TM Physical Education XI (2024)

Teacher’s Manual
Physical Education XI
Chapter 1: Changing Trends and Careers in Physical Education
B. Very Short Answer Questions carrying 2 marks each (40-60 words)

1. Physical fitness is defined as development and care of the body by following instructions ranging
from simple calisthenics exercises to a course of study providing training in hygiene, gymnastics and
performance and management of athletic games.
2. Regular physical exercise helps an individual stay free from health-related problems such as obesity,
diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, etc. It is the best way to remain healthy and fit
throughout one’s life.
3. The psychological benefits of physical education and exercise include development of certain qualities
like perseverance, team spirit, leadership, discipline, tolerance, obedience to rules, and moderation
in victory and balance in defeat.
4. Physical exercise helps develop neuro-muscular skills like running, jumping, throwing, catching,
besides developing control and balance of the body. It also leads to development of reflexes. Actions
become quick as does reaction to any sensory stimulations.
5. At high school level, numerous opportunities exist for specialised physical education teachers who
focus on imparting physical education to students. Besides teaching theoretical aspects of various
sports, they also focus on practical aspects of the sport and are responsible for preparing the school
team for playing in inter-school competitions
6. Wellness opportunities as a career for trained physical educationists include weight management
consultant, sports nutritionist, spa consultant, corporate nutritional consultant and healthy eating
instructor.
7. Through ‘Khelo India’ programme, a number of sports are being promoted including archery,
athletics, badminton, basketball, boxing, football, gymnastics, hockey, judo, kabaddi, kho-kho,
shooting, swimming, volleyball, weightlifting and wrestling.
8. ‘Khelo India’ programme has been introduced to revive sports culture in the country at the grass-
roots level by building a strong framework for all sports played in the country and establish India as
a great sporting nation.
Talented players identified in priority sports disciplines at various levels by a high-powered
committee are provided a financial assistance of ` 5 lakh per annum for a period 8 years.
9. Talented players identified in priority sports disciplines at various levels by a high-powered
committee are provided a financial assistance of ` 5 lakh per annum for 8 years.
10. Sensors installed in shoes and clothing track health and biometrics to deliver real-time results to
scoreboards. These include heart rate monitors, inertial sensors, Accelerometers and gyroscopes,
GPS, LPS, VBT, Sleep trackers and pressure sensors.
11. Sports Authority of India (SAI) was set up with the aim of promoting sports at the grass-roots level
and providing support to athletes from disadvantaged sections of society. The SAI has established
several training centres across the country where talented athletes can receive coaching, training
and support to develop their skills and compete at national and international levels.
12. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) develops national curriculum for
elementary and secondary schools with physical education and sports included in the core curriculum.
2 Teacher’s Manual Physical Education XI
C. Short Answer Questions carrying 3 marks each (80-100 words)

1. Physical education plays an important role in our day-to-day life. It greatly affects an individual’s
lifestyle and health. Regular physical exercise helps an individual stay free from health-related
problems such as obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, etc. It is the best way to
remain healthy and fit throughout one’s life
2. Today, physical education has been accorded a prominent place in education. More and more national
and professional organizations are focused on modern physical education. Physical education
focuses on physical training, physical culture, sports, gymnastics, etc. Today, physical education
goes beyond the development of skills in games and sports and victory at events. While on the one
hand physical education helps build up organic health, on the other, it also aids the development of
mental and emotional health and social qualities considered desirable by the society. Physical and
mental development coexists which results in a sound mind and body
3. The various career options in the field of physical education are:

Teaching Sector: At all levels of schooling from primary to university level. Organising sports
events as well as regular games are also part of a teacher’s job profile.

Training Sector: Physical education also creates opportunities for trainers to train professional
sportspersons at school and university level.

Wellness Industry: Physical education offers opportunities for sports medicine specialist, sports
psychologist and sports nutritionist as well as a gym or personal trainer.

Media: Currently a lot of opportunities exist in sports journalism, photography and sports
broadcasting.

Performance-related Skills: Professional players need individual trainers. Teams and even
individuals need sports managers, planners and recreational managers.
4. The skills needed to pursue a career in physical education are communication skills, organisational
skills, ability to solve problems, promoting team spirit and maintaining high professional and ethical
standards.
While effective communication skills help emphasise important messages, encourage players and
connect with people, problem-solving skills help the team understand what they need to do to
overcome problems and to interact with other team members in case differences arise. Teamwork
teaches members of the team to trust each other as it requires each individual’s best efforts to
succeed.
5. With changing times, there has been tremendous expansion in employment opportunities in the
field of physical education.

Teaching Sector: At all levels of schooling—from primary to university level—teachers are the
progressive role models for students. Teaching at different levels involves development of different
skills.

Training Sector: Physical education also creates opportunities for trainers to train professional
sportspersons at college and university level. Once the trainers understand the potential of the
athletes, they devise specific, customised training schedules to get the best out of their students.

Wellness Industry: Physical education also offers an opportunity to become a sports medicine
specialist, sports psychologist and sports nutritionist as well as a gym or personal trainer. Wellness
areas include training, exercise, physiology, nutrition and medicine. Specialised physiotherapists
and nutritionists help ensure optimum performance from athletes.
Teacher’s Manual Physical Education XI 3

Media: Currently, a lot of opportunities exist in sports journalism, photography and sports
broadcasting. In all these fields, a physical education specialist can comprehend and offer a better
counsel than someone who is not trained in the related field. Complete knowledge of rules and
regulations is a prerequisite for any profession.
6. Currently a lot of opportunities exist in sports journalism, photography and sports broadcasting.
Most newspapers and magazines carry sports news routinely and sports journalists get a lot of
recognition. Those with a background in physical education or performance sports can do a better
job of explaining the finer points of the game than a layman.
Similarly, sports photography is also a specialised job. India today has a lot of sports magazines and
photographs are an integral part of this. A background in physical education can help a photographer
anticipate play and they can catch the best strikes and angles in their pictures. Emotions of a
sportsperson can also be captured beautifully.
Sports broadcasting as well as running commentary in games like cricket, boxing, football and
hockey come from a position of knowledge if the broadcaster is trained in the field. They not only
appreciate the finer points of the sport but can also bring them out very well. Event Marketing is
also a great career opportunity for those with physical education background.
7. Physical education creates opportunities for trainers to train professional sports persons at school
and university level.
Coaching opportunities exist in organisations like Sports Authority of India as well as many public
sector industries. Professional, full-time playing teams in many sports such as football and hockey
offer a well-paid coaching position. Among the attributes required to take up coaching as a career are
excellent communication skills, ability to inspire confidence and motivate participants besides the
ability to assess and solve problems. Also needed are determination and patience, good organisational
skills with a sensitive and supportive approach.
Many industrial units have now created sports programmes for their employees as an incentive and
appointed trained staff to be in charge of sports and recreation.
8. Physical education aims at developing a wholesome individual with a positive attitude towards all
aspects of life—physical, mental and emotional.
The main objectives of physical education are as follows:
1. Developing organic systems of the body
2. Developing neuromuscular coordination or skill
3. Developing right attitude towards sports and physical activities
4. Developing a desirable social attitude and conduct
5. Development of psychomotor skills
6. Development of understanding and appreciation of sports techniques and strategies
7. Elimination of worries and anxieties
8. Attainment of knowledge of proper health procedures related to physical exercises
9. Developing right health habits
10. To serve as an outlet for surplus energy
11. To provide adequate scope for developing aptitude and talent of the child
12. To promote certain qualities like sportsmanship, team spirit, leadership, patience, self-
restraint, cooperation, sociability and other qualities of character.
1. Developing neuromuscular coordination or skill: Physical activities help individuals
and groups develop certain skills, which give satisfaction and happiness in a variety of
ways during leisure time. Being physically illiterate (physical literacy means having a
positive attitude towards participation in physical activities), many people do not know
how to enjoy their leisure time, so they end up becoming unhappy, which leads to mental
and emotional problems. Individual and group sports activities enable people to give
wholesome expression to their innate desires and interests.
2. Developing right attitude towards sports and physical activities: The programme
of physical education is based on sound psychological principles. It develops in individuals
a wholesome attitude towards sports and physical activities and cultivates hobbies.
9. Women’s sports, traditionally neglected in India, has seen a growing recognition in recent years.
The Government of India has launched Khelo India Girls’ Games, which provides a platform for
young female athletes to showcase their skills and compete at national and international levels. As
a result, many female athletes have become household names in India, inspiring a new generation
of girls to take up sports and physical activity.
Another important development in the field of physical education and sports in India has been the
growing recognition of the importance of sports science and sports medicine. With the establishment
of NIS and SAI, there has been greater emphasis on research and innovation in sports science, as
well as on the development of new techniques and technologies to support athletes’ performance and
recovery. Additionally, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of sports medicine
in preventing and treating sports injuries, and several hospitals and clinics in India now offer
specialised services for athletes.
10. The skills needed to pursue a career in sports media are communication skills, organisational skills,
ability to solve problems, promoting team spirit and maintaining high professional and ethical
standards.
11. Teaching at different levels involves development of different skills.
At the elementary school level, basic skills and attitude towards sports are to be taught.
At the middle school level, physical education tends to take a more definitive shape because of a
syllabus that focuses on it.
At high school level, numerous opportunities exist for specialised physical education teachers who
focus on imparting physical education to students. At college and university level today, tremendous
opportunities exist for qualified physical education teachers.
Some interesting opportunities also exist in non-formal areas such as sports clubs, resorts, spas and
hotels. Old-age homes also need trained physical education teachers to teach their inmates about
physical fitness.
12. Nowadays sports are played both indoors and outdoors and the surfaces naturally vary. Traditionally
sport has been played on natural grass surface.

Types of Outdoor Sports Surfaces
1. Artificial Turf: Artificial turf is a surface of synthetic fibres made to look like natural grass.
Artificial turf is durable, easy to maintain and cheaper in the long run.
2. Polymeric Muga Sports Surfaces: An artificial grass area (MUGAs or AGPs) has a shock
pad. These areas are used for sports such as hockey, five-a-side football, soccer and. lacrosse.
3. PVC: It is of good quality, durable and able to withstand a lot of pressure besides being
extremely flexible, making it a great choice as a playing surface for different sports. However,
PVC courts are not recommended for tennis or netball.
4. EPDM Rubber Sports Courts: EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) rubber is a
synthetic elastomer.
5. Natural Grass: Natural grass offers a natural game-playing experience. But it is difficult
to maintain the surface quality in multisport environments. Environmental factors including
varying temperatures, rainfall, droughts and winter weather cause further damage. These
factors have necessitated the need to develop artificial turf.

Types of Indoor Sports Surfaces
1. Maple Hardwood: Maple hardwood is the traditional choice for basketball.
2. Polyurethane Athletic Flooring: Polyurethane athletic flooring is suitable for all kinds of
climate.
3. Recycled Rubber Flooring: Rubber floors are excellent as these are made from elastic and
durable material that has comfort, resilience and safety.
4. Vulcanised Rubber: Vulcanised rubber usually comprises a recycled underlayment with a
virgin rubber layer on top for colour.
5. Tennis Surfaces: Though the measurements of all tennis courts are the same, the variety of
surfaces on which matches are played can be segregated into four primary types—grass courts,
hard courts, clay courts and artificial grass.
D. Long Answer Questions carrying 5 marks each (150-200 words)
1. The career options in physical education include teaching, training, wellness coaches, media experts
and as individual trainers to professional athletes.
Professional players need individual trainers. Teams and even individuals need sports managers,
planners and recreational managers. This is because the current competitive environment requires
skill, devotion, sustenance and hard work. Different sports need separate officials for various levels
of competition.
Physical education also offers an opportunity to become a sports medicine specialist, sports
psychologist and sports nutritionist as well as a gym or personal trainer. Wellness areas include
training, exercise, physiology, nutrition and medicine. Sports medicine today is a superspecialty.
Specialised physiotherapists and nutritionists help ensure optimum performance from athletes.
Sports physiotherapists help manage recovery of athletes from sport-induced injuries and also in
prevention and rehabilitation of musculoskeletal injuries. Wellness opportunities as a career for
trained physical educationists include weight management consultant, sports nutritionist, spa
consultant, corporate nutritional consultant and healthy eating instructor.
2. Physical education is “a part of general education programme, which is considered with growth,
development and education of children through the medium of big muscle activities. It is the
education of whole child by means of physical activities.”
Physical education plays an important role in our day-to-day life. It greatly affects an individual’s
lifestyle and health. Regular physical exercise helps an individual stay free from health-related
problems such as obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, etc. It is the best way to
remain healthy and fit throughout one’s life.
Physical education is an educational course related to the physique of a person. It is undertaken

during primary and secondary education and encourages psychomotor learning in a play or movement
exploration setting to promote health. Physical education also provides psychological benefits such
as improving general mental health, concentration, awareness and positive mood. It also aids
incorporation of knowledge about health and nutrition into the physical education curriculum.
Physical education focuses on physical training, physical culture, sports, gymnastics, etc. Physical
education goes beyond the development of skills in games and sports and victory at events. While
on the one hand physical education helps build up organic health, on the other, it also aids the
development of mental and emotional health and social qualities considered desirable by society.
Today, capable and intelligent leadership during the play periods guides children in developing an
appropriate behaviour towards their teammates, opponents, officials and spectators.
aspects of life.
The main objectives of physical education are as follows:
1. Developing organic systems of the body
2. Developing neuromuscular coordination or skill
3. Developing right attitude towards sports and physical activities
4. Developing a desirable social attitude and conduct
5. Development of psychomotor skills
6. Development of understanding and appreciation of sports techniques and strategies
7. Elimination of worries and anxieties
8. Attainment of knowledge of proper health procedures related to physical exercises
9. Developing right health habits
10. To serve as an outlet for surplus energy which, if pent up, makes the child tense, nervous and
irritable.
11. To meet the challenges of growing indiscipline among the student community by instilling in
them a sense of patriotism, self-reliance and discipline.
12. To provide adequate scope for developing aptitude and talent of the child.
13. To promote certain qualities like sportsmanship, team spirit, leadership, patience, self-
restraint, cooperation, sociability and other qualities of character.
aspects of life—physical, mental and emotional.
Physical education helps in developing a desirable social attitude by laying emphasis on ethical
values inherent in playing games with or against others. A desirable social attitude and conduct
can be developed through a programme of well-organised physical activities. It gives an opportunity
for social contact, group living and adjusting with the different people of all ages and temperament
in the group. People who are regular at physical education develop a healthy respect for the
community and appreciate the social opportunities such activities offer. This in turn helps them
be even tempered and appreciate the opportunity life offers. It also develops students’ confidence
and generic skills, especially those of collaboration, communication, creativity, critical thinking and
aesthetic appreciation. These, together with nurturing of positive values and attitudes, provide a
good foundation for students’ lifelong learning and becoming a well settled member of the society.
5. Physical education creates opportunities for trainers to train professional sportspersons at school,
university and international competition level. Since the trainers understand the potential of the
athletes, they devise specific, customised training schedules to get the best out of their students. In
the early stages, like during high school, students are taught the rules of the game as well as skills
required to play those games. Most coaches at this level are former players themselves.
Once they become trainers, they develop specialised skills in students to compete at national and
international levels. Many industrial units have now created sports programmes for their employees
as an incentive and appointed trained staff to be in charge of sports and recreation Coaching
opportunities exist with organisations like Sports Authority of India as well as many public sector
industries. Professional, full-time playing teams in many sports such as football and hockey offer a
well-paid coaching position. Besides financial rewards, respect and recognition are also received by
a coach. Among the attributes required to take up coaching as a career are excellent communication
skills, ability to inspire confidence and motivate participants besides the ability to assess and solve
problems. Also needed are determination and patience, good organisational skills with a sensitive
and supportive approach. One can become a coach by acquiring a degree in sports coaching, sports
development, exercise and sports science, sports management or human movement
6. Currently a lot of opportunities exist in sports journalism, photography and sports broadcasting. In
all these fields, a physical education specialist can offer a better counsel than someone who is not
trained in the related field. Complete knowledge of rules and regulations is an added advantage
The skills needed to pursue a career in physical education are communication skills, organisational
skills, ability to solve problems, promoting team spirit and maintaining high professional and ethical
standards.
Most newspapers and magazines carry sports news routinely and sports journalist gets a lot of
recognition. Those with a background in physical education or performance sports can do a better
job of explaining the finer points of the game than a layman.
Similarly, sports photography is also a specialised job. India today has a lot of sports magazines and
photographs are an integral part of this. A background in physical education can help a photographer
anticipate play and they can catch the best strikes and angles in their pictures. Emotions of a
sportsperson can also be captured beautifully.
Sports broadcasting as well as running commentary in games like cricket, boxing, football and
hockey come from a position of knowledge if the broadcaster is trained in the field. They not only
appreciate the finer points of the sport but can also bring them out very well. Event Marketing is
also a great career opportunity for those with physical education background.
A.
7. The ‘Khelo India’ programme has been introduced to revive sports culture in India at the grass-root
level by building a strong framework for all sports played in the country and establish India as a
great sporting nation.
Talented players identified in priority sport disciplines at various levels by a high-powered committee
are provided a financial assistance of ` 5 lakh per annum for 8 years.
The idea of Khelo India is to promote team spirit, develops strategic and analytical thinking,
leadership skills, goal-setting and risk-taking. Fit and healthy individuals lead to an equally healthy
society and a strong nation. Sports is an extremely important component for the overall development
of any nation. In the last few years, India has made steady progress in the field of sports. This
tremendous potential needs to be showcased at a global platform. It is time we inspire young talent,
give them top-notch infrastructure and training of the highest level. We need to inculcate a strong
spirit of participation in sports that enables players to demonstrate their true potential. This is done
by holding Khelo India School Games, which are part of the Khelo India programme where under-17
athletes participated, initially, across 16 disciplines, which were: archery, athletics, badminton,
basketball, boxing, football, gymnastics, hockey, judo, kabaddi, kho-kho, shooting, swimming,
volleyball, weightlifting and wrestling.
Now, Khelo India School Games are known as the Khelo India Youth Games as students from
colleges and universities also participate. Also, in 2020, the first Khelo India Winter Games were
held.
8. Physical education offers an opportunity to become a sports medicine specialist, sports psychologist
and sports nutritionist as well as a gym or personal trainer. Wellness areas include training,
exercise, physiology, nutrition and medicine. Sports medicine today is a superspecialty. Specialised
physiotherapists and nutritionists help ensure optimum performance from athletes. Sports
physiotherapists help manage recovery of athletes from sport induced injuries and also in prevention
and rehabilitation of musculoskeletal injuries.
Wellness opportunities as a career for trained physical educationists include weight management
consultant, sports nutritionist, spa consultant, corporate nutritional consultant and healthy eating
instructor. Currently, a host of institutions offer training courses in sports nutrition. With focus now
on slimming, fresh opportunities have opened up for experts who help with physical activity as well
as dietary advice.
Trainers not only help in preventing injuries but also help build up stamina and endurance. Sports
nutritionists prepare menu and dietary guidelines for individuals as well as for the whole team.
Gym instructors provide personalised training. Depending on the athlete, they develop customised
exercise schedules to improve their muscle strength and reach. Sports psychologists help improve
performance of the athletes by improving their mental health. They also help treat their mental
health-related issues such as performance, anxiety, stress, eating disorders and depression.
9. The general advantages of artificial surfaces over natural surfaces can be summarised as follows:
1. Greater durability–life of artificial pitches is much longer than natural surfaces
2. More efficient use of pace
3. Lower maintenance cost
4. Flexibility
5. Better overall value for money
6. Defines performance characteristics
Artificial surfaces can provide an array of cost-effective and efficient facilities to suit a wide range of
sports and physical activities.
10. Vulcanised rubber usually comprises a recycled underlayment with a virgin rubber layer on top for
colour. It helps reduce fatigue but it is less suitable for team events. However, it is fast to lay, lasts
much longer and needs very little regular maintenance. Also, it is less dangerous when it comes
to sports injuries as it is much more resilient and softer than other surfaces. Vulcanized rubber is
highly resilient to wear and tear, does not absorb water easily, has a high resistance to oxidation
and abrasions, is an excellent insulator, and is resistant to organic solvents. Also, it not only absorbs
even the most violent impact, but also reduces muscle stress and supports leg exertion. It is a good
electric insulator and is environment friendly, best used for sports like weight training, running,
aerobics, ice skating and hockey.
Chapter 2: Olympism (Olympic Value Education)

1. The objective of the modern Olympic Games is to promote international understanding, encourage
physical fitness, foster friendship and goodwill, and promote peace.
2. The ancient Olympic Games were held every four years at the sacred site of Olympia in the western
Peloponnese, in honour of Zeus, the supreme Greek god. The Games, held from 776 BC to 393 AD,
involved participants and spectators from all over Greece and even beyond. The ancient Games
included running, long jump, shot put, javelin, boxing, pankration and equestrian events.
3. The traditional Olympics motto was Citius, Altius, Fortius, which is Latin for Faster, Higher,
Stronger. The motto was created in 1891 but in 2021, the motto was changed. It now reads in Latin
“Citius, Altius, Fortius—Communiter”, which translates into English as “Faster, Higher, Stronger—
Together”.
4. The Winter Olympics were created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to
hold during the Summer Games. Figure skating and ice hockey were the first such sports. Initially,
the Winter Games were held every four years together with the Summer Olympics, but since the
1994 Games, Winter Olympics are held every four years, two years after the Summer Olympics.
5. The three values of Olympism are Excellence, Respect and Friendship. They constitute the foundation
on which the Olympic movement builds its activities to promote sports, culture and education. The
idea of Olympism is expressed as “a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole
the qualities of body, will and mind”.
The Olympic movement has five key value education themes to help young people understand and
practise the principles of Olympism. These are joy of effort, fair play, respect for others, pursuit of
excellence and balance of body, mind and will.
6. Indian Olympic Association (IOA) is the body responsible for selecting athletes to represent India
at the Olympic Games, Asian Games and other international athletic meets and for managing the
Indian teams at these events. The IOA is currently governed by a 32-member Executive Council,
headed by a president. The members of the IOA include National Sports Federations, State Olympic
Associations, IOC members and other select multi-sport organisations.
7. IOA is currently governed by a 32-member Executive Council, headed by a President. The members
of IOA include National Sports Federations, State Olympic Associations, IOC members and other
select multi-sport organisations.
8. An Olympic medal is awarded to successful competitors at the Olympic Games. There are three
classes of medals to be won – gold, silver and bronze – awarded to athletes in the first, second and
third position respectively. The granting of awards is laid out in detail in the Olympic protocols. The
gold, silver and bronze medals awarded to competitors at the Olympics and Paralympics represent
the highest levels of athletic achievement at the Games. The design of the medals is the responsibility
of the host city's organizing committee and varies with each edition of the Games.
9. Fair play is about respecting the rules, opponents and officials, and upholding the spirit of
sportsmanship in all aspects of competition. In the context of sports and physical education, fair play
encourages individuals to compete in the spirit of mutual respect and understanding and to uphold
the principles of fair competition. This means playing by the rules, showing respect for opponents
and accepting both victory and defeat with grace and dignity.
10. The joy of effort is a value that is about the satisfaction and sense of fulfilment that comes from
striving for one’s goals and putting in efforts to achieve them. This value encourages individuals to
persevere in the face of challenges and to appreciate the process of achieving success as much as the
outcome itself.

1. The original Olympic oath is: “In the name of all competitors, I promise that we shall take part in
these Olympic Games, respecting and abiding by the rules which govern them, in the true spirit of
sportsmanship, committing ourselves to a sport without doping and without drugs, for the glory of
sport and the honour of our teams.”
At the Olympics’ opening ceremony, always three oaths are taken: one by an athlete on behalf of all
athletes, one by a coach on behalf of all coaches and one by a judge/official on behalf of all officials.
It was in 1920 that the practice of taking oath started.
2. The Olympic flag was first flown in the city of Antwerp in 1920. The five interlaced rings are of
equal dimensions, representing the idea that all continents are equal at the Games. Each ring thus
represents an inhabited continent of the world namely Africa, America, Asia, Europe, and Oceania.
The Olympic rings remain a global representation of the Olympic movement and its activity. The
colours of the five interlocking rings of the Olympic flag are Blue, Yellow, Black, Green and Red.
3. The opening ceremony is a majestic show through which each host nation exhibits its culture, history
and achievements. There are then a number of protocols and rituals that must be performed – the
Games must be declared open by the host nation’s head of state; the Olympic flag must be carried
into the stadium and raised; the Olympic oath must be spoken by an athlete, judge and coach; and
doves of peace must be symbolically released. Next comes the culmination of the torch relay, during
which a famous figure will light the Olympic flame. A gigantic fireworks display ends the opening
ceremony
4. In addition to the Olympic medals for competitors, the IOC awards a number of other honours.
· The Pierre de Coubertin medal is awarded to athletes who demonstrate a special spirit of
sportsmanship in Olympic events.
· The Olympic Cup is awarded to institutions or associations with a record of merit and integrity
in actively developing the Olympic movement.
· The Olympic Order is awarded to individuals for exceptionally distinguished contributions to
the Olympic movement.
· The Olympic Laurel is awarded to individuals for promoting education, culture, development
and peace through sports.
· The Olympic Town status has been given to some towns that have been particularly important
for the Olympic movement.
5. The Winter Olympics were needed to allow for sports that are exclusive to cold weather. The Winter
Olympic Games is a multi-sport event held every four years, with the sports taking place exclusively
on snow or ice. The event, also called the Winter Games, includes cold-weather events on snow
(skiing, snowboarding, biathlon) and ice (figure skating, hockey, speed skating, curling, bobsled,
luge, skeleton). Six sports have appeared in every Winter Olympics: cross-country skiing, figure
skating, hockey, Nordic combined, ski jumping and speed skating.
6. As the leader of the Olympic movement, the IOC acts as a catalyst for collaboration between all
parties of the Olympic family from the National Olympic Committees, the International Federations,
the athletes and the Organising Committees for the Olympic Games to the Worldwide Olympic
Partners, broadcast partners and United Nations (UN) agencies and ensures regular holding of
the Olympic Games. It supports all affiliated member organisations of the Olympic Movement and
strongly encourages, by appropriate means, the promotion of Olympic values. IOC’s stated mission
is to promote the Olympics throughout the world and to lead the Olympic Movement.
7. The Indian Olympic Association (IOA) is the body responsible for selecting athletes to represent
India at the Olympic Games, Asian Games and other international athletic meets and for managing
the Indian teams at these events. The IOA is currently governed by a 32-member Executive Council,
headed by a President. The members of the IOA include National Sports Federations, State Olympic
Associations, IOC members and other select multi-sport organisations. Its role is to supervise, support
and help monitor the organisation of the Games, ensure that they run smoothly, and make sure that
the rules of the Olympic Charter are respected by the teams India sends for the competitions.
8. This is one of the values which are fundamental to the Olympic movement and is based on the
principle of treating others with dignity, understanding and compassion. In the context of sports and
physical education, respect for others encourages individuals to treat their opponents, teammates,
coaches and officials with respect and understanding. This means refraining from unsportsmanlike
behaviour such as taunting, cheating and foul play and, instead, embracing the principles of fair
play and sportsmanship.
The OVE programme seeks to promote respect for others through a variety of initiatives, such as
educational programmes, community events and workshops. These initiatives aim to raise awareness
about the importance of respect for others and encourage individuals to adopt respectful attitudes
and behaviours in their daily lives.
9. The Olympic movement has embraced five key value education themes:
1. The joy of effort is a value that is about the satisfaction and sense of fulfilment that comes from
striving for one’s goals and putting in effort to achieve them. This value encourages individuals
to persevere in the face of challenges and to appreciate the process of achieving success as much
as the outcome itself.
2. Fair play is about respecting the rules, opponents and officials, and upholding the spirit of
sportsmanship in all aspects of competition.
3. Respect for others is based on the principle of treating others with dignity, understanding and
compassion. This means refraining from unsportsmanlike behaviour such as taunting, cheating
and foul play.
4. Pursuit of excellence is based on the principle of striving to be the best that one can be and
continuously seeking to improve one’s skills, knowledge and performance.
5. Balance among body, mind and spirit is based on the principle of maintaining a healthy and
balanced lifestyle that encompasses physical, mental and emotional well-being.

1. The modern Olympic Games are the leading international sporting event featuring summer and
winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a
variety of games. The Olympic Games are considered the world’s foremost sports competition with
more than 200 nations participating. Barring unforeseen circumstances, the Games are held every
four years, alternating between the Summer and Winter Olympics every two years in the four-year
period.
2. The ancient Olympic Games were held every four years at the sacred site of Olympia in western
Peloponnese, in honour of Zeus, the supreme Greek god. The Games, held from 776 BC to 393 AD,
involved participants and spectators from all over Greece and even beyond. The ancient Games
included running, long jump, shot put, javelin, boxing, pankration and equestrian events. The
Games officially came to an end around 394 AD when Roman emperor Theodosius I outlawed pagan
celebrations.
In 1894, Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) leading to the
first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The modern Olympic Games are the leading international
sporting event featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes
from around the world participate in a variety of games. The Olympic Games are considered the
world’s foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Games are held
every four years, alternating between the Summer and Winter Olympics every two years in the four-
year period.
3. The first modern Winter Olympic Games were held in 1924 in Chamonix, France. There were no
winter Olympic Games in ancient times. The Winter Olympics were created to feature snow and ice
sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games. Figure skating and ice
hockey were the first such sports. The IOC had decided that the Winter Games will be held every
four years together with the Summer Olympics. Separate Winter Games, first agreed upon in 1911
to be held in 1916, could take place only in 1924 owing to World War I. This continued through
the 1992 Games in Albertville, France, but thereafter, since the 1994 Games, Winter Olympics are
held every four years, two years after the Summer Olympics, to provide sufficient time for planning
the two events. The modern-day Winter Olympic Games now include 15 different sports—such as
snowboarding, biathlon, and luge—with more than 100 events.
4. “The important thing in life is not the triumph, but the fight; the essential thing is not to have won,
but to have fought well”. Inspired by the words of the Bishop of Pennsylvania, Ethelbert Talbot,
Pieree de Coubertin first spoke this phrase in a slightly different form at a reception given by the
British government on 24th July, 1908. It went on to become the Olympic Movement’s creed.
5. The traditional Olympics motto was Citius, Altius, Fortius, which is Latin for Faster, Higher,
Stronger. The motto was created in 1891 by Father Henri Didon, a friend of Coubertin, and adopted
by the IOC in 1894.
In 2021, a new motto for the Olympics was created. It now reads in Latin “Citius, Altius, Fortius
— Communiter” and translates into English as “Faster, Higher, Stronger—Together. It expresses
the aspirations of the Olympic movement not only in its athletic and technical sense but also from a
moral and educational perspective.
6. The Olympic symbol comprises five rings of five different colours – (from left to right) blue, yellow,
black, green and red. The rings symbolise the union of the five continents, and the participation
of the athletes at these Games and express the activity of the Olympic movement. The Olympic
Charter once ascribed a ring colour to each continent: blue for Europe, yellow for Asia, black for
Africa, green for Oceania, and red for America.
7. IOC’s role is to supervise, support and monitor the organisation of the Games, ensure that they run
smoothly and make sure that the rules of the Olympic Charter are respected. The Executive Board,
founded in 1921, consists of the IOC President, four Vice-Presidents and ten other members. All
the members of the Executive Board are elected by secret ballot, by a majority of votes cast, for a
four-year term. As the leader of the Olympic movement, the IOC acts as a catalyst for collaboration
between all parties of the Olympic family from the National Olympic Committees, the International
Federations, the athletes and the Organising Committees for the Olympic Games to the Worldwide
Olympic Partners, broadcast partners and United Nations (UN) agencies and ensures regular
holding of the Olympic Games. It supports all affiliated member organisations of the Olympic
movement and strongly encourages, by appropriate means, the promotion of Olympic values. IOC
is the governing body of the National Olympic Committees (NOCs). As of 2020, there are 206 NOCs
officially recognised by the IOC.
IOC organises the modern Olympic Games and Youth Olympic Games (YOG), held in summer and
winter, every four years. IOC’s stated mission is to promote the Olympics throughout the world and
to lead the Olympic movement.
8. In 1927, Indian Olympic Association (IOA) was formed, with Sir Dorabji Tata as its founding
President and Dr. A.G. Noehren as Secretary. The same year, Indian Olympic Association was
officially recognised by the International Olympic Committee. In its initial years, Indian Olympic
Association selected sportspersons to represent India at the Olympic Games. Ahead of the 1948
Olympics, the IOA Council sent teams for athletics, swimming, weightlifting, wrestling, boxing,
football and hockey, with officials for each of these sports, and a chief manager. From 1948 onwards,
India began sending teams representing several sports – each selected by its respective National
Sports Federations. The Indian Olympic Association is currently governed by a 32-member Executive
Council, headed by President. The election for the Executive Council is held once every four years
The members of the IOA include National Sports Federations, State Olympic Associations, IOC
Members and other select multi-sport organisations. In accordance with the Olympic Charter, the
membership for National Sports Federations mostly includes NSFs that govern sports featured in
the sports programme of the Summer Olympic Games, Winter Olympic Games, Asian Games and
Commonwealth Games.
9. Modern Olympic Games and the ancient Olympics are different in many respects—today’s Olympics
are strictly secular while ancient Olympics were steeped in religion; the modern Games have 42
disciplines compared to 6 in the ancient Olympics. Most importantly, today men and women of all
nationalities are invited to compete in the Games. Modern-day Olympics, like ancient Olympics,
are held every four years with participants competing against each other. Modern Olympics were,
however, not held in 1916, 1940 and 1944 owing to the two World Wars.
The Olympic movement is the concerted, organised, universal and permanent action, carried out
under the supreme authority of the IOC, of all individuals and entities who are inspired by the
values of Olympism. The goal of the Olympic Movement is to contribute to building a peaceful
and better world by educating youth through sports practised in accordance with Olympism
and its values. Olympism is a philosophy that seeks to blend sports with culture, education and
international cooperation. It emphasises the joy of effort, the educational value of good examples,
social responsibility, and respect for universal ethical principles.
10. The Olympic movement has embraced five key value education themes to help young people
understand and practise the principles of Olympism. These are the joy of effort, fair play, respect for
others, the pursuit of excellence and balance among body, will and mind.
The joy of effort is a value that is deeply embedded in the Olympic movement. It is about the
satisfaction and sense of fulfilment that comes from striving for one’s goals and putting in efforts
to achieve them. This value encourages individuals to persevere in the face of challenges and to
appreciate the process of achieving success as much as the outcome itself.
Fair play is about respecting the rules, opponents and officials, and upholding the spirit of
sportsmanship in all aspects of competition. In the context of sports and physical education, fair play
encourages individuals to compete in the spirit of mutual respect and understanding and to uphold
the principles of fair competition. This means playing by the rules, showing respect for opponents
and accepting both victories and defeat with grace and dignity.
These initiatives aim to inspire individuals to adopt a healthy and balanced lifestyle.
Chapter 3: Yoga

1. Yoga was first developed by the Indus-Saraswati River Valley Civilisation in northern India over
5,000 years ago. The word yoga was first mentioned in the Rig Veda, a collection of texts containing
songs, mantras and rituals to be used by priests. Yoga was slowly refined and developed by the
Brahmins, teaching the sacrifice of the ego through self-knowledge, action and wisdom.
2. Yogic Kriyas are cleansing techniques that cleanse various internal organs of the body. They are
also called shatkriyas or shatkarmas as they are six in number. Shatkarmas cleanse and activate all
vital organs of the body, especially the digestive, respiratory, circulatory and nervous systems. They
are preventive as well as curative in nature. The capacity to digest, taste, work, think and feel gets
enhanced.
3. Neti Kriya is a type of Yogic nasal-cleansing exercise. It is one of the six kriyas. Neti Kriya is designed
to purify the nasal passages and bathe the sinuses. Neti Kriyas remove toxins and anything blocking
the flow of prana or energy in the body. Various types of liquids are used to practise this.
4. Nauli is one of the shatkarmas in yogic kriyas, which uses the abdominal muscles to massage the
organs in the abdomen and stomach region. It has immense health benefits. This involves a rolling
movement of the abdominal muscles. The benefits of nauli include massage of internal organs to
keep them healthy, strengthening of stomach muscles and vital organs and improving digestion.
5. Yoga leads to relaxation, both mental and physical. Relaxation in yoga is a systematic process that
follows a set pattern of activities to be done in order to achieve it. First, one must collapse physically,
as in corpse pose, and let go of all the tension in the muscles of the body, taking one's attention to one
body part at a time and releasing the body to the force of gravity. The relaxing poses in yoga include
Paschimottanasana, Malasana, Balasana, Viparita Karani, Sukhasana, Matsyasana and Savasana.
6. Samadhi is the eighth and final stage of ashtanga and is defined as a state of ecstasy. This stage
is marked by the realisation of a profound connection to the Divine. With this realisation comes
the experience of bliss and being one with the Universe. Enlightenment can neither be bought nor
possessed. It can only be experienced, the price of which is the continual devotion of the aspirant.
7. Regular yoga practice works in two important ways to improve focus and concentration. Yoga
increases blood circulation to the brain and, secondly, yoga immediately stimulates brain function.
Inverted postures like headstand and Sarvangasana shoulder stand nourish the brain by increasing
the circulation of blood and oxygen. Practising yoga quiets the mind and keeps distracting thoughts
at bay. The asanas that enhance focus include Tadasana, Vrikshasana, Garudasana, Natarajasa
and Bakasana. Ustrasana and Paschimottanasana also help.
8. Plavini pranayam, derived from the Sanskrit word “plavini” meaning swimming, involves rhythmic
breathing techniques that offer individuals a sense of bodily lightness, sharper intellect, and a calm
mind. Practise Plavini pranayama on an empty stomach or 5-6 hours after a meal. There shouldn't
be any obstruction while taking air through the nostrils to the stomach. As it is a practice that needs
good control of your breath, it should be practised under guidance.

1. Modern yoga has eight elements. These are yama which stands for restraint, niyama which means
positive duties or observances, asana which refers to posture, pranayama which are breathing
techniques, pratyahara meaning sense withdrawal, dharana which is focused concentration,
dhyana standing for meditative absorption and samadhi meaning bliss or enlightenment. Together,
these constitute the ashtanga of yoga. Of these eight, the three basic elements in yoga are Asanas,
Pranayama and Concentration. Asanas are poses that exercise the front, back and side of the body
equally. A full range of movements such as horizontal and vertical expansion are created while
performing asanas.
2. A concentration technique is an exercise used to improve focus, deepen awareness or otherwise
boost brainpower. The purpose of concentration techniques is to discover how to focus the mind on
one point for a sustained duration. Dharana, the sixth limb of yoga, is a state of focused attention
used during asana, pranayama and meditation. Dharana is a Sanskrit word that is translated as
“concentration.” Dharana is the general yoga term for practices that train the mind to become clear,
focused and single-pointed. Yoga is a powerful tool that helps stimulate the brain and improve the
power of the mind. Padmasana, Bhramari Pranayama, Paschimottanasana, Padahastasana and
Halasana all help improve focus and concentration.
4. Yoga leads to relaxation, both mental and physical. Relaxation in yoga is a systematic process that
follows a set pattern of activities to be done in order to achieve it. First, one must collapse physically,
as in corpse pose, and let go of all the tension in the muscles of the body, taking one's attention to one
body part at a time and releasing the body to the force of gravity. The relaxing poses in yoga include
Paschimottanasana, Malasana, Balasana, Viparita Karani, Sukhasana, Matsyasana and Savasana.
6. Pranayama is the formal practice of controlling the breath. The three steps in performing pranayama
are Inhalation, Exhalation and Retention. While there are many types of pranayama, two of them
are:
1. Nadishodhan Pranayama or Anulom Vilom, where one breathes through the left nasal
cavity, holds the breath and then slowly exhales through the right nostril and vice versa. It
reduces anxiety and stress, increases concentration and strengthens the immune system.
2. Surya Bhedana Pranayama, where the breath is taken from the right nostril, retained for
a few seconds and then released through the left nostril. This helps avoid premature ageing,
eliminates stomach worms, removes air-borne disorders, reduces headaches, lowers blood
pressure and benefits in respiratory problems.
7. Nadishodhan pranayama is also called Anulom Vilom. In this pranayama, one breathes through
the left nasal cavity, holds the breath and then slowly exhales through the right nostril and vice
versa. Anulom Vilom is especially beneficial for the respiratory tract, the heart, brain and for people
suffering from high blood pressure. You may practise Anulom Vilom multiple times a day in the
morning, noon and evening. To reap optimum benefits, aim to practise it for at least 30 minutes
daily (including all sessions) for a month. After practising it consistently for a month, increase your
time by 10 minutes per session. The breathing technique in Anulom Vilom helps to manage stress,
improves mental stability, calms the mind, keeps anxiety and depression at bay, and boosts the
mood.
8. The three cycles of breathing in pranayama are:
(a) Inhalation, called puraka
(b) Exhalation, called rechaka
(c) Retention, called kumbhaka or holding of the breath, either between inhalation and exhalation
(Antara kumbhaka) or between exhalation and inhalation (Bahya kumbhaka)
It involves regulating your breath in different lengths, frequencies and durations. The goal is
to connect your body and mind through pranayama. Apart from cleansing your body of toxins,
it also supplies the body with ample oxygen and is intended to have physiological effects that
promote healing.
*Answer to Q. No. 3 and 5 are not being provided as they are no longer part of the syllabus.
9. Corpse Pose or Shavasana is an asana in hatha yoga and modern yoga often used for relaxation at
the end of a session. It is the usual pose for the practice of yoga nidra meditation and is an important
pose in Restorative Yoga. This asana offers several benefits which include managing diabetes,
depression and insomnia. It may also help in lowering blood pressure and decreasing headache. It is
a key component of asana practice in almost every yoga tradition and is most commonly used at the
end of a sequence as a means of relaxation and integration.
10. Yoga improves strength, balance and flexibility, boosts self-esteem, mood, sleep quality and energy,
as well as reduces the risk of stress, clinical depression, dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Yoga
provides an excellent workout and as an aerobic workout, adding yoga into the training regimen
helps get in shape and recover from injuries. Slow movements and deep breathing increase blood
flow and warm up the muscles while holding a pose can build strength. Benefits include improved
blood circulation, a stronger immune system and a stronger respiratory system. Fatigue also gets
decreased. Also, it leads to a peaceful mind to complement a healthy body. Yoga releases the toxins
that get accumulated in the cells of our body due to everyday stress.

1. Yoga was first developed by the Indus-Saraswati River Valley Civilisation in northern India over
5,000 years ago. The word yoga was first mentioned in the oldest sacred text, the Rig Veda. The
Vedas were a collection of texts containing songs, mantras and rituals to be used by priests. Yoga was
slowly refined and developed by the Brahmins and rishis who documented their practices and beliefs
in the Upanishads, a huge work containing over 200 scriptures. The most renowned of the Yogic
scriptures is the Bhagavad Gita, composed around 500 B.C. The Upanishads took the idea of ritual
sacrifice from the Vedas and internalised it, teaching the sacrifice of the ego through self-knowledge,
action (Karma yoga) and wisdom (Jnana yoga). Pre-classical yoga is also known variously as Jnana
yoga, Bhakti yoga, Karma yoga and Raja yoga.
2. In the Yoga Sutras, the eight-fold path is called ashtanga, which literally means “eight limbs”
(ashta = eight, anga = limb). These eight steps are a guideline on how to live a good life. The focus is
on moral and ethical conduct and self-discipline. These are designed to improve health and benefit
in spiritual areas of our lives. The first four stages of Patanjali’s Ashtanga yoga concentrate on
refining our personalities, gaining mastery over the body and developing an energetic awareness of
ourselves, to prepare for the second half of this process which deals with the senses, the mind and
attaining a higher state of consciousness.
Thus, for all practical purposes, yoga consists of eight separate branches as given below:
1. Yama—Restraints, moral disciplines, or moral vows
2. Niyama—Positive duties or observances
3. Asana—Posture
4. Pranayama—Breathing techniques
5. Pratyahara—Sense withdrawal
6. Dharana—Focused concentration
7. Dhyana—Meditative absorption
8. Samadhi—Bliss or enlightenment
3. Neti Kriya is a type of yogic nasal-cleansing exercise. It is one of six kriyas. Neti Kriya is designed to
purify the nasal passages and bathe the sinuses. Neti Kriyas are said to remove toxins and anything
blocking the flow of prana or energy in the body. They prepare the body for yoga practice such as
asanas, pranayama and meditation by eliminating physical distractions, discomfort and fatigue.
Neti is a Sanskrit term derived from the roots na and ti, which together translate as “not so”.
Various types of liquids are used to practise this. These include:

· Jala (water), practised using a neti pot filled with saline solution to cleanse the nasal passages
· Ksheer or dugdha (milk), where warm milk is used instead of water
· Tail (oil), where hair oil is used to clean nasal passages
· Ghrita (ghee), where Neti pot is filled with warm ghee instead
· Sutra (thread), where a thread is passed through the nostrils and taken out of the mouth
· Swamutra (self-urine)
· Gomutra (cow urine)
4. Dhouti is beneficial for purification of the oesophagus and stomach since it is a method of washing
up of the entire track starting from the mouth to the digestive path at the beginning of the small
intestines. One can wash the mouth in the daily routine but one cannot wash the oesophagus or the
stomach. The impurities residing there are carried along with the food particles and are mixed in
some proportion with the blood. This has adverse effects on the body. In the case of some, stomach
wash is affected by introducing a rubber tube into the stomach. This process is done in yoga without
any external instruments, only with the physical movements of the internal organs in the body. This
process of stomach wash is done with the help of dand (catheter), water or cloth. The most common
is the one done with the help of water called Jala Dhouti or Kunjala Kriya.
5. Kapalbhati is a yogic kriya designed to stimulate brain cells and purify the brain. Kapalbhati
comes from the word ‘Kapal’ which means ‘forehead’ and ‘Bhati’ which means ‘to shine’. Kapalbhati
generates heat in the body, dissolving toxins and other waste matter. It improves the functioning of
the kidneys and liver, helps remove stress from the eyes and erases dark circles. Also, it enhances
blood circulation and digestion, and increases metabolic rate, thus aiding weight loss. It stimulates
abdominal organs and is, thus, helpful for diabetic patients. It rejuvenates the brain and energises
nerves. The process has a calming effect and uplifts the mind. It gives a sense of balance, and
makes one feel pure and clutter-free. It eliminates acidity and gas-related problems. Kapalbhati
strengthens the lungs. It improves memory and concentration. The practice clears and activates the
chakras in the body. It helps in curing asthma, sinus and hair loss. It keeps depression at bay and
fills one with positivity. It is best done on an empty stomach.
7. ‘Prana’ is breath or vital energy in the body and ‘ayama’ means control. So, pranayama is ‘control
of breath’. Pranayama, thus, is the formal practice of controlling the breath, which is the source of
our prana or vital life force. It is recommended to do pranayama early in the morning, one to two
hours before sunrise, when oxygen content is maximum in the air. Also, early in the morning, the
body is fresh and the mind is clear. As we are on an empty stomach, this makes mornings ideal for
pranayama. There are three steps in performing pranayama. These are Inhalation, called puraka,
Exhalation, called rechaka, and Retention, called kumbhaka.
Controlled breathing occurs during pranayama. Holding of breath is an important practice for
attaining samadhi. And so, this practice in yoga is purely focused on breath control.
8. Many yogic poses lead to stress relief. These include:
Cat-Cow Pose or Bitilasana which connects the breath to movements and calms the mind and
releases stress, Child’s Pose also known as Balasana which creates an inward focus and restores
energy, besides supporting mental and physical relaxation, Legs-Up-the-Wall Pose, also known as
Viparita Karani, which offers deep relaxation and boosts lymphatic flow and circulation. Besides, a
popular pose for stress relief is the Shavasana which focuses on deep breathing, thus calming the
mind and letting go of tension.
Shavasana is a very popular stress relieving asana as it focuses on deep breathing, thus calming the
mind and letting go of tension. To perform this asana, lie flat on your back with your feet slightly
wider than your hips. Allow the toes to splay out to the sides. Position the arms next to the body at
a 45-degree angle. Align the head, neck and shoulders with the spine. Breathe deeply as you allow
your body to fully relax. Stay in this pose for 10–20 minutes.
9. Regular yoga practice strengthens the vagal tone which controls the rest and digesting ability in
our bodies. It stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system, which is also responsible for rest and
reduces stress levels, and also helps you sleep better. So, yoga can support the healing process. Yoga
improves strength, balance and flexibility besides helping with back pain relief, easing arthritis
symptoms, benefitting heart health and leading to relaxation and better sleep. Yoga as a practice
encourages a lifestyle that focuses on balance, harmony, positive thinking and health. This is holistic
yoga. Asanas, breathing exercises and meditation are all part of and essential to a complete yoga
practice. Thus, the holistic benefits of yoga include improved overall physical health, sustained and
balanced emotions, reduced levels of stress, depression and anxiety, and relief from chronic pain.
Also, yogic practices such as yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara and meditation help in
emotional management.
For example, the practice of non-violence protects from negative emotions and aids develop positive
feelings of love and kindness.
Chapter 4: Physical Education & Sports for

Children with Special Needs

1. Adaptive physical education is a modified programme of games, sports and other developmental
activities that is suited to the interests, capacities and limitations of students and individuals
with special needs. It is created for them so that they can also enjoy the experience of sports and
recreation.
2. The primary aim of adaptive physical education is to ensure that every child with special needs is
provided with the service that meets their unique needs. It also aims to help develop gross motor
skills, develop sports-related skills along with physical fitness (strength, endurance, cardiovascular
endurance and flexibility) and motor fitness (agility, balance, coordination).
3. Some organisations promoting adaptive sports are: Special Olympic Bharat, Paralympics,
Deaflympics. Besides, this International Paralympic Committee (IPC) also plays a major role in
promoting adaptive sports. The International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA) is
a cross-disciplinary professional organisation of individuals, institutions and agencies supporting
and promoting adapted physical activity, disability sport, and all aspects of sport, movement and
exercise science for individuals with disabilities.
4. Intellectual disability results in below-average intelligence quotient (IQ) and mental ability and lack
of skills necessary for learning, problem-solving, judgement, communication and independent living.
This disability becomes apparent before 18 years of age. IQ (intelligence quotient) is measured by an
IQ test. The average IQ is taken as 100 while a person with intellectual disability has an IQ of less
than 70. Besides, an intellectually disabled person has limitations in at least two of the following
activities: communication, self-direction, social skills, self-care, use of community resources and
maintenance of personal safety.
5. Equipment modification is done to adapt physical education. This is done by altering the size, shape,
weight, colour, etc., of the equipment to suit the needs of students, for example, the use of bright-
coloured balls for people with visual impairment. or lighter equipment for people with weak muscles,
etc.
6. Occupational therapists treat injured, ill or disabled people using everyday activities. The idea is to
help develop, recover and improve as well as maintain the skills needed for daily living and working.
Occupational therapy can help improve the motor, cognitive, sensory processing, communication and
play skills. Occupational therapists help develop fine motor skills. Help is also offered to children
with severe developmental delays so that they learn basic tasks such as bathing, getting dressed,
brushing their teeth and feeding themselves.
7. Speech therapists focus on improving a child’s speech and abilities to understand and express
themselves. They use techniques that are as per the unique needs of each patient. Speech therapists
use various techniques to assist with swallowing, including facial massage and lip, tongue and jaw
exercises. Speech therapists offer services that focus on improving a child’s speech and abilities to
understand and express language, including non-verbal language.
8. Special educators are teachers that work with students who have learning, mental, emotional or
physical disabilities. They adapt general education lessons and teach various subjects to students
with mild-to-moderate disabilities. Special educators, while using their students’ cognitive abilities,
help develop the curriculum to meet the special needs of such students. They also help find specialised
methods to develop physical skills of students.
9. Disability etiquette is a set of guidelines dealing specifically with how to approach a person with
disability. Basic disability etiquette involves treating people with disabilities with respect. Practising
disability etiquette is an easy way to make people with disabilities feel welcome. Also, one does not
have to feel awkward while dealing with a person who has a disability.
10. Hearing disability etiquette are as follows:
1. Do not shout.
2. Make sure there is no background noise or loud conversation behind.
3. Tap the person on the shoulder or wave your hand.
4. Look directly at the person and speak clearly and slowly to allow the person read your lips.
However, not everyone with hearing impairment can lip-read.
5. Face a light source and keep your hands and food away from your mouth when speaking.
6. Written notes also help

1. Occupational therapists treat injured, ill or disabled people using everyday activities. They help
develop, recover and improve as well as maintain the skills needed for daily living and working. For
children with developmental delays, occupational therapy can help improve their motor, cognitive,
sensory processing, communication and play skills. Occupational therapists help develop fine motor
skills so that children can grasp and release toys and develop good handwriting. Children with
severe developmental delays are taught basic tasks such as bathing, getting dressed, brushing their
teeth and feeding themselves. Occupational Therapists also teach how to use appropriate adaptive
equipment, such as leg braces, wheelchairs and eating aids
2. Intellectual disability is significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, along with
deficits in adaptive behaviour. This adversely affects a child’s educational performance. Intellectual
disability results in below-average intelligence quotient (IQ) and mental ability and lack of skills
necessary for learning, problem-solving, judgement, communication and independent living. The
average IQ is taken as 100 while a person with intellectual disability has an IQ of less than 70. The
primary manifestations of intellectual disability are: Slow acquisition of new knowledge and skills;
Immature behaviour; and Limited self-care skills.
3. Working with CWSN requires a team of skilled and trained professionals. These include school
counsellors offering individual counselling, occupational therapists who help develop, recover and
improve as well as maintain the skills needed for daily living and working using everyday activities.
Also needed are physiotherapists to help develop and maintain their mobility skills, joint range of
movement, muscle strength and motor skills. A physical education teacher instructs students about
sports, physical development, health and proper nutrition. Speech therapists focus on improving
a child’s speech and abilities to understand and express themselves while special educators are
teachers that work with students who have learning, mental, emotional or physical disabilities.
4. Adaptive physical education is a modified programme of games, sports and other developmental
activities that is suited to the interests, capacities and limitations of students and individuals
with special needs. It is created for them so that they can also enjoy the experience of sports and
recreation. Since physical education has great potential for physical, mental, social and psychological
development, adaptive physical education is important for such children.
The concept is based on the view that instead of excluding some children from normal physical
education programmes, efforts should be made to adapt the programmes to meet their needs.
5. Speech therapists focus on improving a child’s speech and abilities to understand and express
themselves. Swallowing and feeding therapy is designed to enhance oral motor control. Speech
therapists use various techniques to assist with swallowing, including facial massage and lip, tongue
and jaw exercises.
Speech therapists help improve a child’s ability to understand and express language, including non-
verbal language. Speech therapy helps coordinate the mouth to produce sounds to form words and
sentences so that the child develops articulation, fluency and voice volume regulation. A speech
therapist also helps with an understanding and expression of language through written, pictorial,
body and sign forms.
6. Children with special needs require special educators and trainers. To reach their full potential, they
need aid from various professionals who help them achieve peak performance. Today, specialised
professionals aid in developing necessary skills. While school counsellors offer individual counselling
to help students resolve personal or interpersonal problems, professionals like speech therapists
help improve speech impediments, physiotherapists promote motor abilities and speech therapists
make CWSN more social and adapted to sounds and verbal communication. Special educators are
teachers that work with students who have learning, mental, emotional or physical disabilities.
7. The various ways in which sports are adapted to CWSN include: Equipment modification where
the size, shape, weight, colour, etc., of the equipment used ought to be altered to suit the needs
of the students, for example, the use of bright-coloured balls for people with visual impairment,
environmental modification like limiting the play area and marking it with tape in case the movement
capacity of students is limited. Competition rules are modified as well as use of visual aids and
modified training of the instructors to train them in the assigned motor and physical competency of
the child. All the activities that involve CWSN are supervised by trained medical staff.
8. Children with special needs require special educators and trainers. To reach their full potential, they
need aid from various professionals who help them achieve peak performance. Today, specialised
professionals aid in developing necessary skills. These include school counsellors offering individual
counselling, occupational therapists who help develop, recover and improve as well as maintain the
skills needed for daily living and working using everyday activities. Also needed are physiotherapist
to help develop and maintain their mobility skills, joint range of movement, muscle strength and
motor skills. A physical education teacher instructs students about sports, physical development,
health and proper nutrition. Speech therapists have jobs that focus on improving a child’s speech
and abilities to understand and express themselves and special educators are teachers who work
with students with learning, mental, emotional or physical disabilities.
9. For a hearing-impaired person, a certain etiquette ought to be followed. Hearing disability etiquette
teaches us not to shout or speak very loudly while talking to someone with hearing disability. It is
best to ensure that there is no background noise or loud conversation. Also, one needs to tap the
person on the shoulder or wave a hand and look directly at the person. Speaking clearly and slowly
allows the person to read your lips if they are able to lip-read. It should also be ensured that you face
a light source and keep your hands and food away from your mouth while speaking. Written notes
also help.

1. The aims and objectives of adaptive physical education for CWSN are as follows:
The primary aim of adaptive physical education is to ensure that every child with special needs is
provided with the service that meets their unique needs.
Besides helping develop gross motor skills, it also aims to develop sports-related skills and physical
fitness Besides, it needs to motivate every child with special needs to participate. There is also the
need to enhance students’ self-confidence as well as teach them social skills besides aiming to teach
the rules and strategies of the games.
Adaptive physical education also aims to develop gross motor skills of CWSN like holding a ball.
It also aims to develop sports-related skills along with physical fitness (strength, endurance,
cardiovascular endurance and flexibility) and motor fitness (agility, balance, coordination, etc.).
Its aim is to enhance students’ self-confidence as well as teach them social skills and how to control
their emotions, expressions and thoughts.
Adaptive physical education also aims to teach the rules and strategies of the games and their
application while playing.
2. Speech therapists have jobs that focus on improving a child’s speech and abilities to understand
and express themselves. They use techniques that are as per the unique needs of each patient.
Swallowing and feeding therapy is designed to enhance oral motor control. Speech therapists use
various techniques to assist with swallowing, including facial massage and lip, tongue and jaw
exercises. Speech therapists offer services that focus on improving a child’s speech and abilities to
understand and express language, including non-verbal language. Speech therapy helps coordinate
the mouth to produce sounds to form words and sentences so that the child develops articulation,
fluency and voice volume regulation. A speech therapist also helps with an understanding and
expression of language through written, pictorial, body and sign forms.
3. School counsellors offer individual counselling to help students resolve personal or interpersonal
problems. They also offer small group counselling to help students enhance listening and social
skills, learn to empathise with others, and find social support. The counsellors work with students
with special needs in elementary schools, middle schools and high schools, offering support services
needed in order to reach their full potential in academics as well as personal and social growth. This is
accomplished by working with students with social, emotional, behavioural and physical disabilities
in a variety of settings, including one-on-one counselling, group counselling, in special education
classrooms as well as in regular education classrooms. Special education counsellors often work
with families to improve their ability to meet their child’s needs at home. A school counsellor helps
children in every way, be it academic, social, behavioural or emotional. They work in collaboration
with the teachers, parents and special educators to create a healthy learning environment that
makes them feel comfortable. They also help to provide specific solutions to children with particular
needs.
4. Since the children with special needs have some disability, they are incapable of using regular
sports equipment. Thus, these equipment need modifications. So, size, shape, weight, colour, etc.,
of the equipment used ought to be altered to suit the needs of the students, for example, the use
of bright-coloured balls for people with visual impairment, lighter hockey sticks or cricket bats for
musculature disorders and noise producing balls and bats for the visually handicapped. Also, the
baskets for wheelchair-bound sportspersons are low in height etc.
5. Visually disabled persons have very poor vision or are totally blind. Being considerate in dealing
with such people is a must. Visual disability etiquette demands that in talking to them we give
clear directions including about obstruction, if any. We need not hold the arm of a person with
vision impairment in order to guide them. And also allow a person with vision impairment to take
your arm if they want to do so one needs to gently guide such a person rather than push or lead the
person. Also, one needs to use specifics such as “move 100 feet to the left” or “20 steps to the right.
While guiding them about directions.it is must that we always introduce ourself before starting a
conversation. Speak directly to people who are blind or visually impaired, not through a companion,
guide, or other individual. Speak to people who are blind or visually impaired using a natural
conversational tone and speed. address people who are totally blind or severely visually impaired
by name when possible. ask if your assistance is needed. Avoid actions that may distract guide dogs
while they are working, promote a safe environment and always respect personal boundaries.
6. Etiquette while dealing with a wheelchair-bound person demands that we do not patronise people
who use wheelchairs by patting them on the head. Also, one should not lean or hang on someone’s
wheelchair and always ask permission before touching someone’s wheelchair. It is improper to stand
over them for too long or place yourself at the wheelchair user’s eye level. Do not touch, lean on,
push, or handle a wheelchair without the specific direction of the wheelchair user. When you greet
someone in a wheelchair, greet them the same way you would anyone else. Speak to the person the
way you would like to be spoken to. Talk directly to the person, not their caregiver or assistant. Be
respectful. While trying to shake hands with such a person, extend your hand, and if they are unable
to extend their hand, ensure that you reach further forward rather than withdraw. Use a normal
tone of voice—do not raise your voice unless asked to and always be polite and patient and not rush
the conversation.
Chapter 5: Physical Fitness, Wellness and Lifestyle

1. Physical fitness is the ability to carry out tasks without undue fatigue. It also refers to the ability of
the body parts to work in coordination to allow us to be healthy and perform our day-to-day functions
efficiently.
2. As we grow older, physical fitness becomes more important as a measure of our ability to function
efficiently and effectively in work and leisure activities, to be healthy, to resist hypo-kinetic diseases
that arise because of modern, sedentary lifestyle as well as the capacity to meet emergency situations.
With our increasing age, being physically fit becomes even more important so that one is able to lead
a fully productive life.
3. Wellness is a new-age indicator of health and well-being, being disease-free and at peak performances
in all aspects of modern life. Wellness is an active process of becoming aware of and making choices
towards a healthy and fulfilling life and a state characterised by health, happiness and prosperity.
4. Lifestyle represents our attitude, way of life, values and worldview. Modern lifestyle has a number
of advantages including making our day-to-day lives easier as well as saving hundreds of lives by
developing new medicines and vaccines. However, modern lifestyle could also prove negative for
health—physically, psychologically and socially.
5. Leading a healthy lifestyle can help prevent chronic diseases and long-term illnesses. The ways
to being healthy include healthy eating, physical activities, weight management and stress
management. A positive attitude expecting the best and striving to do better. Being physically
active, leading an active social life, adequate sleep and rest, and good nutrition as well a peaceful
mind are the variables of a healthy lifestyle.
6. A healthy lifestyle offers a fully productive life, a well-maintained body and a healthy peaceful mind.
Following a healthy lifestyle, regardless of age, has numerous health benefits. It has been proven
that it reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, decreases incidence of obesity and diabetes, the
risk of malignancy, psychiatric disorders and cognitive dysfunction.
7. Physical fitness has five main components, which include cardiovascular endurance—the ability
of the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the tissues; muscle strength—the amount of force
that a muscle can apply in a given contraction; muscle endurance—the ability of the muscles to
keep working over a period of time; flexibility—the ability to move joints and muscles through their
full range of motion and body composition—indicating fat-to-muscle ratio.
8. Specific or task-oriented fitness is a person’s ability to perform at a specific activity with a reasonable
efficiency, as in sports or military service. Different athletic events need different training. The
training for a 400 m sprint needs a runner to run at high speed throughout the short distance. So,
the sprinter must be trained to run anaerobically throughout the race. However, for a marathon,
which covers a long distance, the athlete must be trained to work aerobically; endurance must be
increased to the maximum.
9. Muscular endurance is the ability of the muscles to keep working (contracting) over a period of time.
Good muscle endurance allows the muscles to perform continuously without fatiguing. Muscular
endurance is important to almost any activity that requires any use of physical strength and is one
of the most important aspects of physical fitness and performance.
10. Biometric impedance refers to speed at which a small current passes through the various parts of
the human body. Since fat is a bad conductor of electricity, more the body fat higher is the electric
impedance. This is used to measure body composition by body fat monitors.
11. Physical activity and sports programmes offer great opportunities for the youth to develop important
life skills, including leadership. Physical education leadership courses are one way to develop
leadership skills in students. Leadership courses are also a great way for aspiring physical education
teachers to gain expertise and share. Some people have inbuilt leadership skills but physical
education helps everyone acquire the skills needed to lead.
12. First aid is a simple medical treatment given to an injured sportsperson before a doctor comes or
before the person can be taken to a hospital. The idea is to give the injured some care till proper
medical aid arrives. This is to prevent worsening of the condition as well as aid early recovery.
Proper and early application of this principle reduces recovery time of the injured athlete.
13. The first principle of the PRICE regime is protection. The aim is to avoid further injury to the area
by protecting the injured structures. The type of protection used varies depending on the injured
area but may include an ace bandage, aluminum splint, sling, protective tape or over-the-counter
available brace. The idea is to support the injured part and limit its movement to prevent further
damage.

1. Strength refers to the amount of force that a muscle can apply in a given contraction. Thus, strength
deals with the ability of the muscles to exert force for a brief period of time. Muscle strength is
linked to the type of muscle fibre we possess—the white fibres, also called fast twitch fibres, and the
red fibres, also called slow twitch fibres. More the white fibres, stronger the muscles. On the other
hand, muscular endurance is the ability of the muscles to keep working so the muscles perform
continuously without fatiguing. Muscle endurance is structurally linked to the presence of slow
twitch muscle fibre or the red fibre.
2. It is important to consider body composition for health and managing overall weight. Athletes
who have good muscles tend to have higher but healthier weight as compared to non-athletes. To
improve and optimize body composition, all health-related components of fitness and good nutrition
are critical. Nutrition impacts exercise and exercise impacts nutritional needs. Learning how to eat
healthier without eliminating all the important food groups and use all the natural and nutrient-
rich foods helps in getting body composition right. The right energy thus gained will help the body
with maintenance functions, improve physical work, and help the body rebuild and repair after a
strenuous workout.
3. Joint range of motion can be negatively affected by excessive body mass and fat as well, and mass can
form a physical barrier to joint movement in a complete range of motion. Thus, athletes competing
in sports that require high levels of flexibility benefit from having low levels of body fat. As body fat
increases, so does blood pressure, cholesterol, triglycerides, blood sugar and inflammation. These
changes translate into increased risk for heart disease, stroke and cardiovascular death. Healthy
or athletic body fat percentages typically allow for more optimal performances due to the improved
economy and reduced injuries.
4. Health related components of fitness include diet and body composition as diet has a direct
correlation with health. A poor diet leads to adverse consequences like obesity and mental stress.
Regular exercise and a healthy diet improve the quality of health and reduce stress. Adequate sleep
has a positive influence on mental and physical health. Substance and medicine abuse is negative
for fitness while recreation and leisure activities promote health. Studying, writing and reading are
vital to well-being. Being active at study leads to a better physical and mental health. Prevalence
of diseases like Alzheimer’s is lower in educated people and being engaged in activities like reading
and writing slows down the advent of dementia.
5. Lifetsyle is the way that we live life. Leading a healthy lifestyle can help prevent chronic diseases
and long-term illnesses. To be in good health, eating healthy, physical activities, weight management
and stress management are vital. Lifestyle factors are the modifiable habits and ways of life that
can greatly influence overall health and well-being, including fertility and longevity. Following a
healthy lifestyle at all ages has numerous health benefits. It has been proven to reduce the risk of
cardiovascular diseases, obesity and diabetes, cancer, psychiatric disorders and cognitive dysfunction.
6. Wellness is an active process through which people become aware of, and make choices towards, a
more successful existence. Wellness today is a new-age indicator of health and well-being. Wellness
is an active process of becoming aware of and making choices towards leading a healthy and fulfilling
life. Amongst the most common health problem worldwide is depression, which manifests in the form
of lack of sleep, stress, poor nutrition, physical inactivity, obesity and heart disease, etc. Irrespective
of a person’s age, size, shape or perceived attractiveness, it is wellness that is the ultimate marker
of quality of life.
7. Lifestyle is defined as the way we live our lives. Being healthy is vital to good lifestyle. A healthy
lifestyle prevents chronic diseases and long-term illnesses. It also boosts self-esteem and self-
image. Healthy living has a lifelong effect. A good modern lifestyle includes healthy eating, physical
activities, weight management and stress management. A positive lifestyle encourages a positive
attitude, helping with constant self-improvement. Following a healthy lifestyle, regardless of age,
has numerous health benefits. It has been proven that it reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases,
decreases incidence of obesity and diabetes, the risk of malignancy, psychiatric disorders and
cognitive dysfunction. Sedentary lifestyle is among the top 10 leading causes of death and disability
in the world.
8. Children develop gross motor skills by using playground equipment, by learning to ride a bicycle or
by skating. Parents serve as important role models to their children for physical fitness.
With childhood obesity on the rise and excessive use of computers, mobiles and televisions giving
rise to a sedentary lifestyle, community sports such as football, cricket, hockey and volleyball are an
excellent way to make children physically mobile and active. A sport contributes to a child’s growth
and development in many ways. Being physically fit, meeting new friends, and learning new skills
lead to children developing habits that result in a lifetime of wellness.
9. Career and job satisfaction lead to occupational wellness. The quality of one’s occupation has
a significant influence on wellness as it covers a major part of most working people’s life. A
balance between work and other interests enhances occupational and overall well-being. The key
to occupational wellness is doing what one loves. The criterion for occupational wellness for an
individual changes at different stages of life and circumstances. Being able to put undivided effort
and focusing on work enhances wellness. So, choosing work that is right and then getting satisfaction
from it increases occupational wellness. Learning to manage work stress, designing a healthy work
environment, developing healthy relationships with co-workers are all part of this.
10. Traditional games are the games that are traditional to our cultures—from dances to ball games to
water sports and are important as they preserve age-old traditions.
Traditional children’s games aid in developing a spirit of cooperation and help children interact
positively, control themselves, develop empathy for friends, obey rules and respect others. Traditional
games also have a good impact on developing children’s emotional and social skills. Traditional
games have a social and cultural aspect as well. Children form a bond that helps them build social
and cultural relationships. These games bring together children from different families, religions
and social backgrounds, both from rural and urban areas.
11. In modern times, health and physical fitness are often used interchangeably. Today, health is
dependent on being fit enough to perform day-to-day activities one wants to. This depends on having
a good lifestyle comprising a nutritious diet, adequate rest and sleep and regular exercise pattern
suitable for age. Maintaining a healthy weight is performance enhancing. Relaxation decreases
mental stress and aids healthy life. Leading an active social life also influences health positively.
12. Physical fitness is generally achieved through physical activity and exercise, correct nutrition,
enough rest with a good sleep, stress management and relaxation. Today, physical fitness is divided
into general fitness, which is a state of health and well-being and where general exercises are not
directly related to the specific action seen in any sports skill like ability to walk and run. On the
other hand, specific fitness means the ability to perform specific sports or occupational skills like
being able to lift heavy weights in weightlifting or run long distances as in a marathon, etc.
13. Osteoporosis is weakening of the bones by loss of bone matrix and is generally one of the prominent
disadvantages of a sedentary life style. Sedentary life style leads to lifestyle diseases as obesity,
diabetes and high blood pressure which, in turn, directly or indirectly weaken the bones and cause
loss of bone matrix and strength. The best way to prevent premature osteoporosis is by being
physically active which helps not only maintain weight and fight obesity but also strengthens the
musculoskeletal system.
14. Environmental Wellness is the relation to one’s environment. While it does mean having clean and
comfortable living conditions, it is also about using Earth’s resources in a sustainable and respectful
way. The working place needs to be visually pleasing, free of stressful noise and designed with
our posture and body in mind. Enjoying the nature and consuming utilities in an environmentally
sustainable way as well as protection from environmental hazards and living in a place that is
comfortable and clean, working at a place that enhances creativity and protects the body—all focus
on importance of environmental wellness.
15. A sedentary lifestyle is risky in many ways. These include an increased risk of lifestyle diseases
like heart disease, diabetes, hypertension and certain cancers. The risk of being overweight or obese
increases and osteoporosis and sarcopenia directly results from a poor and unhealthy lifestyle. Poor
posture and decreased self-esteem and self-image follow. When we realise that we do not feel and
look good, our self-worth decreases automatically. This leads to poorer performance at work and an
unhealthy social life. Laziness sets in and overall performance in every sphere of life diminishes.
16. Physical education offers great opportunities to develop important life skills including leadership.
Physical education helps acquire the skills needed to lead. Team sports involve developing a strategy
to handle opposition and gain an advantage over the other team. Physical education plays a vital role
in developing leaders by setting up values and ethics for success. In physical education, leadership
ensures continuous growth and vitality of the team. Lack of leadership lowers the quality of physical
education. With leadership, one can influence people to work together with team spirit so as to
achieve professional as well as personal goals. Leadership qualities that emerge by using physical
education as a leadership development tool include personal and professional qualities.

1. Physical fitness has five main components which are cardiovascular endurance—ability of the
body to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the tissues; muscle strength—the amount of force that a
muscle can apply in a given contraction; muscle endurance—the ability of the muscles to keep
working over a period of time; flexibility—denoting the ability to move joints and muscles through
their full range of motion; and body composition—indicating fat-to-muscle ratio.
Cardiovascular endurance can be improved through aerobic exercises such as running or playing
tennis. This parameter reflects the ability of the heart, blood vessels, lungs and blood to deliver oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells during physical activity. Cardiovascular endurance is exemplified by
jogging, cycling and swimming.
Flexibility denotes the ability to move joints and muscles through their full range of motion.
Flexibility may be increased through stretching. Hatha Yoga and Pilates are whole body workouts
that focus on flexibility and balance. Good flexibility in the joints can prevent injuries through all
stages of life. Examples would be stretching individual muscles or the ability to perform certain
functional movements such as the lunge.
2. Body composition refers to the body in terms of lean mass (muscle, bone, vital tissue and organs)
and fat mass. An optimal ratio of fat-to-lean mass can be determined by a person’s body composition.
This is assessed using Biometric Impedance, also known as Bioelectrical Impedance, with body
scanners. The body composition is a more accurate method of determining whether a person’s weight
is healthy in relation to their particular body type. It is important to consider body composition
for health and managing overall weight. Athletes who have good muscles tend to have higher but
healthier weight as compared to non-athletes. To improve and optimize body composition, all health-
related components of fitness and good nutrition are critical. Nutrition impacts exercise and exercise
impacts nutritional needs. Learning how to eat healthier without eliminating all the important food
groups and use all the natural and nutrient-rich foods helps in getting body composition right.
3. Today physical fitness also focuses on skill development and certain aspects of skill-related fitness.
Skill-related components of fitness include Reaction Time, Speed and Agility, Balance, Power and
Hand-eye or Hand-foot coordination. Total fitness can be defined by how well the body performs in
each one of the components of physical fitness as a whole. It is not enough to be able to bench press
your body weight. You also need to determine how well you can handle running a mile or jogging for
half an hour etc.

Reaction Time: It is the amount of time taken to start a movement once your senses signal the
need to move. People with good reaction time can usually start quickly in track and swimming or
react quickly in table tennis, badminton and karate.

Power: It is the ability to perform with strength at a rapid pace. Strength and speed are both
involved in power. Football players, swimmers, shot-putters, discus throwers and high jumpers are
examples of athletes who typically have a high degree of power.
4. Physical fitness is one of the most important components of wellness in modern life. This component is
focused on the physical body. Healthy food, adequate rest and regular physical activity contribute to
this facet of wellness. A body free of aches and pains equates a state of physical wellness. Maintaining
a healthy weight and general fitness are also important here. A healthy weight is essential for
proper body functioning and chronic disease prevention. General fitness permits performance of
daily duties and recreational activities for enjoyment. Therefore, we should be physically active, stay
hydrated, eat healthy, get enough rest and sleep and maintain appropriate hygiene. Also, we should
avoid toxic habits like smoking or alcohol and take care of our body. Learning how to eat healthier
without eliminating all the important food groups and using all the natural and nutrient-rich foods
helps in getting physical fitness and thus overall wellness right.
5. Being healthy ought to be part of everyone’s overall lifestyle. Leading a healthy lifestyle can help
prevent chronic diseases and long-term illnesses. Feeling good about oneself and taking care of
our health is important for our self-esteem and self-image. Healthy living has a lifelong effect. The
ways to being healthy include healthy eating, physical activities, weight management and stress
management. Good health allows people to contribute fully to work and society. A positive lifestyle
encourages a positive attitude with focus on solutions and not on problems. It helps in constant
self-improvement. A positive lifestyle includes a positive outlook and viewpoint, expecting the best,
and striving to do better. Lifestyle factors are the modifiable habits and ways of life that can greatly
influence overall health and well-being, including fertility and longevity.
Following a healthy lifestyle, regardless of age, has numerous health benefits. It has been proven
that it reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, decreases incidence of obesity and diabetes, the
risk of malignancy, psychiatric disorders and cognitive dysfunction. A sedentary lifestyle means a
lifestyle with little or no physical activity. Sedentary lifestyle is among the top 10 leading causes of
death and disability in the world.
6. Muscular endurance is the ability of the muscles to keep working over a period of time. Good muscle
endurance allows the muscles to perform continuously without fatiguing. Muscle endurance is
structurally linked to the presence of slow twitch muscle fibre or the red fibre. When most people
think of muscular endurance, they think of things like running and cycling. The fact is, muscular
endurance is important to almost any activity that requires any use of physical strength and is
one of the most important aspects of physical fitness and performance. It plays a big role in almost
every athletic endeavour. Muscular endurance reflects as stamina. Long-distance running is a sport
that requires muscular endurance. Using less weight but performing more repetitions helps develop
endurance. Anaerobic activities such as cycling, step machines and elliptical machines are used
to enhance muscular endurance. The workout to boost muscular endurance should focus on the
number of repetitions, the weight or resistant force on the muscles, the number of sets and length or
rest periods.
7. Diet and body composition is an important component of fitness. For most people, diet is the greatest
manageable factor in lifestyle and has a direct correlation with health. A poor diet leads to adverse
consequences like obesity and mental stress. Urban lifestyle with its overuse of fast-food leads to
nutrition deficiency contributing to an increase in health hazards like heart disease and cancer.
Sleep is a basic need. Sleep loss seems to be part of the modern lifestyle which, in turn, leads to
several adverse social, psychological, economical and health-related consequences. A poor lifestyle
affects sleep and sleep has a clear influence on mental and physical health. Rest and relaxation
days are an important part of fitness as they give the body a chance to repair and recover, and help
prevent injury. Also, workout creates microscopic tears in the muscle tissues. When you rest, your
muscles start to heal and grow back stronger, meaning you will be able to do the same workout with
less effort in the future making you fitter.
8. Cardiovascular endurance is the ability of the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the tissues
and to remove waste over a sustained period of time. Cardiovascular endurance can be improved
through aerobic exercise performed at a moderate intensity over a relatively long period of time
such as running or playing tennis. This parameter reflects the ability of the heart, blood vessels,
lungs and blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients to all body cells during physical activity. To improve
cardiorespiratory endurance, activities such as walking, swimming or cycling that keep the heart
rate elevated at a safer level for a sustained period of time are very helpful.
Cardiovascular endurance is exemplified by jogging, cycling and swimming. The Cooper 12-minute
run is a popular maximal running test of cardiovascular fitness in which participants try and cover
as much distance as they can in 12 minutes. Participants run for 12 minutes and the total distance
covered is recorded.
9. Flexibility denotes the ability to move joints and muscles through their full range of motion. Flexibility
may be increased through stretching. Better flexibility helps improve our performance in physical
activities and decrease the risk of injuries as joints move through their full range of motion leading
to increased muscle blood flow, allowing muscles to work most effectively. This also improves our
ability to do daily activities. Stretching should be gentle and not painful. Hatha Yoga and Pilates are
whole body workouts that focus on flexibility and balance. Good flexibility in the joints can prevent
injuries through all stages of life. Examples would be stretching individual muscles or the ability to
perform certain functional movements such as the lunge. The Sit and Reach test is most often used
to test flexibility. Flexibility can be increased by exercises like Forward Lunges, Side Lunges, Cross-
Over, Standing Quad Stretch. Also, useful to increase flexibility are exercises such as Seat Straddle
Lotus, Seat Side Straddle, Seat Stretch and Knees to Chest movements.
10. Muscular Strength: This is the amount of force that a muscle can apply in a given contraction
and so deals with the ability of the muscles to exert force for a brief period of time. Weight training
provides the means to develop both the strength and size of skeletal muscles. The key to making the
muscles stronger is working them against resistance, whether that is from weights or gravity. More
weight with fewer repetitions promotes muscular strength. Muscle strength is linked to the type
of muscle fibre we possess—the white fibres, also called fast twitch fibres, and the red fibres, also
called slow twitch fibres. More the white fibres, stronger the muscles.

Muscular Endurance: Muscular endurance is the ability of the muscles to keep working over a
period of time. Good muscle endurance allows the muscles to perform continuously without fatiguing.
The fact is, muscular endurance is important to almost any activity that requires any use of physical
strength and is one of the most important aspects of physical fitness and performance. Anaerobic
activities are used to enhance muscular endurance. Muscle endurance is structurally linked to the
presence of slow twitch muscle fibre or the red fibre.
11. Teamwork is one of the basic skills sports teaches to all participants. Teamwork motivates everyone
to perform, thus helping the team attain its goal. Leaders get to develop this on a daily basis because
delegation of tasks is a part of teamwork. Great leaders need team-building skills to be effective
and achieve success. Teamwork is the ability to work cooperatively with others to achieve group
objectives. This competency is fundamental because leadership is not an individual sport. The
essence of leadership is accomplishing worthy goals through the combined efforts of others, and
teamwork capabilities are crucial. An example of successful teamwork is effective active listening
skills. Maintaining eye contact when others are talking, having open and friendly body language,
and responding appropriately to the questions and comments of others establishes a professional
work environment and shows good teamwork. In leadership, teamwork needs us to be not only
leaders but also creative director, facilitator, coach and a member.
12. Practice and preparation ensure success in sports and in life. Young people learn the value of
preparation and practice as they learn physical education. This allows an understanding of the role
of preparation, planning and practice in success for an individual or a team. Practice leadership is
more than just coaching. It involves the communication of clear and consistent messages regarding
values, expectations and effective performance management like a coach does for the team before,
during and after matches. Before all important matches, all the teams have practice matches, they
prepare strategy and make back-up plans. Sports teaches us to organize staff and resources to deliver
as and the sportspersons being supported need and want it. This understanding makes it clear that
success comes with preparation and failure is a consequence of not placing adequate importance on
preparation and practice to improve performance.
13. The PRICE principle involves the five basic principles needed, in sports and elsewhere, to prevent
further injury and initiate an early healing. Proper and early application of this principle reduces
recovery time of the injured athlete.
PRICE stands for:
· P – Protection
· R – Rest
· I – Ice
· C – Compression
· E – Elevation
PRICE should be applied as early as possible after the injury and continued for at least the first
24-72 hours. This principle can be used by someone even without first-aid training and should be
used immediately when an injury occurs—the earlier, the better—and further medical attention is
being sought. Treating an injury with PRICE can lessen swelling, pain, and help healing faster.
14. Ice is an important component of the PRICE principle. Also called cryotherapy, an ideal start is an
ice pack made of crushed ice because crushed ice conforms to the contours of the injured area and
offers more comfort to the injured. Ice should be applied for 20 minutes at a time and can be repeated
every two hours. Ice reduces pain, prevents swelling information and decreases muscle spasm by
decreasing circulation, metabolic activity and inflammation and numbs the skin at the injured part.
Ice is best used after exercise or after pain-producing activity. Cold from the ice compress numbs the
affected area thus helping reduce pain and tenderness temporarily.
15. On-the-spot medical aid rendered to an injured person is called first aid. First aid is defined as
“simple medical treatment that is given to somebody before a doctor comes or before the person can
be taken to a hospital.” The idea is to give the sick person care till proper medical aid arrives. This
is to prevent worsening of the condition as well as take the first step towards recovery.
The PRICE principle involves the five basic principles needed, in sports and elsewhere, to prevent
further injury and initiate an early healing. Proper and early application of this principle reduces
recovery time of the injured athlete.
PRICE is an acronym for Protection, Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation.
PRICE should be applied as early as possible after the injury and continued for at least the first 24-
72 hours. This principle can be used by someone even without first-aid training and should be used
immediately when an injury occurs Protection

Protection
The first principle is protection. This is to avoid further injury to the area by protecting the injured
structures. The type of protection used varies depending on the injured area but may include an ace
bandage, aluminum splint, sling, protective tape or over-the-counter brace. The idea is to support
the injured part and limit its movement to prevent further damage.

Rest
Rest is the second component of PRICE principle. This allows the body to start the healing process
naturally. Movement of the injured tissue results in further damage to it.
Chapter 6: Test, Measurement & Evaluation

1. Test is an instrument or activity used to accumulate data on a person’s ability to perform a specified
task. Thus, test is a tool which is used to evaluate the skills, performance and reliability of the task
completed by a sportsperson.
2. In competition or training in sports, the evaluation of an athlete’s performance is generally done by
the coaches and other experts including the media. It involves first defining the characteristic to be
measured, then selecting the method of measurement. Evaluation determines the worth or value of
the performance.
3. In physical education and sports programme, it is important to set a target. The desire to improve
in different aspects of fitness involves undergoing various fitness programmes. Sometimes
when a sportsperson fails to achieve the set parameter, a talk by co-players or the coaches will
give the necessary impetus to do well and this motivation is required even when the sportsperson
is doing well.
4. Some common tests to assess muscle endurance, are:
(i) McGill Core Endurance Tests which include
(ii) Trunk Flexor Test (TFT) (iii) Trunk Extensor Test (TET)
(iv) Plank Hold Test (v) Static Squat Test
(vi) Maximal Push Test
5. Health-based parameters of fitness are: Muscular strength—which measures amount of force
a muscle can exert against a resistance; Muscular endurance—the ability to use voluntary
muscles repeatedly without feeling tired; Cardiovascular endurance—the ability of the heart,
lungs and blood to transport oxygen; Flexibility—measuring range of motion (ROM) at a joint and
Body composition—fat muscle ratio.
6. Flexibility refers to the range of motion for a given joint. The degree of flexibility is based on having
adequate muscles and connective tissues, like ligaments and tendons as well as on joint structure,
muscles, skin, tissue injury, fat, body temperature, activity level, age and sex. Adequate flexibility
allows for smooth movements at all joints and enables full use of the musculoskeletal system.
7. Rockport test is used to measure cardiovascular endurance. This test is performed by having the
subject walk on a treadmill for one mile as fast as they can. The time taken to finish the mile is
recorded as well as their heart rate. This gives cardiovascular efficiency score similar to performing
the three-minute step test.
8. People with endomorphic body structure have rounded physique. Endomorphs have wide hips and
shoulders, a short and thick neck and short arms and legs. The endomorphic body type stores more
fat than average, and are heavy built. Their build is wider than the other two types, with a larger
bone structure, more strength and accompanied by significantly more body fat. This is the reason
why body of endomorphs is best suited for power lifting and weightlifting as they have high levels of
strength.
9. The One-Repetition Maximum (1RM) test is often considered the gold standard for assessing muscle
strength. It is simply defined as the maximal weight an individual can lift for only one repetition
with correct technique. The goal is to determine the athletes’ 1RM in 3 to 5 trials. Ample rest (at
least 3-5 minutes) is allowed before each 1RM attempt.
10. Muscle endurance is the ability to keep doing something difficult, unpleasant or painful for a long
time. In practical terms, muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain
repeated contractions against a resistance for an extended period of time. It is one of the components
of muscular fitness along with muscular strength and power.

1. Measurement is the process of collecting data about the performance or task completed by a
sportsperson by using a test or a series of tests. This correlates and helps collect information and
data about the specific skills and fitness level of the athlete. Measurement is also useful in assessing
the level of performance, fitness, ability, knowledge, personality and skills of the sportsperson.
Measurement is a collection of data of performance or task completed by a sportsperson by using
these tests and scientific techniques. This, thus, helps to know where increased emphasis is needed
to achieve the target.
3. In competition or training in sports, the evaluation of an athlete’s performance is generally done by
the coaches and other experts including the media. It involves first defining the characteristic to be
measured, then selecting the method of measurement. Evaluation determines the worth or value of
the performance.
4. Test and measurement in physical education collect details about the needs, abilities and attitude
of a sportsperson. In a physical education and sports programme, it is important to have a goal.
Any improvement is based on the assessment of the athlete’s different aspects of fitness. Test and
measurement in physical education help to get the various details regarding the needs, abilities and
attitudes of the athlete. Responses collected from the athlete are then measured qualitatively and
quantitatively using tests and scientific techniques. This helps reinforce the need as to where more
emphasis needs to be put so as to achieve the goals. It is important to evaluate the performance at
all levels—from learners to skilled athletes. This helps in evaluating the athlete’s ability as well
as requirements to enhance performance. Measurement and evaluation are independent concepts,
though interrelated, using standard and sometimes sports-specific tests.
5. Health-related components of fitness are five in number:

Muscular strength: The amount of force a muscle can exert against a resistance.

Muscular endurance: The ability to use voluntary muscles repeatedly without feeling tired.

Cardiovascular endurance: The ability of the heart, lungs and blood to transport oxygen.

Flexibility: The range of motion (ROM) at a joint.

Body composition: The percentage of body weight which is fat, muscle and bone.
Fitness tests can be devised to test all these aspects of fitness, provided the test follows fitness
testing principles. Simple fitness tests can be easily reproduced away from a lab and measure
strength, power, anaerobic endurance, local muscular endurance, aerobic endurance, flexibility,
balance, reaction time and body composition.
6. The term somatotype was devised for classification of human body types by U.S. psychologist W.H.
Sheldon. He classified the human body shapes into three types: Endomorph, Mesomorph, Ectomorph,
according to its shape, size and structure.

Endomorph: People with endomorphic body structure have rounded physique. These people have
a soft, round build and a high proportion of fat. Endomorphs have wide hips and shoulders, a short
and thick neck and short arms and legs. Their build is wider than the other two types, with a larger
bone structure, more strength and accompanied by significantly more body fat. Such people are best
suited for power lifting and weightlifting as they have high levels of strength. They can be good
swimmers and excel in sports such as shot put.
*Answer to Q. No. 2 is not being provided as this is no longer part of the syllabus.
7. Muscular strength is defined as the maximum amount of force that a muscle can exert against some
form of resistance in a single effort. The benefits of muscular fitness include increases in lean body
tissue, better bone mineral density, increased connective tissue strength, greater anaerobic power,
better low- back health and self-esteem.
The One-Repetition Maximum (1RM) test is often considered the gold standard for assessing muscle
strength. It is simply defined as the maximal weight an individual can lift for only one repetition
with correct technique. The goal is to determine the athletes’ 1RM in 3 to 5 trials. Ample rest (at
least 3-5 minutes) is allowed before each 1RM attempt.
8. The plank hold test is a method of measuring muscle endurance. It is also known as the Prone
Bridge Test, and is basically a simple fitness test of core muscle strength. Holding three planks for
up to 60 seconds each is the desirable goal. It is easy to get into proper form but holding the position
takes strength and endurance in the abdominals, back muscles as well as the core. Plank exercise
can activate core muscles with low compressive forces and the aim is to try and maintain a neutral
spine against the forces acting on it.
9. Sheldon’s theory of the somatotype has some drawbacks. Most people are not completely in any of
the three primary somatotypes but show traits of two or even all three somatotypes. The methods
proposed by Sheldon were criticised because of the following challenges:
The somatotype changes with age, activity, nutrition and even habits like smoking and alcohol use.
Somatotype is not objective. Also, the components for endomorphs and ectomorphs are the inverse of
each other.
10. It refers to a qualitative performance, such as “superb” or “excellent”, based on the evidence gained
from the data. In competition or training in sports, the evaluation of an athlete’s performance is
generally done by the coaches and other experts including the media. It involves first defining the
characteristic to be measured, then selecting the method of measurement. Evaluation determines
the worth or value of the performance.
In a physical education and sports programme, it is important to set a target. The desire to improve in
different aspects of fitness involves undergoing various fitness programmes. Test and measurement
in physical education collect details about the needs, abilities and attitude of a sportsperson.

1. Test is an instrument or activity used to accumulate data on a person’s ability to perform a specified
task. Thus, test is a tool which is used to evaluate the skills, performance and reliability of the
task completed by a sportsperson. Test scores vary between being objective or subjective. The main
reason teachers test the students is to measure their learning and growth in terms of understanding
and skills. Tests also provide feedback on the effectiveness of the teacher’s teaching methods and the
study material provided.
For example, the Revised AAHPER Youth Fitness Test is a battery of six tests designed to give a
measure of physical fitness for boys and girls in grades 5 to 12. The tests are selected to evaluate the
specific aspects of physical status which, taken together, give an overall picture of fitness.
This is a widely accepted method of sports testing. AAHPER stands for American Association for
Health, Physical Education and Recreation.
2. In a physical education and sports programme, it is important to have a goal. Any improvement
is based on the assessment of the athlete’s different aspects of fitness. Test and measurement in
physical education help to get the various details regarding the needs, abilities and attitudes of the
athlete. Responses collected from the athlete are then measured qualitatively and quantitatively
using tests and scientific techniques. This helps reinforce the need as to where more emphasis needs
to be put so as to achieve the goals. It is important to evaluate the performance at all levels—from
learners to skilled athletes. This helps in evaluating the athlete’s ability as well as requirements to
enhance performance. Measurement and evaluation are independent concepts, though interrelated,
using standard and sometimes sports-specific tests. Test and measurement in physical education
collect details about the needs, abilities and attitude of a sportsperson. A test is basically a situational
method where specific responses are collected from the subject. These responses are measured both
qualitatively and quantitatively.
3. Body composition is the proportion of fat and fat-free mass in the body. The body is composed of
water, protein, minerals and fat. A two-component model of body composition divides the body into
a fat component and fat-free component. A healthy body composition is one that includes a lower
percentage of body fat and a higher percentage of fat- free mass, which includes muscle, bones and
organs. Body composition is to assess health and fitness levels.
The most common methods for estimating body composition include Body Mass Index (BMI), Skin
Fold Measurement and Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA). Body Mass Index (BMI) is defined
as a person’s body weight divided by the square of height. Skin fold measurements use calipers
to estimate how much body fat there is in a fold of skin help predict the total amount of fat in the
body In Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) actually determines the electrical impedance or
opposition to the flow of an electric current through body tissues. This can then be used to estimate
total body water (TBW) which can be used to estimate fat-free body mass and by calculating the
difference with body weight, the body fat, etc.
4. Flexibility refers to the range of motion for a given joint. The degree of flexibility is based on having
adequate muscles and connective tissues, like ligaments and tendons, as well as on joint structure,
muscles, skin, tissue injury, fat, body temperature, activity level, age and gender.
There are a variety of tests used to measure flexibility. These include:

Sit-and-Reach Test is used to measure tightness in lower back and hamstring muscles. The test is
performed while sitting on the floor with legs fully extended. Flexibility is measured by the distance
in inches between the hands and feet when reaching forward.

Shoulder Flexibility Test evaluates the flexibility and mobility of the shoulder joint. It involves
reaching behind the neck and between the shoulders with one hand while reaching behind the back
and towards the shoulders with the other. Flexibility is measured by how many inches apart hands
are from each other.

Trunk Lift Test is used to measure strength of the lower back. It is performed while lying
face-down on the floor. With arms by the sides, the upper body is lifted with just the back muscles.
Flexibility is measured by how many inches one is able to lift the upper body off the ground
5. Some common tests to assess muscle endurance include:
(i) McGill Core Endurance Tests
These tests help assess muscle endurance of the torso stabiliser muscles. The tests help measure
all aspects of core strength using isometric muscle endurance.
(a) Trunk Flexor Test (TFT ): TFT is used to assess the endurance of the anterior musculature
of the core.
(b) Trunk Extensor Test (TET ): This test is used to assess the Erector Spinae.
(c) The lateral musculature test and right lateral musculature test are used to assess the
oblique, transverse abdominals and quadratus muscles.
(ii) Plank Hold Test

The Plank Test, also known as the Prone Bridge Test, is a simple fitness test of core muscle
strength. Holding three planks for up to 60 seconds each is the desirable
(iii) Static Squat Test
The purpose of this test is to determine the strength of the lower body muscles, specifically the
quads, hamstrings and gluteal muscles. This test can also be done freely without any support.
(iv) Maximal Push Test
A horizontal overhead bar is set at an adequate height so that the participants can hang from
it with their arms fully extended and feet not touching the floor.
6. Body Mass Index (BMI) is defined as a person’s body weight divided by the square of height. BMI
is calculated using a specific formula which is weight in kilograms divided by height in meters
squared. BMI is a crude method to estimate obesity and with better, more accurate scientific methods
available now, it is not really of much significance anymore. BMI does not assess a sportsperson’s
muscle adequacy or excess fat content of the body since it is purely a mathematical calculation which
fails to take into account body composition. The higher the Body Mass Index, the greater the risk of
developing additional health problems. WHO has accepted that a majority of the Asian population
that is at a higher risk of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases has a BMI lower than the existing
WHO cut-off. Hence, it is accepted that for Indians, the normal BMI cut-off should be 23.
7. The data which the tests provide is compared to standards. This, in turn, helps in comparisons with
the general population. Fitness tests are only relevant when the scores are compared to existing
standard data. For highly trained athletes, the comparisons are with data of other athletes or even
with their own previous fitness test performances.
While there are many methods to classify test in Physical Education and sports, the most widely
accepted method is to focus on two main facets—health and skills.
For example, the Revised AAHPER Youth Fitness Test is a battery of six tests designed to give a
measure of physical fitness for boys and girls in grades 5 to 12. The tests are selected to evaluate
the specific aspects of physical status which, taken together, give an overall picture of fitness. This
is a widely accepted method of sports testing. AAHPER stands for American Association for Health,
Physical Education and Recreation. Test and measurement in physical education collect details about
the needs, abilities and attitude of a sportsperson. A test is basically a situational method where
specific responses are collected from the subject. These responses are measured both qualitatively
and quantitatively.
8. Waist-Hip Ratio (WHR) is one of several measurements that are used to measure if individuals are
overweight. It measures the ratio of waist circumference to hip circumference. It thus determines
the amount of fat stored on the waist, hips and buttocks. Waist-hip ratio is an important guide,
especially for women’s health, as it measures where any extra weight is being stored. Increased
waistline means involvement of internal organs which, in turn, points to an increased risk of diseases
such as diabetes and heart ailments.
To measure Waist-Hip Ratio first measure the waist and then the hip. For the waist—measure
midway between the lowest rib and the top of the hips just above your belly button. For measuring
the hips—measure at the widest point around the buttocks. Once we have the waist and hip
measurements, simply divide the waist measurement by the hip measurement.
9. Skinfold measurements are taken by skin calipers and thus helps to estimate how much body fat
there is in a fold of skin help predict the total amount of fat in the body. This method is based on the
hypothesis that body fat is equally distributed over the body and that thickness of the skinfold is a
measure for subcutaneous.

Male measurements—

Chest: Diagonal fold at half the distance between the anterior axillary line and the nipple

Abdominal: Vertical fold 2 cm to the right of the navel

Thigh: Midpoint of the anterior side of the upper leg between the patella and top of thigh

Female measurements—

Tricep: Vertical fold at the midpoint of the posterior side of the triceps between shoulder and elbow
with arm relaxed at the side

Suprailiac: Diagonal fold parallel and superior to the iliac crest;

Thigh: Midpoint of the anterior side of the upper leg between the patella and top of thigh
10. High waist to hip ration has adverse effect on health especially in women. People with more weight
around their midsection, called an apple-shaped body, are at a higher risk for heart disease, type
2 diabetes and premature death than those with more weight on their hips and thighs, labelled as
a pear-shaped body. Where on body excess weight is carried is a determinator of potential health
challenges Women with a ratio of 0.8 or below and men at 0.95 or less are pear shaped. People with
pear- shaped bodies are in the lower risk category for health problems such as heart disease, type 2
diabetes and some forms of cancer.
Women with a ratio of 0.85 or above and men with a ratio of 1.0 or above are considered to have
apple-shaped bodies. Fat tends to gather around the middle and apple-shaped bodies face a high
risk of type 2 diabetes and heart disease, and even some types of cancer. In both men and women,
a WHR of 1.0 or higher increases the risk of heart disease and other conditions that are linked to
being overweight. People with ratios between apple and pear levels are at a moderate risk of health
problems.
Chapter 7: Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology in Sports

1. Anatomy is the study of the structure of organisms with focus on organs, tissues and systems. It is
also defined as “the branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals and
other living organisms, especially as revealed by dissection and the separation of parts.” It is also
defined as “the bodily structure of an organism.”
2. Understanding the structure of these organs helps enhance sports performance because knowledge
and understanding of load-bearing capacity of any organ helps in efficient and optimal use and
prevents or minimises injuries. Differences between the genders determine the level of sports,
the equipment design, etc., and administration of first aid on the field is easy. This also helps in
developing diet plans and nutritional support for sportspersons.
3. Everybody needs proper nutrition. This is even more important in competitive sports. An
understanding of anatomy and physiology, thus, is of paramount importance in developing diet
plans and nutritional support for sportspersons. This is also based on their existing food choices and
the increased needs based on the duration and level of physical and mental activity. Balanced diets
and recovery diets all help improve performance.
4. Our height and body shape are as per our bony structure. Bones support the internal organs and
prevent injury. Bones act as levers for movements to take place at various joints. Bones permit
attachment of various muscles allowing movements. Formation of blood cells takes place in the bone
marrow. Bones are reservoirs of calcium and phosphorus and store body fats.
5. Bones are classified based on their shape as follows:

Long Bones are cylindrical in shape, being longer than their width. Short Bones are cube-like
in shape, being approximately equal in length, width and thickness. Flat Bones are typically thin
and Irregular Bones do not have any easily characterised shape. Sesamoid Bones are small,
round-shaped like a sesame seed.
6. The circulatory system has many functions. The important ones are: it circulates blood to all parts of
the body. It transports water, oxygen and nutrients to cells. Circulatory system transports wastes,
including carbon dioxide, away from the cells. It helps maintain correct body temperature. It also
helps fight diseases through white blood cells and antibodies in the blood.
7. Physiology helps in understanding the functions of various organ groups. The link between exercise
and the best possible performance comes from an understanding of the functioning of the organ
system. A sound understanding and knowledge of physiology helps the trainer get the best possible
performance from the athlete. In addition, lung and heart capacity has a significant impact on the
performance of the sportsperson.
8. All muscle cells share four primary properties namely Excitability—which causes the muscle contract
in response to some stimulus; Contractility—the ability of muscle cells to forcefully shorten; Muscles
are also extensile which enables muscles to lengthen up to about three times their contracted length;
and Muscles have elasticity and can be stretched or contracted by some amount above or below their
resting length without damage.
9. Involuntary muscles that are not in our conscious control in the body are the cardiac muscle and
the smooth muscle. Cardiac muscle cells, known as cardiomyocytes, contract on their own intrinsic
rhythms without any external stimulation. The cardiac muscle pumps blood through the body
and is under involuntary control. Smooth muscle tissue contraction is responsible for involuntary
movements in the internal organs. It forms the contractile component of the digestive, urinary and
reproductive systems as well as the airways and arteries.
10. The various functions of the muscular system: Mobility—allowing us to move; Circulation—which
allows getting oxygenated blood from the heart to all parts of the body and sending back the impure
blood to the heart, allowing respiration so that blood can be oxygenated in the respiratory track;
Digestion of the food we eat; Urination by expelling the stored urine from the bladder; Childbirth
Vision—by permitting movement of eyeball in all directions; Stability—by supporting the skeletal
system and Posture maintenance.

1. The respiratory system is made up of organs and structures like the lungs, trachea, bronchioles
and the alveoli. These organs cause air exchange so that as we work, we replace used-up impure
air with fresh, healthier air for our body to use. The human respiratory system is a series of organs
responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide. The primary organs of the respiratory
system are the lungs which carry out this exchange of gases while we breathe and the trachea, the
bronchioles and the alveoli are the tubes that permit passage of air to various parts of the lung.
2. Joints are the junctions between bones. Bones are rigid structures and so mobility is a function of the
joints. Thus, joints are the fulcrum of movement of various parts of the skeletal system. While most
joints are locus of movement, some joints have fused and evolved to have no movement at all like the
joints of the skull which are fused and immobile. Every bone in the body—except for the hyoid bone
in the throat—meets up with at least one other bone at a joint.
3. Contraction and relaxation of the heart per minute is called the heart rate and is measured in beats
per minute (bpm). It is controlled by the sinus node, which is a cluster of cells situated at the top of
the right atrium. The sinus node sends electrical signals through the electrical conduction system of
the heart that direct the muscle to contract or relax.
The heartbeat is divided into two phases: systole and diastole. In the first phase, the ventricles
contract and push blood out into the pulmonary artery or the aorta. In the diastole phase, the valves
connecting to the atrium open and the ventricles relax and fill with blood.
4. The key functions of the respiratory system are:
(i) Breathing: The respiratory system aids in breathing.
(ii) Exchange of gases between the lungs and the bloodstream: Inside the lungs, oxygen is
exchanged for carbon dioxide waste through the process called external respiration.
(iii) Exchange of gases between the bloodstream and body tissues: The bloodstream delivers
oxygen to cells and removes waste carbon dioxide through internal respiration.
(iv) Sound: When we speak, air passes from the lungs through the larynx or voce box and creates
sound.
(v) Smelling: The process starts at the nose.
5. Understanding the functioning and structure of body organs helps enhance sports performance in
the following ways:
1. Tall people tend to be good at basketball and volleyball, while children with short stature are
good at weightlifting. If the muscle has a large component of slow twitch fibres, the person is
suitable for endurance sports like marathon and long-distance cycling.
2. Knowledge of lung and heart capacity has a significant impact on the performance of a
sportsperson.
3. Knowledge of structures and functions of various organ systems helps prevent or minimises
injuries.
4. Training can be customised

5. First aid helps in efficient handling of injury rehabilitation. Recovery is aided by knowledge of
the structure of various organs.
6. Muscles are important as they are responsible for the movements one can make. The involuntary
cardiac and smooth muscles help the heartbeat and blood flow through the body by producing
electrical impulses. During breathing, the diaphragm is the main muscle and our food digestion is
controlled by smooth muscles found in the gastrointestinal tract. Smooth and skeletal muscles make
up the urinary system. Urine is released when these muscles tighten. During childbirth, the smooth
muscles of the uterus contract and relax to help push out the baby. Skeletal muscles help move the
eyes aiding vision. Skeletal muscles in our core help in protecting the spine and making the body
stable. Skeletal muscles also control posture.
7. Cardiac muscles form the contractile walls of the heart. Cardiac muscle is characterized by striped
muscle fibres, connected together by intercalated disks, where the membranes are specialized
to allow electrical signals to pass easily. Like smooth muscles, cardiac muscles can remain in
contraction for a sustained period of time. Unlike skeletal muscle fibres, cardiomyocytes are single
cells, typically with a single centrally located nucleus. A principal characteristic of cardiomyocytes
is that they contract on their own intrinsic rhythms without any external stimulation. The cardiac
muscle pumps blood through the body and is under involuntary control.
8. The skeletal muscles control posture by making fine adjustments that hold the body in a stationary
position. Flexibility and strength are keys to maintaining proper posture. Stiff neck muscles, weak
back muscles or tight hip muscles throw off body alignment. Poor posture, thus, affects parts of the
body and leads to joint pain and weaker muscles. These parts include the shoulders, spine, hips
and knees. Lack of muscle may lead to a stooped posture and a greater risk of falls and fractures.
Strength training helps to reverse and prevent this process by stimulating muscle growth and bone
density. As a result, it may help improve posture and reduce the risk of injury.
9. Digestion is controlled by smooth muscles found in the gastrointestinal tract. This comprises the
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus. Muscles also help push
food out of the body through defecation or vomiting when sick. The smooth muscles contract and
relax as food passes through the body during digestion. The large, hollow organs of the digestive
tract contain a layer of muscle that enables their walls to move. The movement of organ walls can
propel food and liquid through the system and can also mix the contents within each organ. Food
moves from one organ to the next through muscle action.
10. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs including the stomach and intestines where
it helps with digestion and nutrient collection. It exists throughout the urinary system, where it
functions to help rid the body of toxins and works in electrolyte balance. Smooth muscle tissue
contraction is responsible for involuntary movements in the internal organs. It forms the contractile
component of the digestive, urinary and reproductive systems as well as the airways and arteries.
Each cell is spindle-shaped with a single nucleus and no visible striations. Smooth muscle is present
throughout the body, where it serves a variety of functions.

1. Human arm has a wide range of precise movements associated with it to allow us to effectively
interact with our environment, the 6 main joints being sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular, shoulder,
elbow, radioulnar and wrist joints. The shoulder or the glenohumeral joint is a type of ball and
socket joint, permitting a 360° range of motion. It is made up by scapula or the shoulder blade and
the long bone of the arm called humerus. This joint permits movements as swinging a cricket bat,
bowling in cricket and throwing the javelin or discus.
2. The circulatory system is made up of pulmonary and systemic systems. The pulmonary system
provides fresh oxygen to blood. Oxygen-poor blood arrives from veins to the right atrium of the heart.
The blood is then pumped through the right ventricle, and then through the pulmonary artery, to
reach the smaller arteries and capillaries and before entering the lungs, the oxygen-rich blood flows
back towards the heart. Arteries carry oxygen and nutrient-rich blood from the heart to all parts of
the body. As the oxygen-rich blood arrives from the lungs, it enters the left atrium and then travels
through the left ventricle before being pumped throughout the body, helping deliver nutrients and
oxygen to each cell. Thus, the heart makes the blood pure.
3. Diaphragm is the strong wall of muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.
Situated under the lungs and ribcage, by moving downwards, it creates suction to draw in air and
expand the lungs. The smallest section of the bronchi is called bronchioles, at the end of which are
the alveoli. The diaphragm moves to cause the lungs to contract and expand. This movement thus,
having a bellow action, helps lungs take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide and other impure gases.
4. The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling
carbon dioxide. The primary organs of the respiratory system are the lungs which carry out this
exchange of gases while we breathe. Lungs work with the circulatory system to pump oxygen-ich
blood to all cells in the body. The blood then collects carbon dioxide and other waste products and
transports them back to the lungs, where they are pumped out of the body when we exhale. Thus,
the respiratory system is vital in supplying pure oxygen-rich blood to all parts of the body.
5. Bones perform the following functions:
(1) Bones give shape to our body. Our height and body shape are the direct result of our bony
structure.
(2) Bones support the internal organs and prevent injury to them by providing a rigid cover. Thus,
while skull protects the brain, the rib cage protects the lungs and heart.
(3) Bones act as levers for movements to take place at various joints and allow physical activities
such as running jogging and walking.
(4) Bones permit attachment of various muscles. This, in turn, allows for shape of the body to be
defined as well as adds stability to movement.
(5) Formation of blood cells takes place in the bone narrrow. Bone marrow produces the cellular
elements of the blood, including platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells.
(6) Mineral reservoir: In addition to its mechanical functions, bone is a reservoir of minerals
(a "metabolic" function). Bone stores 99% of the body's calcium and 85% of phosphorus. It is
very important to keep the blood level of calcium within a narrow range.
(7) Bones store body fats in the form of triglycerides.
6. Everybody needs proper nutrition. This is even more important in competitive sports. An
understanding of anatomy and physiology, thus, is of paramount importance in developing diet
plans and nutritional support for sportspersons. This is also based on their existing food choices and
the increased needs based on the duration and level of physical and mental activity. Balanced diets
and recovery diets all help improve performance.
Understanding the functioning and structure of body organs helps enhance sports performance in
the following ways: Tall people tend to be good at, say, basketball and volleyball while children with
short stature are good at weightlifting. If the muscle has a large component of slow twitch fibres,
the person is suitable for endurance sports like marathon and long-distance cycling. Knowledge of
lung and heart capacity has a significant impact on the performance of sportspersons. Knowledge of
structures and functions of various organ systems helps prevent or minimises injuries.
Customised training programmes based on the understanding of specific anatomy and physiology
can be developed. First aid helps in efficient handling of the injury. Recovery is aided by knowledge
of the structure of various organs. The choice of a sport for an athlete is possible only with a proper
understanding of their anatomy and physiology.
7. Smooth muscles are found in the uterus. During pregnancy, these muscles grow and stretch as the
baby grows. During pregnancy, the growing baby stretches the abdominal muscles. So, abdominal
muscles stretch as the uterus (womb) expands with the pregnancy. When a woman goes into labour,
the smooth muscles of the uterus contract and relax to help push the baby out through the vagina to
allow the delivery to take place.
8. Skeletal muscles offer us stability by using muscles in our core and help us in protecting the spine
and making the body stable. The core muscle group includes the abdominal, back and pelvic muscles.
This group is also known as the trunk. The stronger the core, the more stable is the body. The
muscles in the legs also help steady the core.
Skeletal muscles also control posture. Flexibility and strength are keys to maintaining proper
posture. Stiff neck muscles, weak back muscles or tight hip muscles throw off body alignment. Poor
posture, thus, affects parts of the body and leads to joint pain and weaker muscles. These parts
include the shoulders, spine, hips and knees. So, from lying down to sitting up and even standing,
the muscles in the back along the spine as well as the abdomen muscles are used to achieve an erect
posture. Any weakness in these muscles leads to a stooping posture.
9. Muscles cause the pumping action of the heart and the arteries and veins are directly responsible
for blood circulation in the human body. The involuntary cardiac and smooth muscles help our
heartbeat and blood flow through our body by producing electrical impulses. The cardiac muscle
(myocardium) is found in the walls of the heart. It is controlled by the autonomic nervous system
responsible for most bodily functions. Our blood vessels are made up of smooth muscles and are also
controlled by the autonomic nervous system. So, the blood is sent to the lungs for purification by the
muscles of the heart. Once the oxygenated blood is received back by the heart, it is pumped by the
heart muscles to all parts of the body. The flow of blood along the blood vessels is also aided by the
muscles in the walls of the blood vessels. Once the impure blood is sent back to the heart and lungs
for purification, the muscles in the veins help pump it back.
10. All muscle cells share four primary properties that distinguish them from the other cells. These
are Excitability where the muscle contracts in response to some stimulus which is often from the
nerves. Nervous impulses release a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine which ultimately leads to
muscle contraction. The second property of the muscles is Contractility where the skeletal muscle
cells contract when stimulated. However, smooth and cardiac muscles do not require this stimulus.
The third property shared by muscles is Extensibility which means the capacity to lengthen. Most
muscle cells can be stretched to about three times their contracted length without tearing. The
fourth property of all muscles is Elasticity which means that they can be stretched or contracted
by some amount above or below their resting length without damage. Consequently, the muscle will
return to its resting length once the stimulus for stretching or contraction is removed. Muscles need
the property of elastic recoil for them to be able to function properly. Slack muscles with no tension
or recoil lack the ability to generate force and are, therefore, useless as levers.
Chapter 8: Fundamentals of Kinesiology and Biomechanics in Sports

1. Kinesiology refers to the scientific study of human body movement. Thus, kinesiology is a science
that specifically focuses on the mechanics of movement. Simply put, it is a study of musculoskeletal
structure and movement patterns. We study kinesiology to understand the postural and athletic
aspects of sports performance.
2. Biomechanics is the science of the study of mechanical movements related to the human body.
Biomechanics can play a crucial role in both injury prevention as well as performance enhancement.
By applying various laws such as the Law of Projectile, we can improve athletic performance in
sports such as javelin throw and jumping events.
3. An axis is a straight line around which an object rotates. Movement at the joint takes place in a
plane about an axis. The axes describe the main pivotal/rotational points of body movement. These
are three in number–sagittal, vertical and frontal.
4. Sagittal plane is also known as the anterior-posterior axis. It is an imaginary line that passes
horizontally from posterior to anterior and is formed by the intersection of the sagittal and transverse
planes. Amongst the examples of movement could be shoulder abduction and adduction. Likewise,
side bending of the neck and its abduction and adduction are other examples.
5. Circumduction happens when a bone moves at its head in its joint cavity. Shoulder and hip joints
exhibit this the most. This movement combines most of the angular movements in a circular fashion.
Examples are a cricket bowler throwing a fast ball where the movement of joints takes place in a
circular motion.
6. Frontal plane is the second plane of the human body. Also known as the coronal or longitudinal
plane, this area comprises an imaginary line cutting vertically through both shoulders. It bisects
the body into front and back portions. Movements that occur in the frontal plane are lateral or
side-to-side movements.
These include:

Abduction: Moving (or moving a limb) laterally and away from the midline of the body.

Adduction: Moving (or moving a limb) towards the midline of the body.
Frontal plane movement patterns are fundamental to sports such as football, soccer, hockey and
basketball where the player is shuffling, laterally moving across the field, rink or court.
7. In biomechanics, every motion of the body is described starting from the anatomical position. The
anatomical position is when a person is standing upright looking straight ahead, arms at the side
with palms facing forward, the feet slightly apart at the heels and toes pointing forward. An axis is a
straight line around which an object rotates. Movement at the joint takes place in a plane about an
axis. While the cardinal planes are used to describe the spatial zones in which the body moves, the
axes describe the main pivotal/rotational points of body movement.
8. The five main components of movement are: Abduction—Moving a limb laterally and away from
the midline of the body. Adduction—Moving a limb towards the midline of the body. Rotation—
Moving the limb around its vertical axis. Pronation—Rotating the forearm or foot to a palm-side
or foot-side down position. Supination—Rotating the forearm or foot to a palm-side or foot-side up
position.
9. While kinetics focuses on the forces that cause motion, kinematics focuses on the motion itself.
Specifically, kinematics is concerned with describing the position, velocity and acceleration of objects
without considering the forces that cause them. In sports, kinematics is used to analyse an athlete’s
movement and performance and to identify ways to improve their technique.
10. The kinematic sequence is the study of how energy is transferred first through the large muscles,
then through the pelvis and thorax to the arms and legs. Outstanding athletes must optimize every
aspect of their performance. One way they do that is to study their kinematic sequence.
1. Kinesiology refers to the scientific study of human body movement, while biomechanics is the study
of motion and its causes in living things. Biomechanics is the science of movement of a living body,
including how muscles, bones, tendons and ligaments work together to produce movement. It is
a part of the larger field of kinesiology, specifically focusing on the mechanics of the movement.
Biomechanics provides key information on the most effective and safest movement patterns,
equipment and relevant exercises to improve human movement. Simply put, kinesiology is the study
of movement. It includes physics, biomechanics, physiology, biology and chemistry.
2. Biomechanics is focused on the application of the laws of mechanics and physics to human
performance, in order to gain a greater understanding of performance in athletic events through
modelling, simulation and measurement. Biomechanics can play a crucial role in both injury
prevention as well as performance enhancement. Biomechanical analysis can benefit athletes of all
ages and skill levels. The study and consequent application of biomechanics is designed to optimise
performance and achieve the highest possible results. By applying various laws such as the Law of
Projectile, we can improve athletic performance in sports such as javelin throw and jumping events.
Study of these facets can also help prevent sports injuries.
3. Kinesiology refers to the scientific study of human body movement. Thus, kinesiology is a science
that specifically focuses on the mechanics of movement. Simply put, it is a study of musculoskeletal
structure and movement patterns. We study kinesiology to understand the postural and athletic
aspects of sports performance.
For example, Kinematics is used to analyse the technique of players shooting free throws. By
analysing the position, velocity and acceleration of the ball as it is released from the player’s hand,
coaches can identify ways to improve their shooting technique. Kinetics is also used to study the
forces involved in a player jumping to make a shot, which can help identify ways to improve their
explosive power.
4. The anatomical position is the point of reference for all movements. In the anatomical position, the
body is upright with the arms by the sides, shoulder in neutral rotation, palms facing forward, elbows
and fingers extended and the thumbs in an adducted position with the thumb pads facing forward.
The standard anatomical position provides an understandable and accurate way of describing
human anatomy, physiology and joint planes and axes. It is also the zero position when measuring
range of motion. When describing anatomical motion, these planes describe the axis along which an
action is performed. Movement at the joint takes place in a plane about an axis.
5. Circumduction happens when a bone moves at its head in its joint cavity. Shoulder and hip joints
exhibit this the most. Circumduction is the orderly combination of shoulder movements so that
the hand traces a circle and the arm traces a cone. In shoulder, for example, it is produced by
shoulder flexion, abduction, extension and abduction. This movement combines most of the angular
movements in a circular fashion. Examples are a cricket bowler throwing a fast ball where the
movement of joints takes place in a circular motion.
6. Diagonal pattern of movement occurs when components of all three cardinal planes of motion
are combined at the same time. Most sporting movements fall somewhere between parallel and
perpendicular to the other planes and, thus, occur in a diagonal plane.
7. Gliding joints are located between the surface of two flat bones that are held together by ligaments.
Some of the bones in the wrist and ankles move by gliding against each other.
8. Kinetics and kinematics are two key topics in sports science that are used to study the movement
and performance of athletes. While they may sound similar, they are actually extremely different.
Kinetics deals with the absolute motion of an object. It explains how a body responds when a force or
torque is applied to the body. It is the study of forces that are acting on an object under a particular
mechanism. Kinematics, on the other hand, is a branch of dynamics that deals with motion of objects
(bodies), points or group of objects, considering the mass and force, ignoring the cause of its motion.
It deals with any type of motion of a particular object.
9. Kinematics is the study of motion without taking into account the forces that generate it. Kinematics
focuses on the motion itself. Specifically, kinematics is concerned with describing the position, velocity
and acceleration of objects without considering the forces that cause them. In sports, kinematics
is used to analyse an athlete’s movement and performance and to identify ways to improve their
technique. For example, in the study of golf swing, kinematics focuses on details of the swing 'motion'
such as the shape of the clubhead path, positions of the body and club at various swing events,
velocities of the body parts and club, and the timing of slow-down of the body for speed-up of the club.
10. Stretching keeps the muscles flexible, strong and healthy and we need flexibility to maintain a
range of motion in the joint. Proper stretching can help in reducing stiffness, increase athlete's
performance, improve motion in our joints, increase blood flow, etc. Thus, stretching is important in
sports.

1. There are seven principles in biomechanics. These are stability, maximum effort, maximum velocity,
impulse, reaction, angular motion and angular momentum.
The principle of stability states that lower the centre of mass, larger the base of support; larger the
base of support, closer the centre of mass to the base of support; and greater the mass, more the
stability. Thus, stability is the ability to control forces, which may be unbalanced, in order to remain
balanced. Stability is important for improving performance and for reducing injuries. For example,
wrestlers tend to squat in sumo wrestling to lower the centre of mass and create a larger support
base.
The principle of maximum effort states that production of maximum force requires the use of all
possible joint movements that contribute to the action desired. For example, weightlifting uses all
joints possible to achieve the maximum force for the objective.
2. Biomechanics is the science of study of mechanical movements related to human body. It is also
defined as “the study of the action of external and internal forces on the living body, especially on
the skeletal system. Biomechanics, thus, is focused on the application of the laws of mechanics
and physics to human performance in order to gain a greater understanding of performance in
athletic events through modelling, simulation and measurement. Biomechanics can play a crucial
role in both injury prevention as well as performance enhancement. It is important for athletes of
all ages and skill levels to understand the importance of education in developing proper mechanics.
Biomechanical analysis can benefit athletes of all ages and skill levels. The study and consequent
application of biomechanics is designed to optimise performance and achieve the highest possible
results. Currently, all sportspersons train with an eye on the important aspects of their preferred
sport. By applying various laws such as the Law of Projectile, we can improve athletic performance
in sports such as javelin throw and jumping events. Study of these facets can also help prevent
sports injuries.
3. Stability is amongst the basic principles of biomechanics. It is based on the scientific fact that lower
the centre of mass, larger the base of support; larger the base of support, closer the centre of mass
to the base of support; and greater the mass, more the stability. Adequate stability is important
for good performance in all sports, For example, baseball players use a wide stance to maximise
stability while hitting and baseball and softball players stand with one foot well in front of the other
when hitting so that they can hit the ball hard without losing their balance. Increasing the base of
support can be as simple as moving your feet further apart. Moving one foot in front of the other
increases your stability forwards and backwards. To increase side to side stability, move one foot
further away from the midline of the body. As the area of the base of support increases, the degree
of muscular effort required to maintain stability tends to decrease.
4. Momentum is the product of the velocity and weight of an object as it moves. As momentum is the
product of mass and the velocity, you can increase momentum by increase either of these elements.
In sport, examples include using a heavier bat or racket and increasing running speed or hand
speed. There are two types of momentum in sports—linear momentum, where the momentum is in
a straight line, and angular momentum, which is the rotational momentum created by rotations of
various body segments. An example of linear momentum is if we are standing at the bottom of a hill
and we are faced with the option of either stopping a motor bike or a bicycle, then we will probably
choose to stop the bicycle. The reasoning behind this is that the motor bike has more momentum
than the bicycle. A good example of angular momentum in action is with figure skaters. A figure
skater starts a spin by pulling in his arms to lessen his moment of inertia. Also, in sports like cricket
or baseball, the player is required to swing their bat to hit the ball. The motion of the swing is a type
of angular motion. The batsman swings the bat with the steady angular velocity around an axis.
5. Sagittal axis, which is also known as the anterior-posterior axis, is an imaginary line that passes
horizontally from posterior to anterior and is formed by the intersection of the sagittal and transverse
planes. Amongst the examples of movement could be shoulder abduction and adduction. Likewise,
side bending of the neck and its abduction and adduction are other examples.
The second axis is the frontal axis, which passes horizontally from left to right through the centre of
the body, and is formed by the intersection of the frontal and transverse planes. For example, when
a person performs a somersault, they rotate around this axis. Abduction and adduction movements
occur around this axis; for example, jumping jack exercises, raising and lowering arms and legs
sideways. Shoulder elevation, neck flexion and extension are some other examples.
The third axis is the vertical axis which passes vertically from inferior to superior and is formed by
the intersection of the sagittal and frontal planes. For example, when a skater performs a spin, they
are rotating around the vertical axis. Shoulder external rotations, internal rotation, rotation of the
head are also good examples of movement in the vertical axis.
6. Gliding joints are located between the surfaces of two flat bones that are held together by ligaments.
Some of the bones in the wrists and ankles move by gliding against each other.
These movements are produced when the angle between the bones of a joint changes. These include
flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction and circumduction. These are typical of the
long bones. This movement causes the angle between the two bones to increase or decrease and is
found in joints such as hip and shoulder.
Different types of angular movements are:

Flexion: This is the movement of a joint where the angle between the bones decreases and the bones
come closer, for example, when we bend our forearm to touch our arm at the elbow.

Extension: This is the movement where the angle between the bones increases. It is the opposite of
flexion. Thus, if we straighten out our forearms at the elbow from the bent position, we are causing
extension at the elbow.

Abduction: This movement involves taking a body part away from the midline of the body. Thus,
when we lift our arms over the shoulders, we are doing abduction.

Adduction: This movement brings the limbs close to the midline of the body. Thus, when we bring
down our arms from the shoulders, we are doing adduction.

Circumduction: Circumduction happens when a bone moves at its head in its joint cavity. Shoulder
and hip joints exhibit this the most. This movement combines most of the angular movements in a
circular fashion.

Rotation: The bone here moves around an axis without changing its axis. Thus, when we twist
our head from side to side or just move our shoulders in a shrugging movement, we are performing
rotation.

Supination: This movement involves the wrist moving forward in a fashion where the palm is
facing upwards.

Pronation: This movement is the opposite of supination and causes the palm to face downwards.
7. Lever, which is a rigid object, is used with an axis to either multiply the mechanical force, called
effort, or resistance force, called load, when applied to it. In the human body, the arms and legs act
as levers. A lever system is made up of three parts – an effort, a load and a fulcrum. In the human
body, the effort is provided by the muscle, the load is the weight of the body and the fulcrum is the
joint at which the movement is taking place. A lever system is a rigid bar that moves on a fixed point
called the fulcrum when a force is applied to it. Movement is made possible in the human body by
lever systems that are formed by our muscles and joints working together. Bones, ligaments and
muscles are the structures that form levers in the body to create movement. In simple terms, a joint
(where two or more bones join together) forms the axis (or fulcrum) and the muscles crossing the
joint apply the force to move a weight or resistance.
8. While kinetics focuses on the forces that cause motion, kinematics focuses on the motion itself.
movement and performance and to identify ways to improve their technique. One of the most common
ways to analyse an athlete’s movement using kinematics is through motion capture technology. This
involves placing sensors on an athlete’s body to track their movement in real time. The data collected
from these sensors can then be used to create 3D models of the athlete’s movements, which can be
analysed to identify areas where their technique could be improved. Another way kinematics is
used in sports is through video analysis. This involves recording an athlete’s performance and then
breaking it down into individual movements. By analysing the video frame by frame, coaches and
sports scientists can identify areas where an athlete’s technique could be improved, such as their
posture, footwork or arm position.
9. Biomechanics is the study of human movement including the interaction between the participant
and equipment. Primarily, these studies are broken down into two broad areas – kinetics (the study
of forces acting on the body) and kinematics (the study of movements of the body). Kinetics and
kinematics are two key topics in sports science that are used to study the movement and performance
of athletes. While they may sound similar, they are actually extremely different. Kinetics is the
study of forces and their effects on the motion of objects, whereas kinematics is the study of motion
without taking into account the forces that generate it. Kinematics focuses on the motion itself.
movement and performance and to identify ways to improve their technique. For example, in the
study of golf swing, kinematics focuses on details of the swing 'motion' such as the shape of the
clubhead path, positions of the body and club at various swing events, velocities of the body parts
and club, and the timing of slow-down of the body for speed-up of the club.
Chapter 9: Psychology and Sports

1. Sports psychology uses psychological knowledge and skills to ensure optimal performance and
well-being of athletes. This specialised knowledge proves to be a guide to enhance skills and set
procedures. These are then utilised to handle problems faced by athletes and sportspersons.
2. A sports psychologist can help an athlete increase concentration. Concentration, in turn, improves
focus, allowing a strong control over attention needs and blocking out unwanted distractions. Sports
psychology helps maintain focus on the goal.
3. The five leading characteristics of adolescence are biological growth and development, an undefined
status, increased decision-making, increased pressures and the search for self. Common mental
health disorders in adolescence include those related to anxiety, depression, attention deficit
hyperactivity and eating.
4. During adolescence, the skin condition worsens with the development of acne. Menarche in girls
happens at this age along with rapid growth of body systems. The body shape also begins to change.
There may not only be an increase in height and weight, but the hips may get wider as well. There
may also be an increase in fat in the buttocks, legs and stomach. These are normal changes that may
happen during puberty.
5. Hormones affect adolescents emotionally as well. Since an adolescent is neither an adult nor a child,
confusion abounds as to their roles and responsibilities. They are overly emotional and small triggers
can set off outbursts making them happy, excited or angry. Mood swings happen and confusion
arises as feelings of inferiority or superiority develop. Adolescence is the age when sexual feelings
arise and can trigger a sense of guilt.
6. A lot of mental health disorders in adults begin at the age of 14. Suicides, triggered by depression,
are the cause of one-third of adolescent deaths. The child is very moody and has eating or sleeping
disorders along with low self-esteem and poor self-confidence. These may be because of appearance,
skin colour, beauty and weight issues. Poor performance in academics, mood swings and eating
disorders occur.
7. Team cohesion is defined as a “Dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick
together and remain united in the pursuit of goals and objectives”.
Team cohesion is also defined as “an individual’s sense of belonging to a particular group and his or
her feelings of morale associated with membership in groups.”
8. The five behaviours of a cohesive team, if maximised, lead to a unit that operates very efficiently and
effectively in an optimum fashion. The behaviours of a cohesive team are:
1. Trust
2. Conflict
3. Commitment
4. Accountability
5. Results
Each behaviour in the model builds upon the previous and supports the others.
9. There are many factors that affect team cohesion. These include:
1. The environment (e.g., social and physical)
2. Personal factors (e.g., personality)
3. Team factors (e.g., norms)
4. Leadership factors
Each of these is both independent as well as interdependent.
10. Mental toughness is any set of positive attributes that helps a person cope with difficult situations.
Coaches and sports commentators freely use the term mental toughness to describe the mental state
of athletes who persevere through difficult circumstances to succeed.
11. The five basic characteristics of resilience are:
Problem-solving skills as resilient people can spot the solution that will lead to a desirable outcome.
A strong social connection helps as when dealing with a problem, we need people who can offer
support. Also required is the survivor mentality because resilient people see themselves as survivors.
The fourth basic need is emotional regulation so one is able to regulate emotions effectively. And
lastly self-compassion since resilient people are compassionate towards themselves.
12. Survivor mentality is one of the basics of resilience. When dealing with any potential crisis, resilient
people see themselves as survivors. They avoid behaving like a victim and look for ways to resolve a
problem. While the situation may be unavoidable, they stay focused on a positive outcome.
13. The different types of attention are:
1. Focused attention refers to focusing on a single stimulus.
2. Selective attention refers to paying attention to one stimulus, even if there are distractions.
3. Sustained attention refers to putting attention on a stimulus for an extended period.
4. Divided attention refers to attention that is directed to more than one stimulus at a time.
5. Alternating attention occurs when attention switches back and forth between different stimuli.

1. Psychology is the scientific discipline that studies mental states and behaviour. The four main goals
of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and control the behaviour and mental process of others.
Psychology is also defined as “the science of positive behaviour”. Today, psychology and its offshoots
are well established and contribute in a big way to mental well-being and performance.
Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise
and physical activity. Sports psychology uses psychological knowledge and skills to ensure optimal
performance and well-being of athletes. These are then utilised to handle problems faced by athletes
and sportspersons.
2. WHO defines an adolescent as any person between the ages of 10 and 19. Adolescence is a period of
dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and puberty. It is also a time
of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract
concepts such as love, fear and freedom. An adolescent may grow several inches in a few months
followed by a period of very slow growth and then have another growth spurt. The five leading
characteristics of adolescence are biological growth and development, an undefined status, increased
decision-making, increased pressures and the search for self.
3. Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise
and physical activity. Some sports psychologists work with professional athletes and coaches to
further motivate and improve the performance of athletes. Sports psychology uses psychological
knowledge and skills to ensure the optimal performance and well-being of athletes. This specialised
knowledge proves to be a guide to enhance skills and set procedures. These are then utilised to
handle problems faced by athletes and sportspersons. It also helps enhance performance and help
fight performance issues.
4. The most common problem faced by adolescents is the onset of physical changes and the development
of secondary sexual characteristics. Changes include deepening of the voice and developing facial
hair in boys, Menarche in girls, and the problem of acne. Hormones affect adolescents emotionally as
well. Mood swings occur frequently and unrestrained emotions cause impulsive behaviour. Substance
abuse is a big challenge. Peer pressure can drive adolescents to smoke and drink or use drugs.
Pressure to perform academically and obtain good grades, and stress of schoolwork, homework,
peer pressure and extracurricular activities exists. Body image concerns lead to eating disorders,
especially in girls. Psychological problems and social problems, addiction to social media, aggression
and violence, nutrition and micronutrient deficiencies also begin.
5. Physical activity offers health benefits to adolescents, including improved cardiorespiratory and
muscular fitness, bone health, maintenance of healthy body weight and psychosocial benefits. For
adolescents, WHO recommends at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity daily,
which may include playing games, sports, cycling and walking. Globally, only 1 in 5 adolescents is
estimated to meet these guidelines. The prevalence of inactivity is high worldwide and higher in
female adolescents as compared to their male counterparts.
6. Sports psychology uses psychological knowledge and skills to ensure the optimal performance
and well-being of athletes. This specialised knowledge proves to be a guide to enhance skills and
set procedures. These are then utilised to handle problems faced by athletes and sportspersons
Sports psychology attends to the mental health and well-being of athletes as well as assists them
in reaching their maximum potential. For this, qualified sports psychologists are needed. This also
helps improve a sportsperson’s self-understanding, helps work better with coaches, supports mental
preparation and increases concentration. It also helps a sportsperson bounce back from setbacks and
take success gracefully.
7. Social media today has changed the way we interact with each other. It has affected everyone but it
impacts teenage lifestyles the most. Adolescents seem to spend hours on the phone, texting, talking
or simply playing games. This leads to having fewer friends and inactive social life. Leading solitary
lives and browsing the internet for a long time cuts short their physical activities. The result is
an unhealthy and sedentary lifestyle. Internet addiction diminishes academic performance too.
Parental controls are mostly poorly accepted and too much regulation of internet time may lead to
adamant behaviour. Adolescents should be encouraged to work on other things that do not require a
computer or a smartphone.
8. Team cohesion is defined as a “Dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick
together and remain united in the pursuit of goals and objectives”.
Team cohesion is also defined as “an individual’s sense of belonging to a particular group and his
or her feelings of morale associated with membership in groups”. There are two types of cohesion
in sports—social cohesion and task cohesion. Social cohesion produces team unity with teammates
liking each other personally while task cohesion depends more on athletes rallying around a common
cause regardless of their feelings for each other. Task cohesion is when a coach shares a set goal with
the team with a success criterion.
9. Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and
puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities
and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear and freedom. The five leading characteristics of
adolescence are biological growth and development, an undefined status, increased decision-making,
increased pressures and the search for self. Common mental health disorders in adolescence include
those related to anxiety, depression, attention deficit hyperactivity and eating.
10. Ageing in late adulthood profoundly affects appearance, sensation and motor abilities. Wrinkles
appear and the skin becomes less elastic and thin. Small blood vessels break beneath the surface
of the skin and warts, skin tags and age spots appear on the body. A reduced ability to fight illness
leads to an increase in health problems. Mental problems like depression and anxiety may arise
from loneliness. Greying and thinning of hair along with hair loss are also common. A sunken face
and shallow cheeks are also common signs of ageing.

1. Adolescence is the age of change. Physically and physiologically, it is the most vulnerable time for a
child transitioning into adulthood. With this change come several challenges. Developing unhealthy
habits is a risk as are behavioural issues.
Adolescents comprise a sizeable population in India. Nearly one-fifth of the total population consists
of adolescents. Economic compulsions force many adolescents to work. Illnesses hinder their ability
to grow and develop to their full potential. Alcohol or tobacco use, lack of physical activity, and/or
exposure to violence, etc., can jeopardise not only their current health but also their health as adults,
and even the health of their future children. Adolescence is a highly impressionable age. Substance
abuse is the biggest challenge among adolescents worldwide. Peer pressure drives adolescents to
take up smoking and drinking or using drugs.
Promoting healthy behaviours during adolescence and taking steps to better protect young people
from health risks are critical for the prevention of health problems in adulthood.
2. Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise
and physical activity. It uses psychological knowledge and skills to ensure optimal performance
and well-being of athletes. This specialised knowledge proves to be a guide to enhance skills and
set procedures. These are then utilised to handle problems faced by athletes and sportspersons.
Cognitive and behavioural skill training aids performance. Goal setting helps with performance
planning. Developing concentration and attention leads to the development of self-confidence, self-
esteem and competence in sports. Sports psychology also helps in self-regulation and emotional
management, sportsmanship and leadership skills. Counselling and clinical interventions help
increase motivation, fight eating disorders and weight management, get rid of substance abuse
and also fight mental stresses such as grief, depression, loss and suicide. Psychological support is
also needed to overcome issues that arise from differential treatment of male and female athletes,
aggression and violence. Recovery from athletic injury and proper rehabilitation also requires
attention.
3. Engaging in conflict around ideas improves team cohesion. Members of teams who trust one another
are not afraid to challenge ideas that differ from theirs. It is desirable to be able to disagree with,
challenge and question each other so that the best answers are found, thereby helping make great
decisions. Conflict is sometimes considered dangerous for a team because it can lead to some hard
feelings. However, once the team has relationship trust, members can be honest about their views.
This makes the conflict constructive.
Constructive conflict ensures a free discussion on all points of view and all aspects of an issue. Each
member of the team is focused on achieving the team’s goal. The team goal becomes more important
than any personal goals and everyone feels rewarded by being part of the team result. A team
without conflict tends to shut out valuable feedback which can lead to poor decision-making.
4. Lack of team cohesion closes the lines of communication between the coach and the sportsperson
as well as among the team members themselves. The coaches cannot be clear about team members’
responsibilities and practice and tournament expectations. Strategy fails to be discussed among
team members and no mutual consensus is possible often causing team members to be disrespectful
to one another. Team members do not clearly know their roles in the team. They fail to discuss and
encourage each other after an error. There is a lack of team mission so a common goal may not exist.
Failure to create dependencies on each other leads players to feel or act in isolation. Shared pride
and belief are lost. Team cohesion impacts sports performance. Team cohesion positively predicts
team performance. In turn, team performance positively predicts team cohesion. Teams that are
more cohesive perform better.
5. Physical changes happen due to changes in the teenager’s hormone levels. The development of
secondary sexual characteristics leads to figure consciousness. Deepening of voice and developing
facial hair in boys is a prominent feature. Skin condition worsens with the development of acne.
Muscle gain may lead to excess body weight. Menarche in girls happens. The best way is to make the
adolescent aware of these changes. They should be made to understand that it is a normal process
of growth. They should be guided to adapt to these changes. Health and fitness should be ensured
through a nutritious diet and regular exercise. While many adolescents are undernourished, making
them more vulnerable to diseases and early death, at the other end of the spectrum, the number of
adolescents who are overweight or obese is rapidly increasing as well.
6. Members of highly successful teams trust one another on a fundamental, emotional level, and
are comfortable if apprised of their weaknesses, mistakes, fears and behaviours. They need to be
completely open with one another, without fear. Members of teams who trust one another are not
afraid to challenge ideas that differ from theirs. It is desirable to be able to disagree with, challenge
and question each other so the best answers are found, thereby helping make great decisions.
Because of trust in each other, all opinions and ideas are put on the table to be discussed and
considered, ensuring team members become confident that every possible thought process gets
accommodated. Team members, after trusting each other, engaging in conflict around ideas and
having gained a commitment to decisions, are free to hold one another accountable. This helps
achieve collective results as individual needs and agendas are set aside and the focus is shifted
to collective achievement. The temptation to place their departments, career aspirations or status
ahead of the collective results takes a back seat as a result.
7. Cohesion creates a strong sense of commitment to goals, which motivates higher individual effort
and performance. Cohesion leads to better communication, in a more positive fashion with better
results. Cohesion is essentially to help a team work well together and is crucial for a sports team
to be successful. Successful team cohesion in sports is influenced not only by an individual’s view of
the team but also by how well individual athletes perform as well as how successful the team is at
working together. Team cohesion is useful as it can improve both the performance and motivation of a
team. If a team works well together, it improves their cohesion which, in turn, improves performance
and personal satisfaction. There should be open lines of communication between the coach and the
sportsperson as well as among the team members themselves. The coaches need to be clear about
team members’ responsibilities and practice and tournament expectations. Strategy needs to be
discussed among team members and they should arrive at a mutual consensus. Team members
should be respectful to one another. All team members should be clear about their individual roles
in the team. There should be no ambiguity about a player’s role in the team. Team members should
also be able to talk to each other about what they expect from their teammates. They should discuss
freely and also encourage each other after an error.
8. Aggression is a concern among adolescents. Young boys develop muscles, grow tall and have a coarse,
manly voice. They become moody and vulnerable, getting into fights at school. Becoming bullies and
getting into bad company leads to acts of violence, vandalism and aggression. These impulsive acts
of violence often lead to serious consequences, including serious injury. Many times, children imitate
what they see at home. To help abate aggression, violence and related issues, we need to teach the
values of kindness and consideration. Nurturing relationships at home helps reduce aggressiveness.
Parents need to model life skills and teach the importance of compassion. Activities such as going
for a run, doing yoga, etc., should be encouraged. This way, they will understand that it is okay to
be angry but dealing with it in the right way is what makes all the difference. Adolescence means
the development of independence. This leads to questioning the authorities and stubbornness.
Changes in the brain make teens moody, tired and difficult to deal with. Physical confrontations and
behaviour such as listening to loud music and taking risks results. The sense of dressing, hairstyle
and fashion may attract the elders’ disapproval. The company of other problem kids and lying out of
fear or to avoid confrontation are common.
9. Task cohesion is when a coach shares a set goal/objective with the team with a success criterion
whereas social cohesion is how well a team interacts. Task cohesion refers to ‘the degree to which
members of a group work together to achieve common goals, for example, to win a specific game,
whereas social cohesion ‘reflects the degree to which members of a team like each other and interact
accordingly’. A group with high task cohesion is composed of members who share a common goal
and who are motivated to coordinate their efforts as a team to achieve that goal. A team who is
winning trophies has good task cohesion. Task cohesion is more strongly related to optimal sports
performance than social cohesion, demonstrating the importance of having congruent task-related
goals such as making practice plans together Task cohesion is generally higher in teams that require
working together during competition (e.g., track relays) than those that do not (e.g., cross country).
10. Attention is the cognitive process that involves observing or becoming aware of something, although
it does not have to be in your peripheral visual field. Generally speaking, the process of concentrating
the mind on a particular activity with a view to achieving a specific subject is called attention.
Attention is a whole field of theory and research in cognitive psychology. It is an important mental
process. Without it, other mental processes, like imagination, learning and thinking are neither
possible nor useful. Attention is a precursor to concentration. It is a capability that can be diverted
towards any object at will.
Attention is a mental process and not a mental power; there can be no attention without interest.
It creates readiness for doing work and increases the clarity of the object. It plays a vital role in the
sports teaching-learning process. Without attention, the learner fails to grasp techniques and skills
effectively.
11. According to Oxford Dictionary, middle age is between 45 and 60 years of age—the period of your life
when you are neither young nor old.
This is the period in which ageing becomes more noticeable and most people peak at productivity
in life and work. Visible signs of ageing, such as grey and thinning hair, wrinkles, the need for
eyeglasses and some hearing loss come up. The realisation of ageing causes negative feelings and
causes a mid-life crisis. People experience many physical changes including age spots, weight gain
and decreased reproductive function. Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac
output begin to decline. There are simple physiological changes that accompany middle adulthood.
These are changes in vision and hearing, joint pain, and weight gain. Men tend to gain fat on their
upper abdomen and back while women tend to gain more fat on their waist and upper arms. The
metabolism slows by about one-third during midlife. However, the percentage of adults who have
a disability increases through midlife. Menopause and andropause may affect many middle-aged
adults.
12. Mental toughness is any set of positive attributes that helps a person cope with difficult situations.
Coaches and sports commentators freely use the term mental toughness to describe the mental state
of athletes who persevere through difficult circumstances to succeed. In support of this, several
studies have linked mental toughness to sporting success or achievement. Mental toughness is
commonly referred to as an important prerequisite for sustained athletic achievement. An athlete
cannot succeed to the best of their ability without being mentally tough.
The key characteristics of mental toughness among sports performers are: Consistency, Composure,
Motivation, Confidence, Desire, Being organised, Attention to detail, Determination.
Being mentally tough is an important trait for a successful athlete. Like physical strength, tough
minds are built through continual practice.
Chapter 10: Training and Doping in Sports

1. Doping is “the use of a substance (such as an anabolic steroid or erythropoietin) or technique (such
as blood doping) to illegally improve athletic performance”. The drugs athletes take illegally are to
increase their athletic performance.
2. Stimulants are substances that lead to enhanced mental and physical alertness. Heart and breathing
rates go up and the brain becomes more alert. Amphetamines, cocaine and ephedrine are often used
for this purpose.
3. Adaptation is the process of changing to suit different conditions. The principle of adaptation, thus,
is the process of the body getting used to a particular exercise or training programme through
repeated exposure. Continuous development and progress means continuous change, and change
demands adaptation by the athletes and their training team. Newer exercises and diets may initially
be uncomfortable.
4. Muscles experience overload when exposed to a stimulus greater than what one is normally
accustomed to. In developing a fitness programme, the process of overload is possible by increasing
repetitions, adding to the weight being used or by increasing the duration of the exercise. One can
also reduce the rest time in between various exercise sets by increasing the frequency of exercising.
Overloading can also happen when a skill or a set of movements is repeatedly practised beyond the
level already achieved.
5. Genetics, gender, sex, age, habits and training age are evident differences between athletes.
Customisation of training programmes to meet individual requirements, thus, plays a vital role in
the training of an athlete. This is an important principle of training and is called individuality.
6. Stimulants are substances which lead to enhanced mental and physical alertness. Heart and
breathing rates go up and the brain becomes more alert. Amphetamines, cocaine and ephedrine
are often used for this purpose. Because of this, the athlete does not feel fatigue and can end up
damaging their body, often permanently.
7. Diuretics are drugs used by weightlifters, boxers and wrestlers to rapidly remove fluids from the body
leading to instant reduction in body weight. This permits them to fit into specific weight categories
and also increases mobility during the event. Diuretics dilute the urine sample thereby helping
evade anti-doping tests.
8. Anabolic steroids cause increase in muscle mass and power. These substances find favour with
heavyweight lifters. These are used to bulk up but are ultimately detrimental to muscle strength
and endurance in the long run. They are part of the banned substances list.
9. Gene doping is the non-therapeutic use of cells, genes, genetic elements, or the modulator of gene
expression, having the capacity to improve athletic performance. Gene doping involves the use of
gene transfer to alter gene expression and protein biosynthesis of a specific human protein.
10. Technique is “A particular way of doing something, especially one in which you have to learn special
skills. It is also defined as “A skill and ability in an artistic, sporting, or other practical activity that
you develop through training and practice.” As players continue to develop a technique into a skill,
progress becomes apparent.
11. Technical skills refer to the physical abilities required to perform specific movements in a sport.
These skills include dribbling, shooting, passing, serving, hitting and throwing. Technical skills are
usually developed through practice and repetition of the specific movements involved in a particular
sport.
12. The practice of limbering down, also known as cooling down, means slowing down your level of
activity gradually after exercise. Cool-down exercises are light exercises that help the body transition
from working hard to resting. Limbering down involves performing specific exercises and stretches
that help to reduce heart rate and blood pressure, decrease muscle tension and improve flexibility
and range of motion.
13. A warm-up usually is some gentle exercise that prepares the body for increased intensity of exercise.
Warm-up exercises start at a low intensity and gradually become more intense. When commencing
exercises, the body needs to adjust to increasing breathing and heart rate, increasing the energy-
releasing reactions in the muscles, and increasing blood flow to the muscles to ensure more oxygen
and faster removal of waste products.
Warm-up helps the body adapt to rigorous, more intense exercises and prevent injury.

1. The drugs athletes take illegally are to increase their athletic performance. For example, steroids
and hormones such as testosterone increase muscle mass and strength. While some athletes achieve
physical gains from such drugs, the risks and side effects, especially long-term, far outweigh the
advantages. While the long-term effects of performance-enhancing drugs are damaging, even short-
term benefits come with many risks. Doping is universally prohibited by all sports organisations.
2. Human growth hormones are a favoured doping method in many sports. This is because, over a
period of time, HGH leads to higher haemoglobin and red blood corpuscle production. This, in turn,
increases oxygen transport capacity which translates into more strength and endurance. This is
prohibited at all times and for all levels of athletes, including elite, junior and masters-level athletes.
When it comes to building speed, strength and recovery, human growth hormone has often been
touted as one way to get an edge. Humans naturally produce growth hormone, which controls how
the body grows from childhood to adulthood but doesn’t directly act on the bones and muscles. There
is limited evidence that GH doping improves athletic performance, although the perception that it
does is common in the sporting community. Potential side-effects of long-term GH doping include
swelling of the hands and feet, joint pain, fluid retention and excessive sweating.
3. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was formed in 1999 at the initiative of the International
Olympic Committee to check athletes and set up standards for the evaluation and testing of doping.
A substance or method is prohibited if it falls under the following categories:
(i) The substance or method has the potential to enhance or does enhance performance in sports.
(ii) The substance or method has the potential to risk the athlete’s health.
(iii) WADA has determined that the substance or method violates the spirit of sport.
The World Anti-Doping Prohibited List identifies substances and methods that athletes cannot take
or use and presents them in a number of categories. However, it is important to understand that the
Prohibited List is not exhaustive and several categories of substances are ‘open’. For example, some
categories include ‘other substances with a similar chemical structure or similar biological effect(s)’.
The World Anti-Doping Codes lay down that athletes are ultimately responsible for any substance
found in their bodies, no matter how. The WADA code declares a drug illegal if it is performance-
enhancing, if it is a health risk or if it violates the “spirit of sport”.
4. Narcotics are used as doping agents as they reduce pain. The feeling of being pain-free prevents
fatigability, although temporarily. Morphine and heroin exemplify these substances. Narcotics
change the psychic and physical status of a person not only to reduce pain but also to induce sleep
and alter mood or behaviour to induce euphoria.
They are injected into a human's bloodstream, muscles, or under the skin. In masking the sensation
of pain, athletes are able to train harder and for longer and ignore the injury. They may also produce
the sensation of euphoria and invincibility.
5. Performance enhancement training by athletes is mostly done in-between sporting competitions.
This is also the time when a sportsperson is tempted to try out performance-enhancing substances
as well as other methods to excel in the next or forthcoming competition.
Based on how this drug affects the athlete, they are classified as either performance-enhancing
or physical methods. When an athlete wants to improve performance, they make use of these
substances, which are mostly taken orally or injected. However, use of banned substances leads to
disqualification of a sportsperson.
6. The use of harmful substances to enhance sports performance is possible in many ways. A lot of
these like diuretics, narcotics and anabolic steroids are taken orally or as injections. Some are also
inhaled through the lungs or the nasal cavities. Other ways like blood doping, the use of HGH and
gene doping are done through injections.
7. In-competition tests are done during or at a competition. The time frame for these tests is 12 hours
prior to the competition and till the completion of the event. All known doping substances and
methods are tested in each sample. The athletes are chosen at random or by name. In most events,
especially if new records are created, dope testing is mandatory. Currently, it is a practice to test all
medal winners.
8. Blood doping is “the injection of oxygenated blood into an athlete before an event in an illegal
attempt to enhance athletic performance. “The three widely-used types of blood doping are: blood
transfusions where a transfusion of the athlete’s own blood previously drawn and stored is used, or
the blood of someone else with the same blood group is used. Injections of erythropoietin are used
to regulate the body’s production of red blood cells and to produce higher-than-normal amounts of
red blood cells to enhance performance. Lastly, injections of synthetic oxygen carriers that have the
ability to carry oxygen are used.
9. Anabolic steroids are chemical substances derived from testosterone. They increase muscle mass
and strength. Naturally produced anabolic steroid in humans is testosterone. Testosterone promotes
muscle building and male traits such as facial hair and deep voice. Some athletes use testosterone,
including synthetic modifications, to boost their performance. Side-effects in males include prominent
breasts, shrunken testicles, infertility and prostate enlargement, while in females the side-effects
include a deeper voice, enlargement of female genitals, body hair, baldness and altered menstrual
cycle. Acne, tendinitis and tendon rupture, liver abnormalities and tumors, high blood pressure,
aggressive behaviour, depression and inhibited growth and development in adolescents are other
side-effects.
10. Most commonly used stimulants include caffeine, amphetamines, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine
hydrochloride. Drugs like cocaine and methamphetamine are also stimulants. The risks associated
with the use of stimulants include nervousness and irritability, which make it hard to concentrate
on the game, insomnia, which can prevent an athlete from getting requisite sleep, dehydration,
heatstroke, addiction or tolerance, resulting in the use of progressively incremental doses to achieve
desired effects, heart palpitations, heart rhythm abnormalities, weight loss, tremors, mild high
blood pressure, hallucinations, stroke and heart attack and other circulatory problems.
11. Weightlifters, boxers and wrestlers use diuretics to rapidly remove fluids from the body leading
to an instant reduction in body weight. This permits them to fit into specific weight categories
and also increases mobility during the event. Diuretics dilute the urine sample thereby helping
evade anti-doping tests. The risks associated with the use of diuretics include adverse effects such
as dehydration, muscle cramps, dizziness, potassium deficiency, drop in blood pressure, loss of
coordination and balance, and death.
12. The principle of adaptation in sports training is the process of the body getting used to a particular
exercise or training programme through repeated exposure. Continuous development and progress
needs continuous change, and change demands adaptation by the athletes and their training team.
Newer exercises and diets may initially be uncomfortable. Adaptation to increasing loads enhances
performance. Initially, the athlete may feel uncomfortable, but once adaptation starts, results follow.
Over time, the body becomes used to exercising at a given level. This adaptation results in improved
efficiency, less effort and less muscle breakdown at that level.
13. Skills are the proficiencies developed through training or experience. Basic skills are simple,
uncomplicated movements that are generic to most sports, like running, jumping, throwing,
catching and striking. Complex skills require higher levels of coordination and control. Most are
sport specific, like serving in tennis, throwing the discus in athletics and performing a vault in
gymnastics. Technical skills refer to the physical abilities required to perform specific movements
in a sport, like dribbling, shooting, passing, serving, hitting and throwing. Tactical skills refer to an
athlete’s ability to make strategic decisions and use their technical skills effectively in a game or
competition, like positioning, decision-making and game intelligence.
14. Sports teach communication skills because the confidence and knowledge a sportsperson acquires
on the way to success are immense. Personal skills refer to an athlete’s personal qualities, such
as discipline, leadership and sportsmanship. These skills are important for building positive
relationships with teammates, coaches and opponents, and for developing a strong sense of self-
esteem and confidence. Mental skills refer to an athlete’s psychological abilities, such as focus,
confidence and motivation. These skills can be developed through mental training techniques, such
as visualisation and positive self-talk.

1. Sports performance training is very different from conventional training. Sports performance is
about explosive movements, reaction, speed and agility. Conventional training normally puts
more emphasis on body transformation and muscular build. A programme that includes sports
performance training has to be developed specifically for that sport. This type of training normally
includes a wide range of agility, power and speed training. There is a lot of emphasis on the planes
of motion such as moving forward, backward twisting and sideways movements. These include more
dynamic stretches such as high jumps or triple flexion movements, e.g., tossing a medicine ball by
twisting to the side rather than just static stretches. Even an average person who is not a regular
sportsperson can include them in their routine.
2. While the principles of sports training are many, there are three important ones. The first one
is individuality which means things like genetics, gender, sex, age, habits and training age are
evident differences between athletes and should be considered while drawing up a training program
customised to the athlete. Customisation of training programmes to meet individual requirements,
thus, plays a vital role in the training of an athlete. The second principle, namely overload, states
that too much acceleration is damaging but too little demand also causes a lag. Therefore, an
increase in load has to be optimal for an individual. The third principle is adaptation; the principle
of adaptation is the process of the body getting used to a particular exercise or training programme
through repeated exposure. For success in sports the training program has to take care of and
consider these three vital aspects for the long-term success of the athlete.
4. Stimulants stir up the central nervous system and increase heart rate and blood pressure.
Stimulants can improve endurance, reduce fatigue, suppress appetite and increase alertness and
aggressiveness. Most commonly used stimulants include caffeine, amphetamines, ephedrine and
pseudoephedrine hydrochloride. Drugs like cocaine and methamphetamine are also stimulants. The
*Answer to Q. No. 3 is not being provided as this is no longer part of the syllabus.
risks associated with the use of stimulants include nervousness and irritability, which make it hard
to concentrate on the game, insomnia, which can prevent an athlete from getting requisite sleep,
dehydration, heatstroke, addiction or tolerance, resulting in the use of progressively incremental
doses to achieve desired effects. Other notable side-effects are heart palpitations, heart rhythm
abnormalities, weight loss, tremors, mild high blood pressure, hallucinations, stroke, heart attack
and other circulatory problems.
5. Human growth hormone or somatotropin is called HGH in short. Synthetic human growth hormone
was developed in 1985 and approved by the FDA for specific uses in children and adults. It has
anabolic effect so that the muscle mass and endurance get better but this has not been scientifically
corroborated in normal humans. Human growth hormone is in injection form but is not openly
available without a prescription. Taken orally, HGH is not useful since it is digested by the stomach
before it can be absorbed. This has been used by sportspersons to dope in the hope of building muscle
mass and muscle endurance. The adverse effects of human growth hormones are varied and can be
quite severe. They include joint pain, muscle weakness, fluid retention, diabetes, vision problems,
carpal tunnel syndrome, impaired glucose regulation, enlarged heart, high blood pressure, etc.
6. Adaptation is the process of changing to suit different conditions. The principle of adaptation, thus,
is the process of the body getting used to a particular exercise or training programme through
repeated exposure. Continuous development and progress means continuous change, and change
demands adaptation by the athletes and their training team. Newer exercises and diets may initially
be uncomfortable but the athletes have to get used to what is good for them and the sport.
Adaptation to increasing loads enhances performance. Initially, the body may resist changes and
make the athlete uncomfortable, but once adaptation starts, results follow. Over time, the body
becomes used to exercising at a given level. This adaptation results in improved efficiency, less effort
and less muscle breakdown at that level.
7. Genetics, gender, sex, age, habits and training age are evident differences between athletes.
Customisation of training programmes to meet individual requirements, thus, plays a vital role in
the training of an athlete. Genetics, gender, sex, age, habits and training age are evident differences
between athletes. Customisation of training programmes to meet individual requirements, thus,
plays a vital role in the training of an athlete. This is an important principle of training and is
called individuality. The Principle of Individuality dictates that the decisions concerning the nature
of training should be made with each individual athlete in mind. A coach must always consider
that each athlete should be treated independently. Every athlete has their own unique physiology,
strengths and weaknesses. By individualising your training, you can get the most out of your workout
to help you reach your goals. Individualising training can be a difficult and time-consuming task, but
it is critical to achieving optimal physiological adaptations for every athlete.
8. Doping tests take place during competitions as well as outside of them. There are two types of dope
tests – in-competition tests and out-of-competition tests. An athlete can be asked to submit to testing
anytime, anywhere. In-competition tests are done during or at a competition. The timeframe for
these tests is 12 hours prior to the competition and till the completion of the event. All known doping
substances and methods are tested in each sample. The athletes are chosen at random or by name.
In most events, especially if new records are created, dope testing is mandatory. Currently, it is a
practice to test all medal winners. Out-of-competition tests are types of tests that are carried out at
random outside of competitions. The focus is to test for non-approved substances, anabolic agents,
peptide hormones, growth factors and similar substances, Beta 2 agonists, hormone and metabolism
modulators, diuretics and other masking agents as well as all prohibited methods. Athletes are
chosen for out-of-competition tests in a targeted manner or by drawing the athletes to be tested
during the training of a certain group or athletes on a camp. Dope tests consist of taking a urine
sample or a blood sample or both.
9. A specific warm-up is a more focused and intense warm-up tailored to the specific demands of an
activity or sport. For example, a sprinter might perform a series of short, explosive sprints as part
of their specific warm-up. In cricket, fast bowlers first bowl a few slow balls and then gradually
increase the intensity and speed of their bowling while practising. This may then be followed by
a few minutes of going through the motion of bowling a ball. Sport-specific warm-ups are often
designed by a qualified trainer in that sport. This will allow the sportsperson to simulate at low
intensity the movements going to be performed at higher intensity during the actual competition or
higher training. Typical examples include steady jogging, cycling or swimming before progressing to
a faster speed. Other examples are trying service motions for tennis, catching practice for cricket or
side-stepping for football.
10. There are two main types of limbering down – active and passive. Active limbering down involves
performing low-intensity exercises and stretches that increase blood flow and help reduce muscle
fatigue. Passive limbering down involves techniques that focus on relaxation and recovery, such as
deep breathing and foam rolling.
Active limbering down methods include light aerobic exercises such as jogging or cycling so we can
reduce heart rate and blood pressure gradually or do stretching which helps reduce muscle tension
and improve flexibility. Static stretching is the most effective method of stretching during limbering
down. Active limbering down is also done using a foam roller to apply pressure to sore or tight
muscles. Yoga is a low-impact form of exercise that can help reduce stress and increase flexibility.
Passive limbering down methods include deep breathing exercises as an effective way to reduce stress
and promote relaxation. Taking slow, deep breaths can help lower heart rate and blood pressure,
reducing muscle tension. Meditation is a mindfulness practice that involves focusing your attention
on the present moment. It is an effective way to reduce stress and promote relaxation, helping to aid
in recovery after a strenuous workout.
11. Mental skills refer to an athlete’s psychological abilities, such as focus, confidence and motivation.
These skills can be developed through mental training techniques, such as visualisation and
positive self-talk. All successful sportspersons choose and maintain a positive attitude. They also
maintain a high level of self-motivation, set high but realistic goals, deal effectively with people,
use positive self-talk and positive mental imagery besides learning to manage anxiety and emotions
effectively. The ability to set short-term goals, talk positively to themselves, manage emotions and
visualise a successful end result are all mental skills that sportspersons need. They need to learn
to deal effectively with teammates as well as opponents and also maintain concentration while in
competition. One commonality among sports will be those times when there are breaks in having to
perform. These could be due to injury or breaks that are part of the nature of the game (time between
playing periods such as half time), judicial breaks (umpires/referees consulting), or breaks between
the execution of skills (e.g., in golf, trap shooting, etc.). Sports that involve teams of individuals will
require different mental skills for each individual due to the different demands of their specific roles
within the team.
12. Skills are the proficiencies developed through training or experience. They are usually learned and
can, thus, be acquired from others through the transfer of knowledge. Skills are often learned to
serve a specific purpose. Different sports require different skills to be developed. Classifying skill
is a difficult task as often what seems a single skill is in fact a multi-skilled activity. Skills can be
classified according to how complex or difficult the movement is. Basic skills form the foundation
of the more complex skills. These are simple, uncomplicated movements that are generic to most
sports. Obviously, one needs to master basic skills before attempting complex skills. Examples of
basic skills are running, jumping, throwing, catching and striking. Complex skills are tougher and
include movements requiring higher levels of coordination and control. Most are usually specific to
a sport. Examples include serving in tennis, throwing the discus in athletics and performing a vault
in gymnastics. Technical skills, tactical skills, physical skills, personal skills and mental skills are
to be developed by sportspersons if they are to succeed.

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Teacher’s Manual

Chapter 1: Changing Trends and Careers in Physical Education

B. Very Short Answer Questions carrying 2 marks each (40-60 words)

C. Short Answer Questions carrying 3 marks each (80-100 words)

Physical education is an educational course related to the physique of a person. It is undertaken

Chapter 2: Olympism (Olympic Value Education)

B. Very Short Answer Questions carrying 2 marks each (40-60 words)

C. Short Answer Questions carrying 3 marks each (80-100 words)

D. Long Answer Questions carrying 5 marks each (150-200 words)

B. Very Short Answer Questions carrying 2 marks each (40-60 words)

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Various types of liquids are used to practise this. These include:

Chapter 4: Physical Education & Sports for

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Chapter 5: Physical Fitness, Wellness and Lifestyle

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Chapter 6: Test, Measurement & Evaluation

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(ii) Plank Hold Test

Chapter 7: Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology in Sports

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4. Training can be customised

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Chapter 8: Fundamentals of Kinesiology and Biomechanics in Sports

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Chapter 9: Psychology and Sports

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Chapter 10: Training and Doping in Sports

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