvm bv- Aw·wcUvj mvBbvm|
mvBbvm)|  Adams Apple _v‡K-¯îh‡š¿|
 †Kvb mvBbv‡mi cÖ`v‡ni Kvi‡Y Mv‡j, ùvZ I gv_vq e¨v_v nq- g¨vw·jvwi mvBbvm|  Kve©b WvBA·vBW wn‡gv‡Møvwe‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i- Kv‡e©vgvB‡bv wn‡gv‡Møvweb
 gvbe `yÕ †Pv‡Li gaëZ©x mvBbv‡mi bvg- G_g‡qW| •Zwi K‡i|
 GBWm AvµvšÍ e¨vw³‡ì mvBbymvBwUm nq- mvaviYZ QÎv‡Ki Avµg‡Y|  ¯îZš¿xi (¯î i¾yi) Ae¯vb- j¨vwis‡·|
 `xN©¯vqx mvBbymvBwU‡mi Ab¨Zg KviY-wmw÷K dvB‡eªvwmm|  GwcMøwUm _v‡K-j¨vwis‡·|
 mvBbymvBwUm †iv‡Mi cÖavb DcmM©- gv_ve¨_v|  gvby‡li k¦vmbvwji •`N©¨-10-15 †mw›UwgUvi|
 IwUwUm wgwWqv †`Lv hvq gvby‡li †Kvb A‡½- Kv‡b|  Wvqvd«vg c‡ivÿfv‡e mvnvh¨ K‡i- ewntk¦m‡b|
 Kv‡bi ga¨K‡Y©i msµgYRwbZ cÖ`vnY‡K ejv nq- IwUwUm wgwWqv|  k¦m‡b eR©¨ wn‡m‡e Drcbœ nq-CO2|
 ga¨K‡Y©i Bb‡dKk‡bi KviY- BD‡÷wkqvb bvwj eÜ nIqv|  b¨vmvj †mÞv‡gi msL¨v-1wU|
 †Kvb eqmx wkï‡ì IwUwUmwgwWqv †ewk n‡Z cv‡i-4 gvm †_‡K 4 eQi|  dymdz‡mi K¨vÝv‡ii Rb¨ `vqx-SiO2|
 c~Y©eq¯‥ e¨w³‡ì ga¨K‡Y©i cÖ`v‡n eëüZ A¨vw›Uev‡qvwUK n‡jv- A¨v‡gvw·wmwjb|  UªvwKqv †_‡K evg dzmdz‡m evqy cwienb K‡i- eª¼vm|
 gw¯Í¯‥ Øviv dzmdz‡m wb¤œgvÎvi Aw·‡Rb wbY©xZ n‡j †`n G‡Z mvov w`‡q nvBg  gvbe‡`‡ni dzmdzm †_‡K O2 i‡³ cwievwnZ nq- e¨vcb cÖwµqvq|
†Zv‡j (yawning) hvi d‡j AwaK cwigvY Aw·‡Rb M„nxZ nq|  gvbe‡`‡ni UªvwKqv KqwU Ziæbvw¯ Øviv wbwg©Z- 16-20 wU|
 Aa~gcvqx‡ì dzmdz‡mi X-ray wdj¥ †`L‡Z-Kv‡jv|  eªw¼I‡ji AwZm~² I ZiæYvw¯wenxb cÖvšÍ¸‡jv‡K ejv nq-A¨vjwfIjvi bvwj|
 a~gcvqx‡ì dzmdz‡mi X-ray wdj¥ †`L‡Z- mv`v‡U|  cøyiv Kq ¯Íiwewkó-2|
 AwaK a~gcv‡bi d‡j m„ó †ivM- eª¼vBwUm|  evZv‡m CO2-Gi NbZ¡ 0.25% evo‡j k¦m‡bi nvi n‡e-wØ¸Y|
 wmMv‡i‡Ui †auvqvi ÿwZKi cÖavb Dcv`vb-wb‡KvwUb|  a~gcvb kZKiv KZ fvM dzmdzmxq K¨vÝv‡ii KviY- 90%|
 dymdz‡mi cÖ`vn‡K ejv nq- GgdvB‡mgv|  dzmdz‡m cÖevwnZ wkiv i‡³ O2 Gi cwigvY-15%|
 †Kvb †iv‡M A¨vjwfIjvm †d‡U dzmdz‡m duvKv RvqMvi m„wó K‡i- cøy¨wiwm|  a~gcvqxi k¦mbZ‡š¿ †Kvb mgm¨v †`Lv †`q- KgmsL¨K A¨vjwfIjvB _v‡K|
 Kgb †Kvì ev VvÐv jvMv k¦mbZ‡š¿i msµgYRwbZ GKwU †ivM hv 200 ai‡bi  wU‡¤ú‡bv÷wg eëüZ nq †Kvb †iv‡Mi cÖwZKv‡ii †ÿ‡Î- IwUwUm wgwWqv|
fvBivm Øviv msµwgZ nq|  ¯vwq‡Z¡i wfwË‡Z IwUwUm wgwWqv-2 cÖKvi|
 `yN©Ubvq k¦vm eÜ n‡q hvIqv †ivMx‡ì Dchy³ wPwKrmv n‡jv-wmwcAvi|  †µvwbK mvBbymvBwU‡mi wPwKrmv mvaviYZ KZ mßvn a‡i P‡j: 3-4 mßvn|
 K…wÎg k¦vm cÖk¦v‡m eo‡ì †ÿ‡Î wgwb‡U dzu w`‡Z nq- 10-15 evi|
Pjb I A½Pvjbv
 K¼vjZš¿ åæYxq †Kvb ¯Íi n‡Z m„wó nq- †g‡mvWvg©|  †Møb‡qW MnŸi _v‡K-AMÖc‡`/eÿvw¯ P‡µ (¯‥¨vcyjvq)
 K‡ivwUi Wvbvi g‡Zv Aw¯wUi bvg- †ùb‡qW|  †_vivwmK K‡kiæKvi msL¨v-12wU|
 K‡ivwUKvi msL¨v-8wU|  †WjU‡qW wiR we`¨gvb-wnD‡giv‡m|
 gyLgÐjxq Aw¯-14wU|  Iwj‡µbb cÖ‡mm we`¨gvb-Avjbv|
 gyLgÐjxq Aw¯mg~‡ni bvg¸‡jv- g¨vw·jv, g¨vwÛej, RvB‡Mvg¨vwUK, b¨vmvj,  myly¤œvKvÐ‡K myiwÿZ iv‡L-†giæ`Ð|
j¨vw·gvj, Bbwdwiqi b¨vmvj K°v, †fvgvi I c¨v‡jUvBb|  I‡Wv›U‡qW cÖ‡mm _v‡K-2q mvBfvBKvj K‡kiæKvq|
 gnvweei ev †dviv‡gb g¨vMbvg Aew¯Z- Aw·wcUvj|  g¨vgvwi cÖ‡mm †`Lv hvq- jv¤^vi K‡kiæKvq|
 K‡ivwUKvi Aw¯/ †Rvo Aw¯-c¨vivBUvj|  gvby‡li cy”Q‡`kxq Kv‡kiæKv-Kw°·|
 gvby‡li †giæ`‡Ði cÖ_g Aw¯ (A¨vUjvm) K‡ivwUi †Kvb Aw¯i mv‡_ hy³ _v‡K-  †Kvb K‡kiæKvq UªvÝfvm© †dviv‡gb _v‡K- †_vivwmK|
Aw·wcUvj Aw¯|  DaŸ©evû‡K Aÿxq K¼v‡ji mv‡_ mshy³ K‡i-K¬vwfKj|
 wcUzBUvwi MÖwš‡K aviY K‡i K‡ivwUi †Kvb Aw¯- †ùb‡qW Aw¯|  ÷vb©v‡gi mv‡_ mshy³ _v‡K- cÖ_g 7 †Rvov ck©yKv|
 gvbe kªeYv½‡K myiÿv K‡i- †U‡¤úvivj Aw¯|  Floating Rib-11k-12k|
 gvby‡li Aÿxq K¼vjZ‡š¿i Ask- K‡ivwU|  ÷vbv‡g©i Ask-g¨vbyweªqvg, Kc©vm (†`n) I wRd‡qW cÖ‡mm|
 gvby‡li K‡ivwUi Aw¯i msL¨v-29 wU|  A¨vbUwgKvj MÖxev I mvwR©Kvj MÖxev we`¨gvb-wnD‡giv‡m|
 gvbe‡`‡n Aÿxq K¼vj Aw¯i msL¨v-80 wU|  B›Uv‡ivwmqvm †gg‡eªb bvgK c`©v Øviv ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ hy³ _v‡K- †iwWqvm I Avjbv|
 gvby‡li Dcv½xq K¼v‡j Aw¯i msL¨v-126 wU|  gvbe‡`‡ni Bwjqvg, Bwðqvg I wcDwem Gi ms‡hvM¯‡j we`¨gvb- A¨vwmUveyjvg|
 gvby‡li eÿ‡`kxq AÂ‡j K‡kiæKv-12 wU|  wdgv‡ii g¯ÍK cÖweó/AvUKv‡bv _v‡K-A¨vwmUveyjv‡g|
 eÿwcÄi MVbKvix Aw¯i msL¨v-25 wU|  c¨v‡Ujv Aw¯wU n‡jv- cðvr c‡ì|
 gvby‡li GK nv‡Z d¨vjv‡Ä‡mi msL¨v- 14wU|  B‡bvwg‡bU Aw¯ ejv nq- †kÖvwYP‡µi Aw¯‡K|
 Gw·m †Kvb AÂ‡ji K‡kiæKv-MÖxev‡`kxq|  AeUz‡iUi †dviv‡gb we`¨gvb-B‡bvwg‡bU Aw¯ ev wnc †ev‡b|
 eÿ Aw¯P‡µi Aw¯ n‡jv- K¬vwfKj ('f' Gi g‡Zv euvKv‡bv Aw¯)  gvbe‡`‡ni me‡P‡q eo Aw¯-wdgvi|
 K‡ivwUi mPj ev bobÿg Aw¯-g¨vwÛej|  `xN© hwói g‡Zv †`L‡Z-wdeyjv|
 gvby‡li MÖxev †`kxq K‡kiæKv- 7 wU|  cyiæ‡li †giæ`‡Ði •`N©¨-70 †mw›UwgUvi|
 evqyc~Y© Aw¯ (wbD‡gwUK Aw¯)-g¨vw·jv|  †UbWb - †cwk‡K Aw¯i mv‡_ hy³ K‡i|
 K‡ivwUi me‡P‡q ÿz`ª Aw¯-j¨vwµgvj|  Aw¯i AveiY- †cwiAw÷qvg|
 Aw¯i †Kvl- Aw÷Ieøv÷, Aw÷IK¬v÷ I Aw÷ImvBU|  wØZxq †kÖwbi wjfvi- cv‡qi cvZvq †Mvovwj, †VjvMvwo|
 wb‡iU Aw¯i MvVwbK I Kvwh©K GKK-Aw÷Ib/n¨vfviwmqvb Zš¿|  Pj‡bi mgq nuvUz‡K fvR K‡i †Kvb gvsm‡cwk-evB‡mcm wd‡gvwim|
 gvbe K¼vjZ‡š¿ 3q †kÖwbi wjfvi Kvh©Ki- nv‡Zi KbyB mÂvj‡b|  Aw¯ †f‡O GKvwaK UzKivq fvM nq †Kvb †ÿ‡Î- KwgwbD‡UW Aw¯f½|
 ZiæYvw¯i AveiY- †cwiKwÛªqvg|  mvaviY nvofvOvi Aci bvg- e× nvofvOv|
 ZiæYvw¯i †Kvl- K‡ÛªvmvBU|  gvby‡li Kwâ‡Z (Carpal region) nv‡oi msL¨v-8wU|
 Pzbgq ev K¨vjwmdvBW ZiæYvw¯Í cvIqv hvq- wnD‡givm I wdgv‡ii g¯Í‡K|  gvby‡li Kcv‡ji Aw¯- d«›Uvj|
 k¦vmbvwj I bv‡K cvIqv hvq-nvqvwjb ZiæYvw¯|  gvbe‡`‡ni GKgvÎ mwÜwenxb Aw¯ n‡jv nvBI‡qW Aw¯ hv wRnŸvi †Mvovq Ae¯vb K‡i|
 †cwkKjv/ †cwk‡Kvl/ Hw”QK †cwkZš‧i AveiY-mvi‡Kv‡jgv|  wmmvg‡qW Aw¯-c¨v‡Ujv|
 †`‡ni me‡P‡q kw³kvjx †cwk-wRnŸv, cwikÖgx †cwk-ü`‡cwk, j¤^v (30  Db¥y³ nvofvOvi Aci bvg- †h․wMK nvofvOv|
†mw›UwgUvi) †cwk-Diæi mvi‡Uvwiqvm †cwk|  g¾v MnŸvi †bB- K¬vwfK‡j|
 Hw”QK †cwk Aw¯i mv‡_ mshy³ _v‡K-†UbWb Øviv|  †kÖvwYP‡µi †h MnŸi cðvrc‡ì wdgvi‡K aviY K‡i Zvi bvg- A¨vwmUveyjvg|
 B›UviK¨v‡j‡UW wW¯‥ †`Lv hvq- ü`‡cwk‡Z|  n¨vfviwmqvb bvwj †`Lv hvq- wb‡iU Aw¯‡Z|
 gv‡qvdvBweªj MwVZ- gv‡qvwmb I A¨vKwUb †cÖvwUb|  gvbe AvOy‡ji Aw¯¸‡jv‡K ejv nq- d¨vjv‡Äm|
 †cwki me©v‡cÿv m~² ms‡KvPbkxj GKK- gv‡qvwmb I A¨vKwUb|  ZiæYvw¯i Aw¯‡Z cwiYZ nIqvi cÖwµqv‡K e‡j-Awmwd‡Kkb|
 Hw”QK †cwk cvIqv hvq- K¼vjZ‡š¿i Mv‡o, wRnŸv BZ¨vw`|  gvbe‡`‡n gyLgÐjxi Aw¯ †fvgv‡ii AvK…wZ- Pvi‡KvYv|
 ür‡cwki ms‡KvP‡b KvR K‡i- B›UviK¨v‡j‡UW wW¯‥|  gvby‡li m¨vµvj K‡kiæKv-5wU|
 †Kvb cÖKv‡ii †cwk A½- cÖZ¨‡½i m¤úªmviY K‡i wKsev †`n Aÿ †_‡K `~‡i  gvby‡li †kÖvwY Aw¯P‡µ †gvU Aw¯i msL¨v-2wU|
mwi‡q †`q- G·‡Ubmi †cwk|  gvby‡li †`‡n ck©yKvi msL¨v-12 †Rvov|
 evB‡mcm †Kvb ai‡bi †cwk- †d¬·i|  gvby‡li evû‡Z †gvU Aw¯i msL¨v-60wU|
 gvby‡li Pjvi mgq gvwU †_‡K cv‡qi †Mvovwj D‡Ëvj‡b mnvqZv K‡i-  gvby‡li bKj ck©yKv n‡jv: 3 †Rvov (8g, 9g I 10g)|
M¨v‡÷ªvK‡bwgqvm †cwk|  gvbe‡`‡n †Ug‡cvivj Aw¯-2wU|
 gvbe‡`‡n cÖvq 656wUi g‡Zv †cwk Av‡Q †h¸‡jv †UbWb Øviv Aw¯i mv‡_  ZiæYvw¯i MnŸi‡K ejv nq- j¨vKzbv|
mshy³ _v‡K Ges †`nf‡ii 40% MVb K‡i|  c¨v‡Ujv bvgK Aw¯wU Av‡Q gvby‡li-nvUz‡Z|
 GKwU wjfv‡i Ask-4wU (wjfvi evû, wcfU, cÖ‡Póv I fvi)  ewntK‡Y© †Kvb ai‡bi ZiæYvw¯ cvIqv hvq-w¯wZ¯vcK|
 cÖ_g †kÖwYi wjfv‡ii g‡Zv KvR K‡i- K‡ivwU I A¨vUjvm|  gvby‡li †giæ`‡Ði 2q Aw¯wUi bvg-A¨vw·m|
wRbZË¡ I weeZ©b
 †Kvb •ewkó¨wU †m· wjsKW •ewkó¨- eY©vÜZv|  ev‡qvjwR k‡ãi cÖeZ©K j¨vgvK©, wZwb †giæ`Ûx I A‡giæ`Ûx cÖvwYi †kÖYxKiY
 gvbe‡`‡n †µv‡gv‡mvg Gi msL¨v- 23 †Rvov| K‡ib|
 Rx‡ei g„Zzï Rb¨ `vqx wRb- Lethal gene|  iv‡mj Iqv‡jm cÖvYxi we¯Ív‡ii Dci wfwË K‡i c„w_ex‡K 6 AÂ‡j fvM K‡ib|
 eskMwZwe`¨vi RbK †MÖMi †Rvnvb †g‡Ûj Rb¥MÖnY K‡ib- Aw÷ªqvq|  Wvq‡bvm‡ii D™¢e nq UªvqvwmK hy‡M, Wvq‡bvm‡ii wejywß N‡U wµ‡Uwmqvm hy‡M|
 †U÷ µ‡m †Kvb Rx‡ei mv‡_ msKivqY ev µm NUv‡bv nq- gvZ…es‡ki weï×  Avj‡eªLU db †njvi me©cÖ_g Evolution kãwU eënvi K‡ib
cÖ”Qbœ (Tt  tt)|  WviDBb 1831 mv‡ji 27 †k wW‡m¤î GBP.Gg.Gm. weMj †b․Rvnv‡Ri
 Am¤ú~Y© cÖKUZvi Rb¨ `vqx wRb¸‡jv‡K ejv nq- B›UviwgwW‡qU wRb| GKRb A‣eZwbK cÖK…wZwe` wn‡m‡e `wÿY AvUjvw›UK Ges cÖkvšÍ gnvmvMi
 evev I gv Df‡qi i³MÖæc AB n‡j mšÍv‡bi i³MÖæc AB nIqvi m¤¢vebv Rixc `‡ji mv‡_ Bsj¨v‡Ûi †W‡fb‡cvU© †_‡K hvÎv ïiæ K‡ib|
KZUzK-z 50%|  Father of Genetics ejv nq Ñ †MÖMi †Rvnvb †g‡Ûj‡K|
 wcZv ¯^vfvweK I gvZv eY©vÜ n‡j, †Q‡j¸‡jv n‡e- 100% eY©vÜ|  me©cÖ_g †K Genetics kãwU cÖPjb I eënvi K‡ib Ñ DBwjqvg †eUmb|
 wn‡gvwdwjqvq AvµvšÍ gwnjvi m¤¢ve¨ wcZvgvZv‡K- evnK gv I wn‡gvwdwjK evev|  weÁvbx †g‡Ûj †Kvb Mv‡Qi •ewkó¨ wb‡q cixÿv-wbixÿv K‡ib Ñ gUiïuwU|
 cvwL I mixm„‡ci weeZ©bm~PK ms‡hvMKvix cÖvYx- Archaeopteryx|  †g‡Ûj gUiïwU Mv‡Qi KZ‡Rvov •ewkó¨ wb‡q M‡elYv K‡ib- 7 †Rvov|
 „Theory of Natural Selection‟ gZev`wU cÖKvwkZ nq- Origin of Species by  †g‡Û‡ji cixÿvmg~n wjwce× Kivi wbe‡Üi wk‡ivbvg n‡jv Ñ Experiments
means of Natural Selection| in Plant Hybridization|
 ¯^vfvweK `„wóm¤úbœ (evnK bq) ¯¿x Ges eY©vÜ cyiæ‡li we‡q n‡j Zuv‡ì Kb¨v  †µv‡gv‡Rv‡g wR‡bi wbw`©ó ¯vb‡K ejv nq Ñ †jvKvm|
mšÍvb‡ì ¯^vfvweK `„wóm¤úbœ nIqvi m¤¢vebvi nvi- 100%|  †nv‡gv‡jvMvm ev mgms¯ †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi wbw`©ó †jvKv‡m Aew¯Z GK †Rvov
 †imvm evb‡ii •eÁvwbK bvg- Macaca mulatta| wRb hw` wbw`©ó •ewkó¨ wbqš¿Y K‡i Zvn‡j Zv‡ì‡K ci¯ú‡ii Ñ A¨vwjj
 gvby‡li D™¢e n‡q‡Q- wcøIwmb hy‡M| e‡j|
 RyivwmK mgqKvj ejv nq KZ Av‡Mi mgq‡K?- mv‡o 16 †KvwU eQi|  g‡bvnvBweªW µ‡mi †ÿ‡Î, †U÷ µ‡m wd‡bvUvBwcK I wR‡bvUvBwcK AbycvZ
 cyiæl ¯^vfvweK Ges ¯¿x eY©vÜ †nv‡gvRvBMvm n‡j †Q‡jwU Kx n‡e?- eY©vÜ| n‡jv Ñ 1 t 1|
 †h wRb •ewkó¨ cÖKv‡k evav cvq Zv‡K e‡j- Hypostatic gene|  `ywU njy` is‡qi Bu`yi µm Kiv n‡j KZ kZvsk Bu`yi åæYxq Ae¯vq gviv hvq Ñ 25%|
 Rx‡ei cÖKvwkZ jÿY‡K ejv nq- wd‡bvUvBc|  †mwgwj_vj wR‡bi cÖfv‡e KZ kZvs‡ki †ewk Rxe gviv hvq Ñ 50%|
 F1 I F2 Rbyi eskai¸‡jv †nv‡gvRvBMvm bvwK †n‡U‡ivRvBMvm Zv Rvbvi  Wª‡mvwdjv gvwQi jyßcÖvq Wvbv m„wóKvix wRbwU †Kvb ai‡bi Ñ mvefvBUvj|
cÖwµqv- †U÷ µm|  †hme wj_vj wR‡bi cÖfv‡e 50% Gi Kg msL¨K Rxe gviv hvq Zv‡ì ejv
 G‡¤ú‡WvwK¬m‡K weeZ©‡bi RbK ejv nq| nq Ñ mvefvBUvj wj_vj wRb|
 bvixi †`‡n `ywU X †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi GKwU wKsev m¤ú~Y© Abycw¯Z _vK‡j Ñ  wd‡jvmwdK MÖ‡ši iPwqZv Ñ j¨vgvK©|
Uvibvi wmb‡Wªvg nq|  AB eøvW MÖæ‡ci `vZv †Kvb MÖæc‡K i³ w`‡Z cvi‡e Ñ AB MÖæc|
 †g‡Û‡ji cÖ_g m~‡Îi e¨wZµg Ñ Am¤ú~Y© cÖKUZv|  †nv‡gv‡jvMvm †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi GKwU †jvKv‡m `ywU wR‡bi GK‡Î _vKv‡K ejv
 WviDBwbR‡gi g~j welqe¯‧ Ñ Rxeb msMÖv‡g civwRZ Rxe wejyß nq| nqÑA¨vwj‡jvgd©|
 mgcÖKUZvi AbycvZ Ñ 1 t 2 t 1|  gvby‡li †`n‡Kv‡l A‡Uv‡Rv‡gi msL¨v Ñ 44wU|
 wbjv eY©vÜ (XCXC) Zvi evev I gv‡qi wR‡bvUvBc Kx n‡e Ñ XCY Ges XCXC|  cyiæl ¯^vfvweK Ges ¯¿x eY©vÜ †nv‡gvRvBMvm n‡j †Q‡jwU Kx n‡e Ñ eY©vÜ|
 †g‡Û‡ji 2q m~‡Îi e¨wZµg Ñ Gwc÷¨vwmm|  wj_vj wRb me©cÖ_g eY©bv K‡ib Ñ Kz¨‡bv|
 gvby‡li jvj meyR eY©vÜZvi wRb n‡jv Ñ †m·wjsKW|  •ØZ-cÖ”Qbœ Gwc÷¨vwm‡mi AbycvZ Ñ 9 t 7|
 †m·wjsKW wWmAW©vi bq Ñ _¨vjv‡mwgqv|  †Kvb eøvW MÖæ‡ci wbw`©ó †Kvb Gw›U‡Rb bvB Ñ O|
 cÖvK…wZK wbe©vPb gZev‡ì cÖeZ©K Ñ Pvj©m ievU© WviDBb|  gvby‡li i‡³i †kÖwYweb¨vm K‡ib Ñ Kvj© j¨vÛ‡÷Bbvi|
 AwR©Z •ewk‡óï eskMwZ Kvi gZev` Ñ j¨vgvK©|  Rx‡ei cÖKvwkZ jÿY‡K ejv nq Ñ wd‡bvUvBc|
 AaBb wR‡bvUvBcavix Rxe †_‡K Kq ai‡bi M¨v‡gU •Zwi n‡e Ñ 4 ai‡bi|  eY©vÜ cyiæl I ¯^vfvweK gwnjvi g‡a¨ we‡q n‡j Zv‡ì mšÍvb n‡Z cv‡i Ñ
 †g‡Û‡ji 1g m~Î‡K ejv nq Ñ c„_KxKi‡Yi m~Î| Kb¨v eY©vÜ evnK|
  eøvW MÖæ‡ci gvbyl †Kvb MÖæ‡ci i³ MÖnY Ki‡Z cv‡i Ñ A Ges O|  gvbe †Kv‡l †m· †µv‡gv‡Rv‡gi msL¨v Ñ 1 †Rvov|
 †m· wjsK Bb‡nwi‡UÝ Gi •ewkó¨ Ñ wRb¸‡jv wcZvi n‡Z ïaygvÎ Kb¨v‡Z hvq|  gvby‡li A‡Uv‡mvg KZ †Rvo Ñ 22 †Rvov|
 mncÖKUZvq †g‡Ûwjqvb Abycv‡Zi cwiewZ©Z iƒc Ñ 1 t 2 t 1|  wZbwU wRb GKB †nv‡gv‡jvMvm †µv‡gv‡Rv‡g Ae¯vb Ki‡j RxbÎq‡K e‡j Ñ
 wn‡gvwdwjqvq AvµvšÍ gwnjvi m¤¢ve¨ wcZvgvZv †K- evnK gv I wn‡gvwdwjK evev| Multiple alleles|
 †Kvb †iv‡Mi Kvi‡Y GKRb gvbyl Pjbkw³nxb n‡q †h‡Z cv‡i- gvmKzjvi wW÷ªwd|  Rx‡ei g„Zzï Rb¨ `vqx wRb‡K ejv nq Ñ Lethal gene|
 wj_vj wR‡bi Kvi‡Y nq Ñ _¨vjv‡mwgqv|  cÖvYx‡Z `yB‡Rvov wecixZ •ewk‡óï Dci `„wó †i‡L †h µm Kiv‡bv nq Zv‡K
 †Kvb gnvKvj‡K mixm„‡ci hyM ejv nq Ñ †g‡mvRwqK| e‡j Ñ Dihybird cross|
 e¨w³Rwb RvwZRwbi cybive„wË NUvq ZË¡wUi cÖe³v Ñ †n‡Kj|  GKRb gwnjv Zvi X †µv‡gv‡Rvg cvb Ñ Zvi wcZv-gvZv Df‡qi KvQ †_‡K|
 WvB-nvBweªW µm Gi †g‡Ûjxq AbycvZ Ñ 9 t 3 t 3 t 1|  GKK PwiÎ msKi ev g‡bvnvBweªW µ‡m F2 cÖR‡b¥ wd‡bvUvB‡ci cÖKU I
 †h wRb bb-A¨vwjwjK wR‡bi •ewkó¨ cÖKv‡k evav †`q Zv‡K ejv nq Ñ cÖ”Qbœ •ewk‡óï AbycvZ Ñ 3 t 1|
Gwc÷¨vwUK wRb|  c„_KxKiY m~Î Abyhvqx GKwU weï× Kv‡jv (BB) e‡Y©i wMwbwc‡Mi mv‡_ GKwU
 ¯^vfvweK `„wóm¤úbœ ¯¿x Ges eY©vÜv cyiæ‡li g‡a¨ we‡q n‡j Zuv‡ì Kb¨v weï× ev`vwg (bb) e‡Y©i wMwbwc‡Mi msKivqY NU‡j F2 Rby‡Z wMwbwc‡Mi
mšÍvb‡ì ¯^vfvweK `„wóm¤úbœ nIqvi m¤^vebv KZ- 100%| Kvj I ev`vgx e‡Y©i AbycvZ n‡e Ñ 3 t 1|
 i³ `v‡b Blood Group– B Gi †ÿ‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨- BAB, B|  wR‡bvUvBc n‡jv Ñ jÿY wbqš¿YKvix Rx‡bi MVb|
 gvby‡li msL¨v †Kvb i³MÖæ‡c me‡P‡q †ewk Ñ B|  cÖKU Gwc÷¨vwmm G e¨wZµgag©x AbycvZ nj Ñ 13 t 3|
 †Kvb Kvi‡Y 13:3 AbycvZ nq Ñ Gwc÷¨vwUK wRb|  cwic~iK wR‡bi Dcw¯wZi †ÿ‡Î wd‡bvUvBwcK AbycvZ Ñ 9 t 7|
 WviDBbev‡ì me †_‡K eo `ye©jZv nj Ñ cÖKiY|  µgewa©òz wØZ¡b wR‡bi †ÿ‡Î wd‡bvUvBwcK AbycvZ Ñ 1 t 4 t 6 t 4 t 1|
 GKwU ¯^vfvweK `¤úwËi mg¯Í mšÍvb-mšÍwZi A‡a©K msL¨K cyÎ wn‡gvwdwjK  †Kvb Rx‡e GKwU wbw`©ó •ewkó¨ wbqš¿YKvix A¨vwjj `ywU mgcÖK…wZi n‡j Zv‡K
Ges evwK msL¨K Kb¨v †ivMwUi evnK| GB †ivMwUi wRb `¤úwËi †`‡n e‡j Ñ †nvgvRvBMvm|
†Kv_vq Aew¯Z Ñ gv‡qi Dfq X †µv‡gv‡Rv‡g|  F2 Rxe‡K Zvi c¨v‡i‡›Ui mv‡_ µm Kiv‡bv‡K ejv nq Ñ e¨vK µm|
 †Kvb cÖwµqvq PvwiwÎK •ewk‡óï wewbgq N‡U Ñ µwms Ifvi|  cwjwRb wbqwš¿Z •ewkó¨¸‡jv n‡jv Ñ gvby‡li D”PZv, Z¡‡Ki is, †Pv‡Li is,
 WviDBbev‡ì AšÍM©Z Ñ †hvM¨Z‡gi Rq I cÖvK…wZK wbe©vPb| Mvwfi `ya, fzÆv ev M‡gi `vbv`vi is, IR‡bi wfbœZv, AvPiY, ü`‡ivM,
 iwng mv‡n‡ei `yB cyÎ I `yB Kb¨vi g‡a¨ GK cyÎ I GK Kb¨v eY©vÜ, Zv‡ì KwZcq K¨vbmvi, gvbwmK Amy¯Zv BZ¨vw`|
evev-gv Ñ evev eY©vÜ, gv eY©v‡Üi evnK|  cwjwRb wbqwš¿Z •ewkó¨ bq Ñ AvK…wZ|
 †Kvb †kÖwY †_‡K Archaeopteryx Gi DrcwË n‡q‡Q Ñ Reptilia|

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¸”Q †bUIqvK© 4.

0 kU© mv‡Rkb c`v_©weÁvb cÖ_g cÎ

¸”Q fwZ© cixÿvi mv‡Rkb

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ FORMULA ANALYSIS AT A GLANCE

A‡¶i mv‡_ †KvY/ w`K

 P  2Q Ges = 90 n‡j  = 120

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mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ V.V.I MATH AT A GLANCE

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mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ FORMULA ANALYSIS AT A GLANCE

e‡ji cÖK…wZ •iwLK MwZ (r  miY) ‡K․wYK MwZ (r  e¨mva©)

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ V.V.I MATH AT A GLANCE

c`v‡_©i MvVwbK ag©

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ FORMULA ANALYSIS AT A GLANCE

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ V.V.I MATH AT A GLANCE

MEx 04 ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j GKwU Zv‡ii •`N©¨ 1%cwieZ©b n‡j Gi e¨vm

(i) m‡ev©”P MwZkw³, (ii) m‡ev©”P w¯wZkw³, (iii) †gvU kw³|  

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ FORMULA ANALYSIS AT A GLANCE

 mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b m¤úbœ KYvi mgxKib, x = A sin (t + )

 K…ZKvR ev w¯wZkw³, W = 1 kx2 = 1 m2x2

 ‡Kvb w¯úªs‡K m:n Abycv‡Z wef³ Ki‡j, km = 

Av`k© M¨vm I M¨v‡mi MwZZË¡

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ V.V.I MATH AT A GLANCE

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ FORMULA ANALYSIS AT A GLANCE

C F-32 K-273 Rn-492 Rn C F K R R m

Zvc Øviv  dW = PdV

†gvjvi M¨vm aªæeK, R = Cp – Cv ; Cp = R = 2 + 1R ; Cv =

 jwä wefe, V= V1 + V2 + ..... = 9  109  + + ...............

 PvR©Øq wecixZ ag©x n‡j ga¨we›`y‡Z cÖvej¨, E  9  10

 mgvšÍivj mgev‡q Zzj¨ aviKZ¡: Cp = C1+C2+C3 + ------ + Cn; Cp = nC

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ V.V.I MATH AT A GLANCE

 we`y¨r cÖevn, In‡gi m~Î Ges †Kv‡li g‡a¨ cÖevngvÎv-

. †kªYx mgev‡q Zzj¨ †iva, Rs=R1+R2+R3+----+Rn=Rmax

Zzj¨ †iva I Zwor R

 C = f A_ev  = f  k~b¨¯v‡b ZworPz¤^K Zi‡½i †eM, C =

= 3.33  106m; d sin = n  Kuv‡P Av‡jvi Zi½‣`N©¨,

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mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ FORMULA ANALYSIS AT A GLANCE

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 †Kvb e¯‧KYvi †gvUkw³ Gi wbðjkw³i n ¸Y n‡j,  cøv‡¼i aªæeK, h = 6.626  1034

cigvYyi g‡Wj I wbDwK¬qvi c`v_©weÁvb

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ FORMULA ANALYSIS AT A GLANCE

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ FORMULA ANALYSIS AT A GLANCE

mvRv‡bv me Z_¨ V.V.I MATH AT A GLANCE

 cigvYy‡Z B‡jKUª‡bi Ae¯vb eY©bv Kiv hvq †KvbwU Øviv-‡Kvqv›Uvg msL¨v|

†gŠ‡ji ch©vqe„Ë ag© I ivmvqwbK eÜb

 Bwiw_ªUj n‡jv- A-non caloric sweetener| wjcw÷‡K _v‡K-‡UUªv‡eªv‡gv‡d¬v‡ivwmb/†mvwWqvg w÷qv‡iU

TYPE-02: GKbR‡i Zwor cÖev‡ni m~Îvejx:

imvq‡b 3 fv‡e cÖkœ Av‡m

†gv. †nv‡mb Avjx

ITEM : 02 Zi½ •`N¨© RwbZ mgm¨v t

 HOSSAIN SIR CHEMISTRY MATH SOULTION  31

ITEM :03 `ªve¨Zv ¸Ydj (S)m¤úwK©Z mgm¨v-

ITEM : 04 `ªve¨Zv ¸Ydj (Ksp) m¤úwK©Z mgm¨v- S&T

 HOSSAIN SIR CHEMISTRY MATH SOULTION  32