Outline the evidence provided by the Urey-Miller experiments that organic molecules originated

on Earth?

The Urey Miller experiment aimed to test the hypothesis that organic molecules could’ve
originated on Earth. Their experiment replicated a early-earth atmosphere, through a
combination of methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water, this gas mixture was applied to a
voltage charge, simulating lightning through the early earth atmosphere. This resulted in the
formation of basic amino acids, in the water at the bottom of the flask. This experiment
highlighted that it was possible to form essential life-building amino acids in the early earth
atmosphere, presenting evidence for the theory that life originated on earth.

Why were the results of their experiments so important?

The results of Urey-Miller’s experiments provided evidence that essential life-building amino
acids could have been developed in the early earth atmosphere, suggesting that the origination
of life could’ve occurred terrestrially on earth.

The results of Urey-Miller’s experiments proved that the conditions of Early Earth provided the
necessary components in order to possibly develop essential life-building amino acids.
Suggesting that the origination of life could’ve occurred terrestrially on earth.

Evaluate the validity of the experiments performed by Urey and Miller to determine whether the
simple chemicals existing on the early Earth, were capable of being converted into amino acids?

Urey and Miller’s experiment aims to prove that the conditions of Early Earth provided the
necessary components in order to develop essential life-building amino acids. The experiment
follows a valid experimental procedure, however, relies on best-known predictions of what made
up the early earth's atmosphere, which is unproved. In which the Urey-Miller experiment is
invalid, due to it being impossible to prove that our best understanding of the early-earth
atmosphere is indeed correct.

Describe evidence provided by black smokers that organic molecules could have originated in
the oceans?

Thriving communities have been discovered surrounding black smoker’s suggesting life’s ability
to develop in this remote locations. Black smoker’s possess chemicals of methane, ammonia,
hydrogen and acidic conditions, which proved by Urey-Miller experiment provide the capability
for the production of basic amino acids, essential for life. Furthermore, the surrounding clay
sediments, can provide the necessary components for the construction of more complex
polypeptide chains.

Explain how the discovery of living communities around black smokers provides evidence that
organic molecules originated on Earth?
The discovery of living communities surrounding black smoker’s demonstrates the capability of
life in extreme conditions. Archaea are a single-celled organism in which can be shown to be
resilient to such conditions. The conditions surrounding Black smoker’s are known to represent
the conditions of Early Earth, which Urey-Miller’s experiment proves that a mix of methane,
ammonia, hydrogen and hot water, provides the necessary components for the generation of
amino acids. These are the very chemicals surrounding black smoker’s, suggesting that life
could’ve generated surrounding black smokers.

Outline the way in which organisms such as archaea were able to obtain their energy?

Archaea are prokaryotic organisms, which have been found to thrive in extreme conditions such
as around black smokers. Archaea utilise the simple chemicals around black-smoker’s to
convert it into a food source, using chemosynthesis through chemicals such as ammonia which
have been generated due to the geological activity beneath black smokers

Describe evidence that organic molecules were brought to Earth from space?

Pansmeria is the theory that life was brought to Earth from space. Evidence for panspermia,
include the analysis of meteorite samples, in which meteorites have been found to be rich in
carbon-13 samples, furthermore samples of meteorites have been found to have water, which is
crucial for the development of lifeform. Furthermore, experiments involving organisms, have
showed that certain types of bacteria can stay alive in space for extended periods of time.

What is Panspermia?

Panspermia is the theory that life was brough to life exterterrestrially

Outline the evidence used to support the panspermia hypothesis for the origin of life?

Panspermia, focuses on the potential life was brought to earth, extraterrestrial, from space. In
which an analysis of meteorities and comets, depict high contents of carbon-13, a crucial
element in the construction of biological material. Furthermore, the presence of water on some
meteorites, further supports the theory of Panspermia. Bacteria spores have also been proven
to survive in space for extended periods of time, adding evidence to Panspermia.

Describe the evidence of fossilised remains of cyanobacteria in Australia

The coast of Western Australia depicts one of the only places in the world, where living
stromatolites live. Stromatolites are a multi-layered formed structure as the by-product of
cyanobacteria, which is a microscopic unicellular organism that performs photosynthesis.
Furthermore, fossils of stromatolites have been found dating back to 3.5 billion years old,
providing evidence that cyanobacteria have been living for past 3 and a half billion years.

Explain why it is difficult to determine when photosynthetic life first evolved on Earth?
Evidence for the development of photosynthetic life on Earth, do not come from fossils or
organism remains, but rather the chemical changes which occurred in the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and rocks. These historical records which indicate changes to these geographical
features, demonstrates that organisms were photosynthesising not the first evolving of those
organisms.

Discuss whether fossilised stromatolites are able to provide evidence of the origin of
photosynthetic life on Earth?

Stromatolites can be dated back to approximately 3 and a half billion years, these stromatolites
contain the presence of cyanobacteria which are photosynthetic organisms, however it is
unknown whether, there were photosynthetic organisms existed prior to this, therefore
stromatolites fail to provide conclusive evidence.

Evaluate the evidence that multicellular organisms had evolved by 565 mya?

Whilst there are some evidence that multicellular organisms evolved by two billion years ago,
there is confusion to whether they were multiceullar organisms or rather a simple colony of
single celled bacteria. Alternatively, there have been numerous fossil fields found carrying
numerous species dating back to 565 million years ago, representing the Ediacaran period. The
flinder’s range in Australia, shows a diverse range of organisms in the Ediacaran period, and
definitive prove that multiceullar organisms have evolved.

What is meant by the term ‘The Cambrian Explosion’

The term ‘The Cambrian Explosion’ coins the seeming explosion of diversity in the fossil record,
where prior to the Cambrian period there is an extreme lack of fossil evidence, and in a very
short geological timeframe, a significant expansion of abundance of fossil evidence.

Outline the evidence provided by the Burgess Shale?

The Burgess Shale is a large fossil bearing deposit, from the Cambrian period. The Burgess
Shale expertly preserved a large abundance of Cambrian fossils, providing undisputable
evidence on the large ‘explosion’ of life seen throughout the cambrian, baring a rich diversity of
life. Furthermore depicting the appeareance of hard-body parts, armour and teeth, depicting the
appearance of predation throughout the Cambrian period.

To what extend did the development of hardened body parts account for this apparent explosion
of life in the Cambrian period?

The development of hardened body parts throughout Cambrian fauna, included the
development of armour, muscular connection points and teeth. These hard-body parts were
able to fossilise with significantly more ease, compared to the Ediacaran counterparts. The
ediacaran organisms, were soft-bodied and lacked any hard-body parts, these made it
significantly more challenging to fossilise. Therefore with the development of hard-body parts,
the Cambrian period, undergoes an apparent rapid explosion of diversity and life, due to the
significantly increased chances of successful fossilisation.

Identify the geological time period which this cartoon is representing?

The cambrian period

Describe the evidence you used to determine your answer?

The cartoon depicts organisms with the presence of armour and hard body parts, represents
that it cannot be in the Ediacaran period. Furthermore, the presence of eyes, teeth, and armour,
represents that predetation has evolved. This cartoon illustrates the Cambrian period.

Suggest a possible explanation for the dissppaearence of the Ediacara based on this model

The evolution of the Cambrian fauna, witnessed the development of hard-body parts and
predation, this in comparison with Ediacaran biota, which were soft-bodied and lacked
muscle-connections and vision. This provides the easy potential for feeding, with cambrian biota
eating ediacaran biota, this easy predatation could’ve been the quick disappearance of
ediacaran biota.

Outline one way in which this model could be misleading?

The sizing of the chart’s representing the number of cambrian and ediacaran biota, depicts that
the two geological timeframes had similar populations, where in reality, there is no definitive
truth with this being the case.

Complete the table below to identify how the early pioneers of terrestrial environments managed
to overcome these challenges

Challenge Plants Animals

Larger Gravitational Force Xylem vessels, with strong Skeleton

cell walls

Dehydration Waxy cuticles and stomates Dead layers of cells over skin
on leaves

Reproduction Development of hard seeds Shells to hold water, and

internal reproduction
Describe the evolutionary steps taken by amphibians as they ventured onto the land?

The early amphibians followed prey on to land, their four legged anatomy, made it easier for
them to move through the land environment. Forward-pointing eyes placed high upon the head,
made it easier to spot prey. Furthermore, the evolution of lungs allowed the amphibians to
remain outside of water for extended periods of times.

Suggest the most likely distribution of Cooksonia and outline the features which allowed htem to
inhabit this environment?

The cooksonia was a widely distributed plant, with fossilised remains of it being located widely
across the globe, it lived in moist regions, due to its continuous reliance upon water. It had short,
hollow stems, “xylem” which carried water directly through the body of the plant. Their simple
system and lack of a cuticle meant they were at a risk of dehydration in environments without a
permanent source of water.

Describe the progressive development in plant structure as plants moved into terrestrial
environments.

Plant’s had to overcome a variety of challenges in order to move into terrestrial environments.
Terrestrial environments had a significantly higher amount of UV radiation, in which plant’s
would dry out quickly, in which plant’s evolved waxy cuticles to preserve water. Obtaining water
from the soil, and transportation from local water deposits, were managed through the
development of hollow arteries, xylem. The extra pressure due to increased gravitational force
was counter-acted through stiffer roots and stems, through the chemical lignin. Finally
fertilisation of the plant was achieved through hard seeds storage, which would conserve the
seed until it was ready for fertilisation.

Identify the first organism able to photosynthesis

Cyanobacteria

Why was this organism able to bring about such major changes in the environment?

Prior to Cyanobacteria’s evolution the earth was anoxic, ‘lacking oxygen’, and since
cyanobacteria was the first organism to undergo photosynthesis, it was also the first process to
release oxygen into the environment, starting the start of major changes to the world.

Complete the table

Sphere Impact of photosynthesising bacteria

Geosphere Formation of Banded Iron Formations & Red Beds

 Atmosphere Converting the atmosphere from anoxic to oxic, released oxygen
interacted with UV to form an ozone layer. Reduction in carbon dioxide
and methane

Hydrosphere Oxygenisation of the oceans, removal of dissolved iron.

Explain the relationship between changing oxygen concentrations in the atmosphere and the
development of the ozone layer?

The atmosphere prior to the evolution of cyanobacteria and further photosynthesiszing

organisms, was anoxic. As cyanobacteria underwent photosynthenization, the release of
oxygen into the atmosphere resulted in the oxygenisation of the atmosphere entirely, reducing
the quantity of carbon dioxide and methane. Furthermore, oxygen in the upper atmosphere
interacted with UV radiation from the sun, becoming O3, ozone. This ozone built up in quantity
resulting in the formation of the ozone layer, a protective layer from the harmful UV radiation
emitted by the sun.

Describe what is meant by the term banded iron formation

A banded Iron formation is a geological feature, consisting of ‘banded’ layers of a iron rich layer
followed a silica rich layer. The layered structure would feature a dark, reddish layer, which is
representative of the iron rich layer, followed by a lighter, white-like layer which is representative
of the silica-rich layer.

Outline the changes in environmental conditions that occcurred in order for banded iron
formations to be deposited?

The environment prior to the formation of Banded Iron Formations ‘BIF’ was predominantly
anoxic, therefore with the development of cyanobacteria and photosynthesizing organisms, this
release of oxygen interacted with the iron deposits within the oceans, to begin the formation of
the banded iron formations. The layered nature of the BIF’s indicate the ocean went through
recurring periods of being oxic and anoxic.

Explain the relationship between this evolutionary change in the biosphere and the layered
structure of the banded iron formations?

The only way for the formation of banded iron formations is through the release of oxygen,
which only occurred through the photosynthesizing of cyanobacteria. At the initial formation of
BIF’s cyanobacteria would begin photosynthetization, and the released oxygen molecules would
interact with the iron deposits throughout the ocean, creating iron oxide, this was denser then
the surrounding ocean, and sink to the ocean floor. This process occurred on a large scale,
forming a red layer of iron oxide on the ocean floor, which we see through BIF’s. Through this
process, the cyanobacteria increased in number’s and released an abundance of oxygen, this
continued until there was too much oxygen in the surrounding oxygen, and the cyanobacteria
began dying off due to oxygen toxicity. This resulted in a period of decreased cyanobacteria
population and thus decreased oxygen emission, resulting in the formation of a corresponding
silica-rich layer of the banded iron formation. The cyanobacteria gradually begin increasing in
population once again and restart the cycle. This process repeated and resulted in the layered
structure we see throughout our banded iron formations.

Define what is meant by the term plate tectonic supercycle?

The plate tectonic supercycle is the cyclic nature of plate tectonics, in which there is a
continuous repetitive formation of a supercontinent, then the continuous break up and split of
the continent into numerous smaller continents, in which these small continents will eventually
reform a supercontinent.

How long does the plate tectonic supercycle take to complete one cycle?

Approximately 500 million years

Summarise the main stages in the plate tectonic supercycle?

The plate tectonic supercycle begins with all the continental land mass on Earth resembling a
supercontinent, this super-continent undergo’s numerous rift valleys forming divergent plate
boundaries, this splits the super-continents into numerous smaller continents, the divergent
plate boundaries pushes these smaller continents across Earth. This next stage is where there
are numerous smaller continents, convergent plate boundaries begin to push these smaller
continents together, once again forming a supercontinent. This continuous pattern of Plate
Tectonic’s repeats.

Outline one way in which the plate tectonic supercycle contributes to the evolution of new
species

The plate tectonic supercycle has a wide range of impacts upon the evolution of new species, in
the stage of the plate tectonic supercycle where there is numerous isolated individual
continents, more evolution occurs. This is due to the isolation occurring amongst the individual
continents, and further with the continents crossing a wider range of latitudes. The wide spread
of latitudes exposes animals to a wider range of ecosystems, and thus results in a wider range
of evolution

Outline the effect of the plate tectonic supercycle on global climate

The plate tectonic supercycle has numerous effects upon global climate, a period of a
supercontinent, causes a seizing in volcanic activity, this lack of volcanic activity generates
colder temperatures, and with these colder temperatures, more ocean water gets locked up in
polar ice caps, this forms a reduction in sea-level. Furthermore, the size of the single-continent
results in oceanic winds not being able to reach the continental interior, this creates drier
conditions. Alternatively, with the split up of a super-continent, there is a major increase in
volcanic activity, therefore in the stages of the plate tectonic supercycle where there is a
break-up of a supercontinent or numerous single continents, there are vastly different
conditions. There are hotter temperatures, more precipitation and higher sealevels.

Outline one feature of the plate tectonic supercycle which could be a driving factor in the
evolution of life on Earth

The spread of continents greatly influence the evolution of life on Earth, in which the amount of
latitudes the continents spread across, is proportional to the amount of evolution that continent
will experience. A continent which spreads more latitudes, will experience more evolution, as
the continent is exposed to a larger amount of ecosystems and temperatures, forcing life to
evolve and adjust to a larger range of conditions. Therefore the positioning of a single continent
on the globe, greatly affects the evolution which will occur on the continent.

Explain the importance of rapid burial in the formation of a fossil?

Rapid burial is crucial to the formation of a fossil, as it prevents the fossil from deteriorating from
natural weather conditions such as rainfall and erosion, and from other animals. The rapid burial
serves as a mean of protection for the fossil.

Is this fossil a mould or cast? Provide a reason for your answer

This fossil is a cast as it looks like a real ammonite.

Explain how mould and cast fossils form

Mould and Cast fossils both form initially from the same process. In the case for both mould and
cast fossils, the remains of the organism must be quickly buried, such as in mud, or covered by
a type of soil, dirt and protection from weathering. This layer of material protects the fossil from
erosion and outside processes and is crucial for the development of the fossil. Over a period of
time, rock and sediment gets compressed on top of the fossil, this process compacts around the
fossil, forming a complete rock structure. Natural processes biodegrade the fossil, leaving a
mould of the fossil in the surrounding rock, this is a mould fossil. This is where the process
differs, in some cases minerals from sediment and groundwater gather in this mould fossil,
forming a hard rock structure of the fossil’s mould. This is a cast fossil, where a different rock
structure perfectly replicating the fossil lies in a surrounding rock structure.

Identify other types of trace fossils?

Coprolites, Burrials and Tracks

Describe the type of information that trace fossils can provide?

Trace fossils provide a wide range of information, in which a footprint trace fossil can provide
information upon the sizing of the animal and how it looked. Furthermore, it can determine the
nature of how the animal moved, and how fast it could move. Coprolites provides information
upon the animals diet. Trace fossils found in quantity can provide a picture of what the hunting
patterns of the animal was and how it interacted with further species.

Identify the main characteristics of index fossils

Index fossils must be abundant and geographically wide spread, furthermore, they must only
appear for a short geological timeframe.

Explain why these characteristics make index fossils such an important tool for
palaeontologists?

These characteristics label index fossils as a means of tracking rock formations to other rock
formations. Due to the widespread nature of index fossils, they appear in a widespread amount
of rock formations across the planet. The index fossils presence only over a short geological
time frame allow them to be pinpoints across global rock formations, in which if a index fossil is
spotted, palaeontologists are able to use relative dating to date the whole rock formation.
Therefore index fossils allow for the relative dating of global rock formations without the use of
radiometric analysis and absolute dating techniques.

Which of the fossils in this image would be suitable as an index fossil?

Ammonite

Explain why you chose this fossil as the index fossil?

It was spread geographically across the entire rock formation, only across a short geological
timeframe, fulfilling the criteria in order for it to be a index fossil.

Use an example to describe how scientists use index fossils?

Trilobites are specific organism which evolved during the Cambrian, the trilobites continued to
evolve over the next two hundred and fifty million years. The individual strains of trilobites were
highly recognisable and lived for only a short time-frame, this allowed paleontologists to use
Trilobites as a index fossil for accurate relative dating of other fossils.

Discuss the importance of index fossils in the development of the geological time frame?
It is impossible to perform absolute dating techniques upon sedimentary rock formations,
therefore paleontologists relied on the usage of relative dating techniques, using index fossils as
the groundwork in which to date the rest of the rock structure up against.

Describe the geological evidence which indicates the occurrence of a mass extinction?

A mass extinction event leaves a wide range of geological evidence, one such portion of
evidence is a sudden abundance of fossil’s from a wide range of animal types, these fossil’s
should be in abundance and then not seen again, symbolizing that the impending fossils have
gone extinct.

Explain how this evidence indicates that a mass extinction has occurred?

As the fossils have appeared in large volume, that is representative of a sudden accumulation of
death of species which could mean a mass extinction. Furthermore, if these fossils suddenly
stop appearing after a short geological time period, it represents an extinction. Index fossil’s can
be utilised to determine whether or not the mass extinction was widespread across Earth, where
if Index fossil’s stop appearing in a geographical time period it is symbolic that the extinction
event was widespread and a mass extinction.

Explain how the age of this extinction event can be accurately dated?

The age of a mass extinction can be dated through the use of a combination of relative and
absolute dating techniques. Absolute dating techniques can be used through radiometric
analysis of surrounding rock’s around the mass extinction event, to give a range of time in which
the mass extinction event occurred. This generates a rough age of the mass extinction event.

Under what circumstances is the use of the law of superposition not valid for determining the
relative age of rock layers?

The law of superposition does not work when the rock formation has been bent or under
pressure, as then it is impossible to determine whether a lower portion of the rock formation is
necessarily younger.

Outline the principle behind the division of time into periods during the Phanerozoic?

The splitting of geological time frame’s is symbolic of the changing of evolution periods. Large
geological timeframes is representative of a mass extinction event, whilst smaller geological
timeframes is representative of climate events or smaller evolutionary changes.

Use the data provided to describe the relationship between geological time frames and mass
extinction events.
Approximately 60 million years ago, the graph depicts a sharp drop in the percentage of known
genera, representative of a mass extinction event, specifically illustrating the End Cretecauous
event, which the geological time scale, represents a change from Mesozoic to Cenozoic.
Furthermore, the speciality of this specific geological time separation, is that it represents the
difference between a reptile-dominated fauna to a mammal-dominated fauna. Further sharp
drops in the graph, like approximately 250 million years ago, represent the end of the Permian
period, and Paleozoic era, this switch of eras, is representative of the switch from amphibian
dominated fauna to the age of Mesozoic which is reptile-dominated fauna.

Describe one example where the principle of uniformitarianism has been used to draw
conclusions about evolutionary changes based on fossil evidence?

The principle of uniformitarianism states that what occurs now has always occurred in the same
way, this principle has been used to determine characteristics of fossils alike. The cambrian
fauna was the first organisms to develop teeth and armour, which is recognisable of the
relationship between predation and prye, in which suggests to us that this period is when
predation first developed.

MODULE 6 HAZARDS

Explain why earthquakes are unevenly distributed around the world?

The distribution of earthquakes are uneven due to them majoratively occurring along plate
boundaries, and such interplate earthquakes are a lot less frequent, this results in a uneven
distribution of earthquakes across the world.

Construct a table to distinguish between the distribution of earthquakes along subduction zones
and mid-ocean ridges

Plate Boundary Distribution

Mid-Ocean ridges - Earthquakes occur in the middle of the ocean

- Narrow banded earthquakes, low spread spatial
- Shallow earthquakes, rarely deeper then 40 kilometers

Convergent - Coastral fringe of continents and island arcs

boundaries - Wider banded earthquakes, large spread spatial
- Deeper earthquakes, can get down to 400 kilometres deep
Identify the type of plate boundaries along which volcanoes can be found

Convergent subdunction boundaries and divergent plate boundaries

Outline the relationship between crustal motion and the distribution of explosive volcanoes
around the world

Explosive volcanoes are traced along subduction plate boundaries, where a oceanic plate is
subducting beneath a continental plate boundary.

Why does the presence of these volcanoes in East Africa suggest about tectonic activity in this
region?

Effusive volcanoes are associated with mantle hot spots and divergent plate boundaries. Since
the presence of the East African rift zone, is a linear line of effusive volcanic activity and clear
presence of tensional forces causing a series of normal faults, this indicated the presence of a
divergent plate boundary.

Account for the presence of very deep earthquake foci at subduction zones.

Earthquakes at subduction zones can occur at very deep foci, descending down to 400
kilometres into the mantle, this is a key characteristic of subduction zones. Convergent
subduction zones, witness the deep descent of a oceanic plate beneath a continental plate
boundary, this oceanic plate subducts deep into the mantle, causing tensional forces with the
above continental plate. This spontaneous release of built up tensional forces results in a
earthquakes, and since the plates extend significantly deeper into the earth then other plate
boundary, it defines very deep earthquake foci.

Explain why earthquakes at divergent boundaries rarely occur deeper than 35 km

Earthquakes can only occur through rigid plate material. The crust of divergent plate boundaries
are shallow and sit on top of the mantle, this results in very little crust material being at any
substantial depth. Therefore earthquakes at divergent boundaries rarely occur deeper then 35
kilometers.

What type of plate boundary is represented by this data?

Convergent boundary with subduction zone

Explain how this data supports your answer

Due to the increasing depth of earthquake focus, with the simultaneous distance from the plate
boundary, the earthquakes clearly map a subduction zone. The earthquakes occurring at depths
larger then 325 kilometers deept, provided evidence of the presence of rigid plate material that
deep in the mantle, which is exclusively in subuction zones.

Compare earthquake depth and magnitude for both divergent and convergent boundaries?

Both divergent and convergent plate boundaries, experience low depth, shallow, mild intensity
earthquakes. However with subduction plate boundaries having much significantly deeper
presence of rigid plate materials, convergent boundary earthquakes vary in depth ranging from
shallow to extremely deep, and ranging in strength from low to high intensity.

Identify an impact of earthquakes on the built environment

Earthquakes through the release of p waves, and s waves, can cause harmful consequences to
infrastructure, resulting in the destruction of bridges, shaking of ground can destroy roads or
cause buildings to collapse.

Explain how an earthquake causes this impact

The result of an earthquake releases a variety of types of waves, the first waves which will arrive
are the presence of primary waves and secondary waves, in which primary and secondary
waves travel through the body of the Earth, and violently shake the ground back and forth and
then up and down with the arrival of secondary waves. This is followed by the arrival of surface
waves, in which Love waves and Reyleigh waves are significantly more destructive, as both of
these waves move slower and cover a larger surface area, resulting extreme shaking of the
ground place immense pressure on infrastructure.

Discuss the hazards faced by people living in cities in earthquake prone areas

Living in earthquake-prone areas poses the threat of the arrival of potential earthquake waves.
In which these earthquakes pose hazards to the stability of infrastructure through the city, such
as buildings collapsing, roads and bridges being destroyed. Furthermore the presence of
earthquakes, can result in further natural disasters, such as if the city is in a coastal region,
tsunami’s can be a subsequent result of an earthquake. Landslides are a further threat.

Use an example from a case study of a tsunami examined in this course to describe the
hazards associated with living in coastal regions along subduction boundaries

The 2011 Fukushima Earthquake, caused a tsunami. This tsunami hit the east coast of Japan,
impacting cities such as Fukushima. The result of this tsunami killed over 18,000 people,
breaching a 17 meter high tsunami wall, and carried water inland over 5 kilometers, destroying
everything in its path.
Explain how earthquakes can cause tsunamis?

The result of an earthquake occurring on a convergent subduction zone, results in a rapid

release of tensional force throughout the plates, this release of force, results in the jolt of the
oceanic plate. This sudden jolt displaces monumental amounts of water, this sudden
displacement of water, is released through the surrounding ocean in the form of an wave. This
wave carries the energy of the tsunami through the ocean until it encounters a continental plate
boundary. Upon encountering the coast, the change in ocean topography forces the wave
upwards, forming a subsequent tsunami.

What is volcanic ash?

Volcanic ash is fine ash particulate, which is smaller then 2mm in diameter.

Identify factors which influence how far volcanic ash, produced during an eruption will travel?

The spread of volcanic ash depends on multiple factors. The strength of the volcanic eruption is
the first factor, depending on how high the ash column will be ejected into the stratosphere. The
atmospherical conditions on the eruption date, further influence the length of how far the
volcanic ash will travel. The addition of rainfall will reduce the distance the ash will spread,
whilst wind conditions will result in variance of how far the ash will spread, higher wind speeds
will encourage the ash to spread further. Furthermore the geographical location of the volcanic
eruption, if the eruption occurs in the equator it is more likely to get distributed globally then if
the eruption occured in the poles.

Why are ash eruptions so dangerous?

Volcanic ash is micro-sized, being less then 2mm in diameter, as a result of it’s small size it can
easily be inhaled into the lungs of animals, which results in respiratory illness and potential
death. Furthermore, the ash can poison waterways, and if it rains or comes in contant with a
running body of water, a potential lahar can form. As the ash eruption cools and condenses, it
can form into pyroclastic flow.

Identify the tectonic setting where you would expect to find volcanoes capable of producing
pyroclastic flows.

Convergent subduction zones, and continental hot spots.

Explain why pyroclastic flows pose a threat to people living in volcanic areas?

Pyroclastic flows pose a extreme threat to people living in volcanic areas, as pyroclastic flows,
are rapidly moving clouds of boiling volcanic ash, therefore if it comes into contact with living
organisms it would be highly dangerous.
Describe the hazards associated with living in volcanic regions?

Hazards associated with living in volcanic regions, are volcanic eruptions, potential causing of
ash column ejections, including lahars, pyroclastic flows, ash bombs. Furthermore, volcanic
regions are typically associated with earthquake activity, which is a further hazard.

Identify two hazards associated with living near an active volcano?

Lahars and lava flows

Explain why one of these hazards poses a threat to people living in the area?

Lahars pose a threat to people living in the area, as the formation of a lahar poisons local
waterways, and further carried a dangerous running mix of water with hot volanic ash. This can
widely interrupt the local climate, and disrupt the local flora and fauna.

Identify factors which contribute to the explosivity of a volcano?

Factors which contribute to the explosivity of a volcano, include the plate boundary in which teh
volcano is placed, whether the oceanic plate is subducting beneath the continental plate.
Furthermore, the viscosity of the magma inside the volcano. Type of mineral present in the
magma.

Construct a table which summarises the type of magma generated in different tectonic settings
nad the nature of the eruptions occurring in these settings?

Type Characteristics

Basaltic Low temperatures, low viscosity, low

explosivity. Effusive. 40 - 50 percent silica.
Higher magnesium and iron content.

Andesitic Mid-High temperatures, high viscosity. High

explosivity. 50 to 60 percent silica

Rhyolitic High temperatures. Highest explosivity. 60 to

70 percent silica.

Contrast the explosiviity of basaltic and andesitic magmas?

Basaltic has relatively low explosivitiy magma, whilst andesitic magma with it’s higher
percentages of silica, is significantly more viscous, this produces more explosive volcanic
eruptions.

Explain the difference in their explosivity?

The higher amount of silica present in Andesitic magma, produces more explosive volcanic
eruptions.

Outline one feature of magmas which could account for the differences in viscosity?

The silica content

Basaltic eruptions can vary from effusive to explosive. Explain this variability in eruption style
based on information presented in this graph?

The refining qualities of a volcanic eruptions is dependent on the silica content present
throughout the magma, higher proportions of silica will reduce temperature and increase
viscosity, which in turn produces more explosive volcanic eruptions. Due to this variability, tiny
changes to silica content can result in greatly varying volcanic eruptions. Therefore although a
majority of basalitic eruptions are effusive, there is still potential for the formation of explosive
volcanic eruptions.

The point where a loss of life is achieved, or a series of severe disruptions to normal quality of
life throughout the region.

The christchurch earthquake was considered a disaster due to the large increase in cost’s and
negative outcomes in comparison to Tennant Creek’s earthquake. Although the Tennant Creek
earthquake was a higher magnitude of 6.6 in comparison to the Christchurch earthquake being
a 6.3 magnitude. However, Tennant Creek’s earthquake was remote, occurring no injuries and a
cost of 2.5 million dollars to fix the outcomes. Alternatively Christchurch’s earthquake resulted in
many injuries and 181 deaths, and costed approximately 40 billion dollar’s thus defining it as a
disaster.

Impact Effusive Eruption Explosive Eruption

Atmosphere Continual emission of poisionous Emission of aerosols. Huge ejection

gases. of ash column, release of tephra and
Long term global warming, due to particulates.
continuous eruptions.

Biosphere Destruction of habitat, through Pyroclastic flow will destroy local

lavaflow. environment entirely. Lahar’s and
Plant growth ideal in volcanic ash ash particulate will poison local
 soil. waterways. Huge loss of life.

Effusive eruptions have a wide range of consequences on the atmosphere and biosphere. The
short term impacts following an effusive eruption is the emission of poisonous gases into the
atmosphere, this continual emission of toxic fumes will cause poor health fo rhte local biota.
However, the volcanic soil will provide ideal growing conditions for plantlife through the region.
Whilst alternatively the long term impacts, include global warming following a series of continual
eruptions, and the continuous destruction of local habitat through lavaflow.

Following a major volcanic eruption, there will be a global average temperature decrease

This pattern can be observed with the 1991, Pinatubo explosive volcanic eruption, dropping the
global temperatures by 0.2 degrees. Further patterns can be seen through Mount Saint Helens
eruptions causing a decrease in temperature by approximately 0.2 degrees. Therefore, a clear
pattern in associated between large volcanic eruptions and the a short-term reduction in
average global temperatures.

The size of the eruption, the location of the eruption, the ash column size, the wind-patterns
associated through the region.

Major volcanic eruptions release a series of gases, including aerosols, carbon dioxide,
water-vapour. Aerosol’s such as sulfur-dioxide cause short-term global cooling due to their
abundant release. Major volcanic eruptions are rarely associated with global warming, however,
in large geological periods of continual large-scale volcanic eruptions, global warming can
occur. Examples such as the Siberian Traps and Deccan traps, illustrates examples of
large-scale continual volcanic eruptions, covering area’s of millions of square kilometers. These
specific examples, witnessed global warming due to the continual emission of carbon dioxide,
which is a greenhouse gas.

Novarupta, 1912, would’ve had a wide range of consequences on the global climate. The huge
release of 12.5 cubic kilometeres of ash released into the atmosphere, would’ve carried a large
volume of volcanic aerosols, such as sulfure dioxide. This emission of gases into the
atmosphere, would’ve resulted in a short-term global cooling effect, in which the local
environment following the volcanic eruption would’ve experienced, heavy pyroclastic flows and
ash clouds.

Mount Pinatubo, being located on an island arc of Luzon in the Phillipines, means that it is on
the border of a local convergent plate boundary, which is the Manila trench. The manila trench
would’ve subducted the nearby eurasian plate beneath the philippine plate, the sea-water which
was introduced into the mantle, would’ve resulted in the formation of high-silica content,
viscous, magma. This results in the formation of explosive volcanoes such as Mount Pinatuba.
The eruption of Mount Pinatubo, would’ve caused a wide range of consequences to the local
biosphere and larger atmosphere. The immediate implications of the eruptions would’ve
resulted in lava bombs impacting the local biosphere. As the huge ash column cooled and
condensed, it would’ve fallen into a boiling pyroclastic flow. The pyroclastic flow would’ve
devastated the local biosphere entirely, boiling and crushing local trees. Furthermore, the
respiration of ash particulate would’ve harmed the respiratory system of local fauna. The
atmosphere would’ve had the injection of large quantities of aerosols, resulting in the short-term
reduction of global temperatures.

Mount pinatubo

The eruption of Mount Pinatubo, would’ve caused a wide range of consequences to the local
biosphere and larger atmosphere. The immediate implications of the eruptions would’ve
resulted in lava bombs impacting the local biosphere. As the huge ash column cooled and
condensed, it would’ve fallen into a boiling pyroclastic flow. The pyroclastic flow would’ve
devastated the local biosphere entirely, boiling and crushing local trees. Furthermore, the
respiration of ash particulate would’ve harmed the respiratory system of local fauna. The
atmosphere would’ve had the injection of large quantities of aerosols, resulting in the short-term
reduction of global temperatures.

Cyclones

Risks associated with east coast lows, include heavy rainfall, high windspeeds, which for area’s
with low topography can cause flash flooding. Turbulent tides, can cause coastal erosion and
inundation.

East coast lows, provide Australia with the rainfall necessary for refilling aquifers and dam
catchment regions, and can reset ecosystems following long periods of drought.

Dorothy mackellar captures, the careful relationship between drought and floods, through her
poem. As she depicts the rough reality of the natural disasters associated throughout Australia’s
landscape, from juxtaposing sunburnt country, with “droughts and flooding rains”, this reveals
the harsh reality, of australia’s environment.

Drought is a harsh reality of Australia, due to it’s frequent exposure to harsh dry seasons’ such
as through El Nino events. This frequent exposure plus the large land mass, means wet moist
air currents from the ocean struggle to reach the continental interior.

Floods are the main prevention for droughts, due to the sudden excess exposure of rainfall.
Furthermore, floods and periods of intense rainfall through Australia, are natural means for
refilling aquifers and dams and catchment areas. Therefore floods become a crucial means of
survival for resupplying the Australian ecosystems with water.
Hail storms can be considered disasters, due to their devestating impacts upon fauna and the
magnitude of the damage cost which can be associated with it. As hails size varies, from a few
millimeters in diameter to in severe cases growing to softball size. The size of these larger hail
instances are extremely damaging, and can harm animals if they get hit. Furthermore, they can
break windows, go through weaker roofs and heavily interrupt daily life, defining a bacteria.

Bushfire hazard zones can be seen to associate through tropical and temperatre regions, this is
due to these regions growing enough tree-cover to experience a bushfire, but not enough
rainfall like the equatorial region to combat the bushfires.

Flood events through the Georges river, show an increasing trend in frequency but a constant
measure of the magnitude of such flood events. This can be seen through the consistent
repetition of floods through the 1980’s.

A possible reason for the increase in frequency of flood episodes could be anthropogenically
caused disruptions through the regions. The purposeful removal of vegetation and trees, have
destabilised the surrounding soil’s through plains, this removal of deep-rooted vegetation, raises
the salt-table making it increasingly easier for floods to occur.

A human-drived increased in carbon-dioxide levels in the atmosphere, through increasing

greenhouse levels and the reduction of the ozone layer, the frequency of droughts have
increased. Simulation’s have been utilised to test a variety of natural climate drivers to explain
the increased frequency, and none have been able to explain such increase, leading to
conclusive evidence that the increase in droughts have been caused by anthropogenic factors.

Human activities such as poor infrastructure decisions, such as poor maintenance of electrical
wiring, causing faults or electrical breakages. Alternatively, human accidental starting of
bushfires, including lighting a cigarette or campfires, can increase bushfires and arson.

Natural erosion of surrounding soil can cause landslides, through extreme weather events and
floods. Furthermore an earthquake can destabilise large quantity of soil.

The removal of deep-rooted vegetation greatly destabilised soil, making it much more
susceptible to experiencing landslides. Construction of roads, and flattening of terrain near
mountainsides can increase the risk of landslides.

A increase in the frequency of landslide events

The continual removal of deep-rooted vegetation through processes such as deforestation and
land-clearing. These processes destabilise the local soil and is an explanation for the increase
of landslides.

Remote sensing technologies are effective for predicting the likelihood of volcanic eruptions.
The direct sampling of volcanic gases, can help scientists make inferred decisions on it’s
likelihood of an explosion. Tiltmeter’s measuring the axial rotation of the volcano, give insight to
bulges, and regions of pressure. The utilization of seimometers, can infer magma movement
throughout the volcano’s chamber and earthquakes beneath the surface.

Mount Hekla in Iceland, has a long history of violent eruptions. Scientist’s can use monitoring
technology, to make inferred decisions on Mount Hekla’s volcanic activity based on historical
data. Once Mount Hekla displays certain precursors similiart o prior volcanic eruption events,
they emit a warning.

A series of micro-tremmers, changing emitted volume of volcanic gases and volcanic gas
composition, changes in axial tilt and sudden bulges measured in the volcano via tiltmeters are
all precursors that a volcanic eruption is imminent.

The technologies for predicting volcanic eruptions are more effective then those for predicting
earthquakes for a variety of reasons. This is due to volcanoes emitting signs of an upcoming
eruption months in advance, whilst earthquakes on the other hand provide virtually no upcoming
sign of an impending earthquake.

Reducing the death toll for tsunami’s is definitely possible. A combination of infrastructure,
education and technology can help reduce the death toll of plausible tsunamis. The building of
infrastcture, with nearby stable, high sources of elevation can act as quick neccessary
evacuation centers. Education to the general public is crucial for reducing the death count of
tsunamis, this includes making them aware of an alarm which represents a tsunami, and the
safety procedure to follow in such a event. Finally technology, such as the use of the DART
system and seismometers could be implemented to give more warning time in a tsunami
situation.

Seismometers and satelight radar interferometry.

Satelight radar interferometry are extremely precise for measuring changes to geographical
location, able to measure changes to ground movement of 0.1mm per year. This allows for a
precise evaluation of plausible earthquake prone regions. Furthermore it assists with disaster
management and urban development.

If the region is covered with vegetation, it makes it substantially more difficult to evaluate
changes to the below terrain. Furthermore, atmospheric interference and ‘noise’ can disrupt the
accuracy of the satelight radar technology. Is unable to provide real-time updates to information.

Strain meters measure the changing shape and positioning of rock. Therefore with the inclusion
of a strain meter on either side of an active fault line they can measure the horizontal
displacement changes, they further measure the pressure within the rocks. Setting up a network
of these strainmeters along an active fault line, can provide information upon the continuous
release and build up of pressure, acting as precursors before a larger scale earthquake.
Strain meters are highly accurate and work effectively over a period of weeks, months and until
years, providing constant data on the changing pressures and shape of active fault lines.
However strain meters can only provide data of an upcoming earthquake, not an exact date and
location on where the earthquake will take place.

This data represents a clear cut off of male toads observed in the breeding site a few days
before the L’Aquila earthquake, this is suggesting that the toad’s could’ve felt underground
vibrations before the main earthquake event. However unusual animal behaviour could
potentially be a coincidence and can’t be considered as valid warning signs for an upcoming
earthquake.

East coast low’s can be made more severe depending on a variety of conditions. The inclusion
of a La Nina pacific trade wind’s would encourage the weather to be coupled by colder harsher
winder conditions, which would extend the East Coast Low’s duration and strength.
Furthermore, a high pressure system south east of Australia could cradle the East coast low,
forcing it to be more severe.

East coast lows are challenging to predict due to the spontaneous nature of weather systems,
and the variety ways upon which they can form. Furthermore predicting events, there has to be
a recognisable pattern in their formation, and upon the last 50 year’s of studying East Coast
Low’s there has been no recognisable pattern to base their prediction off.

A variety of structural implementations can be enforced to improve buildings structural stability.

Inclusion of rubber installations at the base of the building, can provide a point of elasticity
between the ground support and the rest of the building, this allows for energy to be absorbed in
the event of an earthquake. Furthermore counter-weights can be employed to sway the building
in the opposing direction of the earthquake, thus providing necessary stability

The installation of rubber bases at the base of the building, separates the ground support of the
building from the rest of the structure, this separation of the structure provides a point of
elasticity and shock absorption. Therefore in the case of an earthquake, the energy of the
waves travelling through the ground, get absorbed in the rubber installations rather then the rest
of the building.

Building codes for earthquake prone areas are greatly effective upon minimising the harmful
consequences of major earthquake events. Taipei is one such city, where the installation of strict
building codes greatly benefited the surrounding city. The Taipei 101 is a mega skyscraper in
Taipei, Taiwan, in which they installed a huge two floor counterweight near the top of the
building, this counterweight swings the opposing direction of a potential earthquake sway, to
stabilise the building. The result of these strict building measures has greatly improves the
safety of structures in Taiwan.

The Indonesian government implemented a rapid evacuation of Mount Agung’s surrounding

area. Mount Agung’s past dormate nature since the 1960’s is indicative of the continuous build
up of gas pressure which would’ve occurred throughout the volcano, therefore a potential future
eruption will be violent and highly explosive. Furthermore the volcano’s explosive history,
indicates that it is very much capable to have explosive eruptions. Finally the large population in
the surrounding zone, means that the consequences of a potential eruption would be
devestating, and logistically very challenging to provide adequate humanitarian aid for those
people if they failed to be evacuated.

An effective disaster warning system requires

1) Knowledge of the risk
2) Active monitoring of the risk
3) A means of getting information out to those impacted
4) Education of the public so they know what to do in the case of the natural disaster

Isopach maps can greatly benefit in the developing hazard management plans, as it provides
historical data upon the impacts of the natural disaster. In the case of Mount Vesuvious, the
considering of the Isopach map provides data on where the volcanic ash tends to end up,
therefore hazard management plans can be made to cater for these specific regions which are
at more risk and more harshly impacted. Furthermore, other data such as topography of the
region and weather patterns can all be taking into account to design the most ideal evacuation
plan to minimize loss of life.

Technology such as seismometers and strainmeters can be utilised to help predict earthquakes.
Seismometers detect vibrations through the Earth’s crust, and can pinpoint the epicentre and
focus of such vibrations. Through the analysis of vibration data, seismometer’s can give clues
into upcoming larger earthquakes, due to the revealing of a series of smaller earthquakes.
Whilst strainmeter’s measure horizontal displacement over an active fault line and can measure
the pressure within the rocks, therefore a network of strainmeters can be implemented along an
active fault to measure the continual release and build up of pressure to give clues into where
an earthquake might occur. Although these technologies perform the task they are designed to
do, they are unable to pinpoint an exact date and location of where th earthquake might be, but
rather they just predict that an earthquake is upcoming. This limitation, makes it challenging for
government officials to call evacuations in the doubt’s that the earthquake might not happen.

A new technology called SPARK predicts the presence and occurrence of bushfires, this is
achieved through a variety of strategies. SPARK utilises geospatial information, meteorological
data and bushfire behaviour patterns to predict the spread and severity of bushfires through
computer simulations. The computer simulations incorporate all the data information, through
terrain, wind conditions, humidity and more to form complex vector simulations of potential
bushfire pathways. This provides firefighters with a means to come to conclusions on where the
bushfire might go and how to best deal with it.

MODULE 7
 Gas Cause

Water Vapour Evaporation processes through oceans, lakes

and rivers. Volcanic activity

Carbon Dioxide Volcanic activity, bushfires, respiratory

processes through animals

Methane Decomposing organic matter through

swamps and permafrost heating

Nitrogen oxides Microbial processes in soil

The composition of greenhouse gases in the past has greatly influenced the Earth. Periods of
higher proportions of greenhouse gases, have had significantly higher temperatures, whilst
periods of lower quantities of greenhouse gases had periods of global ice ages.

This model illustrates the natural greenhouse effect. The glass exterior represents the
greenhouse gases, in which the model depicts how the layer of greenhouse gases surrounding
the earth, absorb and reflect portions of infrared radiation dependent on their wavelength. This
is symbolic of the warming effect greenhouse gases have upon Earth.

A limitation of this model is the depiction that the exterior of the greenhouse being glass, where
the model depicts the reflected infrared radiation being absorbed into the glass exterior, whilst
the greenhouse gases in the real world reflect the radiation back into the atmosphere. Therefore
the model fails to explain the overt heating affect of an increased quantity of greenhouse gases.

Natural climate change can happen as a result of the Malankovitch cycles, Volcanic activity
through plate tectonic activity, solar output from the sun.

Natural climate change can occur rapidly, this has been depicted throughout history. An
example of such an event is the Younger Dryas Ice Age event, where temperatures plunged into
glacier levels in less then one hundred years, this was followed by a geologically short ice age
period of 1300 years. The ending of the ice age, saw temperatures rise by 10 degrees in less
then a decade.

The plate tectonic supercycle has been proved to have vast influences over the global climate.
Two standing hypothesises describe how the plate tectonic supercycle influences such climates.
The first hypothesis is that changing plate tectonic’s undergo periods of intense volcanism,
these periods release abundant quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, thus
resulting in intense periods of global warming or cooling.
The second hypothesis is that the moving plate tectonics alter wind and ocean currents, through
the opening and closing of ocean basins, this alters the heat distribution around the world,
resulting in periods of global warming and global cooling.
Maximum separation of the continents corresponds with maximum global temperatures

The plate tectonic supercycle has a vast range of influences upon the global climate. The
positioning of the continents on the Earth, influences the climate. The presence of a
supercontinent, results in drier colder conditions, in which the sea-level will drop due to the build
up of glaciers. Opposing this through the break up of a super-continent, there will be periods of
more intense vulcanism, this results in the continual emission of greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere, thus causing periods of hotter temperatures, therefore melting the ice-caps and
rising sealevels. This means periods where the plate tectonics are separated isolated
continents, are typically associated with hotter temperatures.

Volcanic eruptions release abundant volumes of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, this
emission of carbon dioxide, results in the atmosphere becoming more concentrated with
greenhouse gases. The Siberian Traps was a area of huge vulcanism activity, spanning over
modern day siberia, encompassing 2 and a half million square kilometers, this monumental
amount of volcanic activity resulted in global warming.

Attributing climate change to a specific factor is extremely difficult due to the complex nature of
the climate. The climate is influenced by a multitude of different factors including wind patterns,
ocean patterns, plate arrangement, volcanic activity, malankovitch cycles and solar radiation
output. To isolate one specific factor to be the sole cause for climate change is increasingly
difficult. Therefore to pinpoint massive eruption events as the single cause of climate change is
substantially difficult.

Features of the earth’s orbit which contribute to changing climate include, the earth’s orbital
eccentricity, the axial tilt of earth and it’s procession.

Earth’s orbital patterns, include having periods of a more circular orbit, and progressing into a
more eccentric orbit, despite these having impacts upon Earth’s climate. It is unreasonable to
determine them as the majoritive contributing factor to rise and fall of ice ages, whilst rather
internal factors such as plate tectonic activity and ocean/wind circulatory patterns provide
driving factors of the climate. However the earth’s axial tilt and procession can provide the
northern hemisphere with significantly less sunlight, this in addition with the earth’s orbit being
elliptical can push the Earth into a ice age.

Ocean currents have a great influence upon the climate of the world. The thermohaline is a
ocean conveyer belt across the world, in which it carries warm ocean currents to continents like
Europe whilst cold currents to their North American counterpart. The presence of this ocean
currents, keeps Europe warm, Madrid a city in Spain experiences equatorial conditions,
experiencing temperatures in the 30’s, whilst New York in North America sits on the same
latitude as Madrid, which experiences vastly different climate, having snowy winters. This
comparison shows the clear role of ocean currents in maintaining climate.
This disruption to the global ocean heat conveyer belt could’ve been caused by the melting of
glacial ice-caps in Greenland. As the ocean conveyer belt, moves past the cold Arctic ocean,
the warm conveyer belt of water stays on top of the cold Arctic water due to a difference in
density, however in the case there is melting of polar ice-caps, there is a release of cold fresh
water. The fresh water sits on top of the salty-sea water, this causes cold water to be on-top of
hot water, which breaks down the ocean conveyer belt and can even reverse it. Therefore with
this disruption of oceanic currents, Europe undergo’s rapid cooling in which the glaciers from the
Arctic Ocean can quickly move southwards encouraging rapid cooling.

Changes in rock types, fossils of animals or plants, pollen grains conserved in rocks

Pollen grains can provide evidence of past climate change, due to their highly recognisable
characteristics. If a pollen grain ends up in mud, it can become fossilised, and upon discovery, it
demonstrates that in this region of the Earth, at the time of life for the pollen grain, the climate
must’ve been ideal for it’s growth. Therefore due to the highly recognisable characteristics of the
pollen grain they can trace certain climate requirements for it’s development, shaping a picture
of what the climate looked like back at that period of time.

Climatic Conditon Rock Type Evidence used to determine

climate

Glacial Tillite These rocks possess angular,

unsorted segments, which is
typical of rock segments
carried and dropped by
glaciers.

Hot and Dry Red Sandstone Desert rocks are

characteristically dry and
well-rounded

Tropical Coal Coal can only form in regions

where large tropic rainforest
grew.

Fossils can provide evidence upon past climate settings, in which fossils provide insight to the
animal present in that region of the Earth at a specific time. Different animals have defining
qualities in order to deal with their local ecosystem climate, which can be observed through
modern biota and compared to the fossil to create a idea of the climate.

Forams

Forams are able to provide evidence of ancient climate change through isotopic analysis of their
shells. Foram’s use calcium carbonated to build shells, in which the calcium molecules must
bond to oxygen isotopes. Therefore the ratio between oxygen 18 and oxygen 16 present in their
shells provides insight upon historical climate such as ice volume. Further analysis on the ratio
between magnesium and calcium ions provides precise information upon historical ocean
temperatures. The comparison between ancient and modern day forams’ provides information
upon the ocean’s temperatures and conditions ideal for growth.

Oxygen comes in two isotope forms, Oxygen-16 and Oxygen-18. Oxygen-18 is heavier meaning
it is harder for it to precipitate, this results in periods of lower temperatures, Oxygen-18 is
significantly harder to precipitate from the world’s oceans, but it’s oxygen-16 counterpart
precipitates in much larger quantity. This easier precipitated Oxygen-16 when rained/snowed
onto the poles, is caught up in glaciers due to the colder temperatures. Therefore leaving larger
volumes of Oxygen-18 during periods of glaciation.

Isotopic analysis on sea-floor sediments provides evidence on the differing oxygen-isotopic

ratios present in the world’s oceans at different times. Oxygen-16 is lighter then it’s Oxygen-18
counterpart, which means differing ratio’s between the two in comparison to baseline ratio,
provides insights of differing global temperatures. Organisms present in the ocean water, will
extract oxygen through the building of their shells and skeletons, these fossils will eventually fill
the seafloor sediments. In which seafloor sediments possessing higher proportions of
Oxygen-18 is reflective of a colder climate, due to larger proportions of Oyxgen-16 being caught
in glaciers. The opposing case of this is lower proportions of Oxygen-18 and higher proportions
of Oyxgen-16 is reflective of a warmer climate, due to the glaciers melting and releasing the
trapped Oxygen-16 molecules. Radiometric analysis of uranium samples present in the fossils
can accurately date the age of the ocean sediments, this creates past climate reconstructions

Ice Cores contain a historical record oxygen isotopic ratios’ and gas bubbles from past climates
which provide data on the composition of past atmospheres.

Ice Cores made up of frozen water, contain oxygen molecules, since oxygen comes in the
formation of Oyxgen-16 and Oxygen-18, they have different evaporation temperatures, therefore
the ratio between Oxygen-16 and Oxygen-18 within the icea samples provides evidenc eupon
past climate change. Samples with higher proportions of Oxygen-16 is representative of colder
temperatures, due to more Oxygen-16 being locked up in glaciers, whilst samples with a higher
ratio of Oxygen-18 compared to base samples is representative of a warmer climate conditions,
due to the increased evaporation.

Dendrochronology can provide data upon rainfall patterns, and seasonal data.

34 year old

Scientists are able to determine climatic conditions based off the sizing of the growth rings, as
that determines the amount of rainfall received. Larger growth rings is symbolic of years with
more rainfall, while thinner growth rings are symbolic of years with less rainfall. Further
processing provides accurate data of global climate.
The first ten years of the tree’s life it witnessed large amounts of rainfall, whilst the duration of
the rest of it’s life experiences substantially less rainfall.

Indigenous artwork depicting changing ecosystems and animals which are now extinct.
Furthermore, caves containing aboriginal artwork have now since been found to be underwater,
representative of changes to sea levels.

The Murujuga national park on the Burrup peninsula, Western Australia, contains more then a
million rock petroglyphs, depicting a diverse range of flora and fauna. One such depiction is of
the Tasmanian Tiger which is now extinct. These Indigenous depictions of the flora and fauna in
the region and the ecosystems, provides information upon the past climate of the region and
what animals lived there.

Surface land temperature regions, and atmospheric conditions such as greenhouse gas ratio’s,
and temperature, precipitation and more. Furthermore, the arrangements of oceanic currents
and ice formations all provide data to determine changing climates.

Instrumental records were unable to produce accurate climate reconstructions until the latter
part of the twentieth century, due to the lack of spread across the world. The first instrumental
measuring stations occurred thorughout the Western world, and remained in more developed
nations for a large proportion of time, as the world started to progress and weather stations
became more abundant across the globe, instrumental records of past climate data became
accurate.

Corals provide data upon variations in climate through their calcium carbonate shells, the
formation of the carbonate shell includes molecules such as oxygen. Therefore isotopic analysis
of the oxygen isotopes can provide data on past climate temperatures, furthermore an analysis
on the growth bands can provide data on seasonal changes to the climate, and the nearby
ocean salinity. Corals also provides data on events such as droughts and floods.

Nutrient access, ocean acidity, water clarity and temperature

Shallow water corals, have a small life expectancy, therefore older coral’s must be found within
the same colony to provide accurate historical data, furthermore external factors such as floods
can heavily impact the corals and pollute the accuracy of the data.

Deep water coral can grow in colder temperatures giving them much wider distribution in
comparison to their shallow coral counterparts, this provides much wider data for historical
climate. Furthermore, the longer life spans, can provide continuous data for 40,000 years. Their
growth rings, can provide information upon altering conditions in deep ocean currents, which are
major climate drivers.

Variations of oxygen isotopic ratios present in stalactites and stalagmites provides accurate
historical data. Isotopic analysis upon the oxygen samples, can give insight into global
temperature differences. The growth rings of the stalactites and stalagmites provides
information into annual precipitation patterns, and which uranium samples present through the
structures can provide absolute dating techniques in order to generate a historical climate
reconstruction.

Ice Cores, and Tree Rings

Ice Cores provide data on oxygen isotopic ratios present throughout the world’s glaciers, this
through an analyse of the ratio present between Oxygen-18 and Oyxgen-16 reveals changes
occurring throughout precipitation and temperature patterns. Furthermore, gas bubbles in the
Ice cores can provide data on the chemical composition of the atmosphere. Tree Rings, through
annual growth rings provide data on precipitation and seasonal changes, this reveals that in
periods of more precipitation it is typically associated with warmer conditions, and the contrary
being true for thinner growth rings, being periods which are colder and having less annual
precipitation.

Climate reconstructions can be reliably made based off palaeoclimate proxy data, however the
proxy data must be obtained from different regions, not just a localised cluster. This is due to
localised environment’s being able to get distorted with local environmental factors such as a
volcanic eruption, or floods. If palaeoclimate proxy data is matching from multiple sources on
the world it can generate reliable inferences on historical climate data.

Burning of fossil fuels for electricity generation, transportation through vehicle use, production of
methane gas through agriculture

The anthropogenic greenhouse effect has a wide range of consequences upon the atmosphere,
this is evident through the composition of the atmosphere changing, with the continual increase
in greenhouse gas, this intensifies the greenhouse effect, resulting in rising temperatures.

Greenhouse Effect Natural Enhanced

Production of greenhouse Equilibrium between the More gases are being

gases production of gases and their produced then can be
removal from the atmopshere removed from the
atmosphere

Energy Balance Rate at which energy is The absorption rate of energy

absorbed is generally far exceeds the rate at which
balanced by the rate it is the energy can replinish
released.

Global Temperatures Slowly increase and Rapid increase of global

decrease within a temperatures, exceeding the
manageable range habitable range for many
animals
 Greenhouse Gas Activity

Carbon Dioxide Burning of fossil fuels, land clearing

Methane Agriculture, through the growing of livestock,

and waste management

Nitrous Oxides Burning of fossil fuels, fertiliser production

Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have rapidly changes since the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution in 1770. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, in 1770, atmospheric
concentration of carbon dioxide is measured at 278 parts per million, following the beginning of
the industrial revolution there has been a rapid increase in concentration, with it now being
measured at approximately 370 parts per million.

The primary cause for this rapid increase in atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has
been through anthropogenic factors, such as the burning of fossil fuels, which has released
abundant volumes of trapped greenhouse gases back into this atmosphere, this in culmination
with deforestation rates, slows the rate of atmospheric carbon sequestration. These activities
have accounted for this dramatic increase in carbon dioxide concentration.

The rapid increase in carbon dioxide levels through the environment has had monumental
impacts upon the environment, the increased carbon dioxide increased the greenhouse effect,
resulting in overall global temperature increases, this temperature increase has disrupted local
climates. Leading to the melting of polar ice-caps, rising sea-levels and changing weather
patterns.

Ocean acidification is the reduction in pH levels throughout the oceans, prior to the Industrial
Revolution oceanic pH levels was measured at 8.2 which is slightly base, modern day
measures, has recorded the oceans to have a pH of 8.1, which is slightly more acidic.

There is a clear relationship between increased levels of dissolved carbon dioxided through
seawater and decreasing ocean pH.

The cause of the increased abundance of carbon dioxide through sea water since 1850, is due
to anthropogenically caused climate change. The continual emission of greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere through practices such as burning of fossil fuels, and removal of natural carbon
sequestration methods through deforestation has resulted in a rapid increase of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere, in which large volumes of this atmospheric carbon dioxide has been
absorbed into the ocean’s resulting in the increased amount of carbon dioxide found in modern
day sea water in comparison to historical sea water.

Ocean acidification greatly damages local ecosystems, this is due to the sensitivity of ocean
organisms. Ocean organisms such as shrimp and coral rely on calcium carbonate shells, in
which these shells are highly susceptiable to acid, therefore increasing acidification of the ocean
will make it monumentally harder for this organisms to develop their shells and in severe cases
will essentially dissolve the shells of them.

Rising global temperatures, increased instances of extreme weather, rising sea-levels and loss
of agricultural land.

Climate change has a wide range of flow-on effects to terrestrial ecosystems, rising sea-levels
can cause coastal habitats to become completely inundated, forcing large masses of animals to
relocate. Rising temperatures can push ecosystems over the tipping point into the unstoppable
collapse. Alpine ecosystems, through melting ice and snow, have to relocate to different
ecosystems. The relocation of fauna pose animals in pre-existing ecosystems at threat due to
increased competition for resources.

It is predicted that current weather patterns will increase in extremity, resulting in regions which
receive high amounts of rainfall to receive fewer but harsher events of precipitation. Dry regions
will receive more frequent droughts. Furthermore, storm tracks are expected to extend from
equator and move towards the poles.

Changing weather patterns through Australia can be seen through the increased frequency of
severe drought events, the south/south-eastern states have been facing decreased rainfall to a
point where desalination plant’s have had to be built to account for necessary water use. In the
contrary, Northern states have witnessed increased frequency of rainfall.

The Arctic is experiencing rapid warming, this is evident through photographic imagery of the
Arctic in historic winters in comparison to modern-day images. In which a clear pattern of the
Arctic decreasing in size can be seen. Furthermore glacial retreating, permefrost melting, and
shrubs replacing typical tundra flora are all signs of arctic melting.

Changes in climate can greatly influence the formation of sea ice through the Arctic, as the
climate get’s warmer, it becomes more challenging for water to form into polar ice-caps.
Furthermore, the increasing precipitation through the Arctic region, reduces the snow-fall
necessary to expand upon the glacial formations. This also encourages the beginning of the
melting of Ice in the start of spring, failing to give the glaciers enough time to form stable
ice-packs.

Reduction in Ice Cap Size

Reduction in Abedo Effect caused by solar ice caps
Oceans absorb more heat
Increased atmospheric temperatures. -> Restart cycle

Increasing global temperatures greatly reduces the sizing of glaciers and ice sheets throughout
the world. As the temperatures of the world increase, melting of the glacier’/ice sheets begin’s
earlier in the year, failing to give the glacier enough time to form stable ice-packs which creates
weaker easier to melt glaciers. Furthermore, increased precipitation rain more on icepacks, not
providing enough snow to expand upon the ice-cells. Therefore increased temperatures place
immense pressure upon glaciers and ice sheets.

Costal ecosystems, low topography regions, wetlands, and swamps.

Rising sea levels have a wide variety of impacts on the physical environment of ecosystems,
coastal habitats can be completely inundated, being flooded and completely underwater. Low
topographic regions face the same threat with rising sealevels. Wetland/swamp regions, can
cause the mixture between freshwater and sea water which places immense pressure on the
local ecosystem.

Wetland regions which are facing the risks of rising sea-levels, are at risk of the mixing between
salty sea water and freshwater. This mix of salty seawater and freshwater places species living
within these ecosystems under immense pressure, due to their natural habitat being entirely
freshwater, and them unable to live in saltwater. A further example is coastal regions, species
which live within coastal regions, will have to relocate entirely, due to the potential coastal
inundation and eventual coastal immersion into the sea if sealevel rises enough.

Polynesian ground dove and Tuamoto kingfisher

These two species are placed at significant risk due to their small population count, with the
Polynesian ground dove having a population of 150 birds, and the Tuamoto kingfisher having a
population of just 90. Furthermore, the birds distribution place them at further risk, with the
Polynesian ground dove being distributed on volcanic islands and coral atolls in the south
pacific, which is highly susceptible for rising sea-levels. Furthermore, the Tumato kingfisher is
only found on the island of Niau in the South Pacific, which is also highly susceptible for being
impacted by rising sea-levels.

Demand for energy requires the burning of fossil fuels, due to electricity production,
construction, manufacturing, domestic housing heating

Methane + Oxygen → Hydrogen + Water + Energy

The burning of any fossil fuel, releases greenhouse gases, however the burning of natural gas
provides twice the amount of energy for carbon dioxide released compared to any other fossil
fuel alternative. This provides natural gas to be a more efficient alternative compared to the
combustion of coal or oil.

The contribution of carbon dioxide is significantly more than methane and nitrous oxide. Despite
methane and nitrous oxide being significantly more potent as a greenhouse gas, with nitrous
oxide being approximately 250 times more potent, and methane 25 times more. However
life-expectancy of carbon dioxide is significantly longer, being between three hundred and a
thousand years, onthe contrary Methane and Nitrous oxide have significantly shorter life
expectancy. This disparity in life-expectancy gives carbon dioxide a significantly larger i pact
upon the greenhouse effect.

The transformation of land usage to Forestry and Agriculture, dramatically changes the land’s
potential for carbon sequestration. Prior to the transformation of land use, the carbon stocks in
vegetation stood at approximately 160. Following the transformation of the land, if the land was
converted to agriculture land, the ability of the land to sequestrate carbon dramatically drops, to
around 80. This is opposed with the land being converted to Forestry, which maintains a
significantly higher ability for carbon sequestration, composing of a cyclic nature of dropping
down to 110 as a low and climbing back up periodically to 160, prior to the farming of the
forestry product.

Changing the nature of the land has impacts upon the enhanced greenhouse effect, this is
through the transformation of natural forestry products becoming sources of agriculture, this
reduces the land’s ability to perform carbon sequestration. As a land source, reduces its ability
for carbon sequestration, it contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect, further worsening
the global climate.

Use public transport, buy local food sources, buy solar panels.

The amount of energy required to sustain their lifestyle

Meat eaters have a significantly higher carbon footprint to live their lifestyle in comparison to
pescatarian, vegetations and vegans.

The graph depicts the harmful implications of living certain lifestyles, which can influence
individuals to making lifestyle changes in order to reduce their contribution to the greenhouse
effect.

Climate change mitigation refers to utilising technology and strategies in order to reduce the
worsening of climate change and potentially avoid it entirely. Opposing this climate change
adaptation is developing strategies to more efficiently live within the changing climate,
developing methods to sustain a lifestyle and better animal/societal welfare.

A strategy for climate mitigation is adopting renewable energy sources, such as solar power,
wind power and geothermal.

A climate change adaption strategy is the utilization of covering rooftops with greenery of white
reflective paintings, to reflect infrared radiation and reduce the urban heating effect.

Urban design features such as designing rooftops with white reflective painting to increase the
albedo effect, are helpful mitigation strategies for reducing the urban heating effect and the
amount of energy required to cool the city. Furthermore urban design including natural wind
tunnels, can provide streets with naturally cooling air, further reducing the urban heating effect.
Finally obligatory inclusions of solar panels, on new construction projects encourages a
renewable future.

Changing urban design can contribute towards more renewable and sustainable city, the
considering of natural wind patterns, painting rooftops white instead of black and inclusion of
more green spaces, greatly encourages the reduction of the urban heating effect. This reduction
of the urban heating effect, dramatically helps society live throughout a warmer climate.

The utilization of cool surfaces and vegetation can greatly benefit the adaption to a warmer
climate, this is achieved through Global Cool Cities Network study, where they adopted a 10%
increase in reflective surfaces which witnessed Heat related deaths fell by 6%, furthermore a
10% increase in vegetative cover, results in a drop by heat related deaths by 7%. This
demonstrates a clear effective benefit in utilising strategies such as increasing reflective
surfaces and vegetative covers in the reduction of heat related deaths.

Geo-engineering strategies could be utilised in order to mitigate the problems caused by

excessive release of greenhouse gases. One such Geo-Engineering strategy is the injection of
aerosols into the atmosphere, this release of sulfur-dioxide would result in short-term cooling of
the world, if performed correctly this measure could be sustained annually in order to maintain
the world’s temperature in a habitable range during the worlds transformation from fossil fuels to
renewable energy sources. A second geo-engineering strategy, is the dumping of iron filaments
into the world’s oceans in order to encourage algae blooms, this encouragement of algae
blooms, increases the ocean’s ability for carbon sequestration without the increasing acidity of
the ocean.

Geo-engineering strategies provide a effective short-term solution for runaway climate change,
reducing the harmful consequences of climate change, and keeping species within a habitable
range to reduce extinction events. However, long-term outcomes of Geo-Engineering events
may be potentially harmful, such as excessive algae bloom with iron dumping in oceans, or a
shock-event with aerosol injection into the atmosphere. Therefore geo-engineering strategies
must be employed with a variety of adaption and mitigation strategies to have effective climate
change control measures.

Carbon emission has been in a continuous rise, from 1990 to 2016, growing exponentially.

This is due to the anthropogenic release of carbon, through the burning of fossil fuels and
removal of carbon sequestration methods, such as forestry. The culmination between these two
actions, results in sharp increases in observed carbon dioxide emissions.

Scientific research is a crucial technique in order to successfully manage sustainable

agriculture, this is achieved through the deliberate conducting of investigations to test issues
and challenges being faced. Furthermore, the processing of data and extrapolation of patterns
can provide researchers with accurate pattern predictions in order to develop successful plans
to manage sustainable agriculture. A real world example of this can be seen through the genetic
modification of crops and agricultural products in order to increase it’s success rate of growth in
arid/harmful environments, which is crucial for developing security of food sources in periods of
climate volatility.

Fire Stick Farming is an Indigenous practice which is a land management strategy which is used
to manage the risk of bushfires. Fire Stick Farming focuses on burning the short-shrubbery on
the ground of the land, and dead, possible fuel sources for a bushfire. This burning practice is
significantly more sustainable then traditional western fire management sources, as it only
burn’s high-risk potential fire fuel, rather then large regions of forestry. Furthermore, it
encourages nutrition growth and epicormic buds, which are crucial for native flaura and fauna.

Current dependencies on fossil fuels for the generation of electricity and power, have
long-lasting harmful consequences on the environment. Therefore a push towards renewable
energy sources is crucial for a healthy transition into the future. Solar, wind and nuclear power
have bold potential. Global carbon dioxide emissions have been in a continual rise, with 24
thousand million tonnes of carbon dioxide emitted in the year 2000, with it climbing up to 37
thousand million tonnes in 2017. However a recent trend represents a slowing down of the
growth rate, symbolising that renewable energy sources have potentially started to make a
difference. The carbon dioxide emissions of the lifetime for wind and solar power sources,
reveals that 71% of it’s lifetime emissions is from cultivation and fabrication. This represents the
clear advantage of utilising renewable alternatives, due to their net-zero emission of carbon
dioxide through their long lifetime of operation. Furthermore nuclear energy alternatives in
contrast with historical fossil fuels, has less then a quarter of the negative impact. Therefore
there is substantial evidence that nuclear, wind and solar power have the potential to make
reductions in carbon emissions for the power industry.

Module 8

Renewable Agriculture

Wind Timber

Solar Soil

Hydro Water

Industry Location

Cotton Southern - Queensland

Wheat South-Eastern Australia

 Wine South-Eastern Australia

A major natural aquatic resource of Australia is prawns and it is found in the northern seaboard
off Queensland, alternatively a major aquatic resource is Salmon fisheries south near Tasmania.

Murray-Darling Basin and the Great Artesian Basin

Solar sources, tidal energy, geothermal energy, and nuclear power plants

Open cut mines have wide range of environmental consequences, the digging process of the
open cut mine, completely disrupts the local biosphere, entirely destroying the ecosystem and
misplacing large amounts of fauna. Furthermore, the excavation of the land will use explosives,
displacing volumes of dust and fine particulates into the air, which could cause respiratory
illnesses. Increased traffic demand for the mine, and miner accommodation further disrupts the
local ecosystem, introducing toxic fumes into the local atmosphere. The operation of the
open-cut mine, results in the risk of seepage causing toxic chemicals to enter local waterways,
furthermore, the splitting of desirable minerals and unwanted tailings, creates toxic tailing
deposits. Tailing damn’s are set up, which in the case of a breach spills large volumes of toxic
sediment and liquid into the local ecosystem. Open cut mining without constant regulation and
supervision, could result in a healthy ecosystem transforming into a moonlike landscape.

Underground mining has a wide range of devastating consequences, the Woronora coal mine in
New South Wales, had the resulting mining tunnels, cause cracks and splints in the above
bedrock, destabalising the soil and fracturing the creak above. This resulted in water pouring
into the tunnels beneath and living a cracked dry creakbed.

Possible goals for mine site rehabilitation:

1) Restoration of the natural landscape, terrain
2) Planting of native vegetation
3) Access to the local wildlife to once again live in the mine sight
4) Conduct the rehabilitation in a timely and cost effective measure

Land which has been impacted by open cut mining can be rehabilitated in a variety of ways, the
first step would be to install the toxic tailings has been removed. The deposited rubble can fill
the pit, which soil and vegetation can be placed on top, this would be installed due to pre-mining
geosurface scanning, the collective of native seeds would be planted in the soil to cause native
wildlife to grow. Tailings dam’s would be allowed to evaporate, and then revegetated. The
encouragement of local flora and fauna would be enforced to reincorporate the site back into the
original ecosystem.

Stage Description
 Before Mining Begins Geological surface scans, terrain mapped.
Picking of local seeds and vegetation. Plan
enforced for the rehabilitation of site,
including regions selected for the holding of
rubble during mining process.

During Mining Process Waste tailiings dealt with correctly. Continual

monitoring of seepage. Tailing’s dam’s
effectively controlled. Contouring and
relandscaping of mine-sight as mining
operation continues.

After Mining Has Finished Tailings and equipment washed off and
placed in the open-pit filled with rubble.
Tailing’s dam allowed to evaporate. Topsoil is
placed and contoured to local geology and
terrain. The native seeds replanted which
was collected at the start.

Onshore drilling provides a wide range of negative consequences, this includes wide-range
disruption to local ecosystems, through the beginning of the mining process and construction of
the necessary road networks to accommodate increased traffic demands. Noise pollution as a
result of fracking and drilling, disrupts local bird migration patterns. Potential leaks and seeps,
from collected petroleum, could pollute large regions. Fracking removes large amounts of water
from aquifers, reducing aquifer pressure. In the event of a spill of mine seepages, mixes toxic
tailings with local water systems and ecosystem, harming flora and fauna.

Offshore drilling has significant disruptions upon the local marine ecosystem, this is through the
drilling and fracking of the marine sediment, sending shockwaves through the surrounding
seawater, essentially acting as “noise pollution” can confuse whales migratory patterns. The
seepage of natural gas, petroleum and other tailings from the drilling can pollute the local
marine ecosystem, being toxic to flora and fauna. Bright lines upon the rig at night time can
confuse bird’s and disrupt their migratory patterns.

Art work sites, cermonial/burial sites, placements of significant historical value, such as sites of
mourning.

Mining operations on sites which hold cultural significance, directly dehumanises the first nation
people of Australia, sending a message that the government prioritises economic development
of the wishes of its people. This directly disreguards the societal pillar of sustainability.

Steps have been inducted in order to preserve the protection of Aboriginal sites, and sites of
cultural significance. Such steps can be seen through the Mabo case of 1992, the Native title
act of 1993, and the Aboriginal Protection Act of 1984, which recognise first nation interests,
and gives the government of Australia the ability to override state and localised governments
decisions which might infringe upon first nation’s peoples rights
The Range Uranium Mine which operated in Kakadu, Northern Territory, which closed on 2021,
have been carefully working with the Mirrar peoples, ‘First nation people of Kakadu’ to ensure a
smooth and considerate transition of the minesight, back into the national park. Brad Walsh is
the leading director on the maintenance and transition of the land, whom is a first nation
individual himself, who grew up in Muruwari tribe. ERA, the mining company has laid down over
two billion dollars for the rehabilitation of the mining site, in which they are carefully working with
the local community, ensuring a cleaning of the local water-ways, ecosystems and rehabilitation.
Furthermore, they have ensured a smooth economic transition of the Jabiru people through
revitalizing the old miner accommodation and businesses.

Carey is a Indigenous run company, which aims to establish a first nation presence throughout
the mining sector. Carey, operates large quantity of mining equipment, and works carefully with
first nation presence to establish successful rehabilitation of mining sites. They work on open
pit, tunneling operations in order to ensure rehabilitation of mining sites is completed in the most
environmentally sustainable manner.

Uranium

Uranium’s use throughout the world has shifted dramatically over time. Initially uranium was
made to form Radium which was put through new-flourescent paints. Uranium through the past
was also used for medical treatments, such as putting the radioactive substance in low doses
through bathing. Uranium usage has been included in military use, such as atomic weaponry.
Modern use of uranium include the power behind nuclear power plants, and medical use
through radiotherapy.

Future applications of uranium could be seen throughout the energy sector, as the world
transitions from fossil fuel reliant to green energy sources, an increase in uranium usage could
be seen in order to accommodate for the temporary transition.

Uranium:
The extraction of uranium is incredibly difficult, and could not be achieved in a sustainable
manner. The extraction of uranium requires the upturn of large deposits of soil and sediment,
resulting in great disruption to local ecosystems and the biosphere. Therefore for a
environmental sustainable mining operation to occur, Uranium would have to be mained through
tunneling, in order to minimise the upturning of soil and disruption of local ecosystems.
However, uranium occurs in very small fractions of soil deposits, making tunneling a
economically unsustainable mining alternative, defining Uranium only profitable/worthwhile if it is
mined through open-cut mining. This defines the mining of uranium as the balance between
environmental and economic sustainability, which one must cave into the other. Therefore the
mining of uranium is unsustainable. The mining of uranium must maximise the environmental
conservation efforts in order to try to reduce the ecological interference to a minimum.
Safe work practices in order to conduct a house waste audit, include the wearing of
hard-footwear, gloves, forearm protection clothes. Hygiene practices through hand-washing and
not touching what potential hazards are crucial for safe work practices.

Steps for a waste audit include:

Gathering of safety measures, including gloves, hard-foot wear, forearm protection.
Laying of plastic tarps to protect the ground from contaminates
Careful gathering of waste and spreading it over the tarps
Careful splitting of the waste into dedicated piles
- Cardboards
- Food Waste
- Hard Plastics
- Soft Plastics
- E-waste
- Solid Waste (biomass)
- Solid waste (metal)
- Garden Waste
Grab a hard-plastic bag, separate the individual waste groups into a individual bag, weigh each
of the bags
Measure the weight of each section, and then the total weight of the household waste
This measures the composition of the households waste

The criteria includes the type of the waste present, this includes recyclable waste which could
be separated into hard and soft plastics, cardboards etc… Furthermore solid waste, garden
waste and food waste should all be separated.

The rationale behind the separation of the waste is that it splits the individual groups of waste
into sections, this demonstrates which sections of waste in the household might be larger then
others… etc.

A household audit of your waste could encourage living a more sustainable lifestyle, if there is a
specific section of household waste which is larger then the other’s, it can encourage the
decreasing of it, reducing overall household waste and creating a more sustainable lifestyle.

Any unwanted solid product produced as a byproduct of animal or human activities

Agricultural, business waste. Furthermore manufacturing solid waste, and residential activities.

Waste Examples

Hazardous Radioactive, flammable, heavy metals,

E-waste
 Recyclable Plastics, glass, paper, metals

Non-recyclable Light globes, crockery.

Biodegradable Vegetable scraps, lawn clippings and paper

Disposal is the least preferable option for treatment of solid waste, this is due to a variety of
factors. Disposal of waste requires large amounts of landscape, where tips/landfills must be
placed. This placement of land places pressure on the surrounding ecosystems, furthermore the
potential hazards associated with seepage can pollute local waterways, and worsen
surrounding ecosystems. Furthermore, landfills remain a permanent part of local habitats, due
to the slow timeline breaking down of the materials takes.

35.7%

The splitting of individual waste sections, general waste will go in a specific bin. Alternatively,
organic material can be composted, whilst glass, papers and plastics can be recycled to reduce
material going directly to landfill.

Reduction methods can be achieved in order to reduce the total amount of waste going to
landfill, these methods include reducing unnecessary packaging of products, furthermore,
discouraging the unnecessary consumption into consumerism, to reduce the total amount of
purchased products.

The waste hierarchy model is the most sustainable method of managing waste, this is due to it
encouraging a sustainable lifestyle on every step of the waste process. The first step the
hierarchy model focuses on is purchase reduction, which eliminates the generation of waste in
the first place. Furthermore, it encourages the next step of the recycling process which is
re-using products, and not just using them as a one-off encounter. Whilst, finishing with
recycling, in order to further reduce the load placed on the waste industry. This classification of
the individual segments, is what defines the hierarchy model as the most sustainable method of
managing waste.

Two management methods used in the treatment of waste are, the first is the recycling of
garden waste products or vegetable products. This is achieved through the composting of the
organic waste, and turning it into mulch and chippings. A second management method is the
recycling of plastic, glass and cardboard which is separated through further management
processes, and retransforms these products into other products without ejecting the material
into the tips.
 Pros Cons

- Reduced total energy consumption - Increased expenditure at start of

- Reduced waste entering landfill technology set up
- Overall cheaper alternative - Recycled produts has less quality
overall then new products

Landfill is a typical form of waste disposal, in which a wide range of consequences impact the
environment. Foremost, the area required to develop a landfill, greatly disrupts the surrounding
ecosystems and habits. The operation of a landfill, provides risk associated with seepage and
potential toxic seepage living the landfill entering surrounding water sources and the local
biosphere. Landfills require the operation of a region for a long period of time, and result in the
constant disruption of the local biosphere, over that period of time.

The energy required for recycling of a material compared to the extraction from it’s ore state is
signifiancly lower.

Further costs involving recycling of materials, includes the initial set up of the technology and
plants required to perform the recycling, and the transportation costs, in order to move the
product from domestic homes to waste centers to recycling centers.

The claim that the costs involved in recycling materials outweigh the costs of sending recyclable
materials to landfill has no evidence and is wrong, evidence has shown that the costs of
recycling materials is significantly less then its counterpart of sending that material to landfill,
this is due to the harsh costs associated with landfill operation, and the reproduction of the
material directly from its ore state.

There has been an increasing rise in recycling rates over recent history, with in 2002, recycling
was split to be approximately 35 percent of total waste management, and in 2016, it stands for
75 percent of total waste management.

This increase in rates of recycling could’ve been produced by a variety of factors, one such
factor could be the increase in education to the general public, making them aware of the
beneficial factors of resorting to recycling rather then it’s landfill counterpart. This could’ve been
achieved through media-broudcasts and installing recycling to be mandatory establishment in
school systems and work-health-and-safety.

This current trend indicates a clear more sustainable management approach towards recycling
of waste, this significantly reduces a proportion of waste which would’ve previously need to be
sent to landfills. This reduction in waste volume, reduces transportation costs, production of
methane gases due to bacterial decay. Furthermore it reduces the risk of a potential leachate
spill which could enter the local ecosystem, making landfills more sustainable.
MBT is a new technology strategy which greatly improves the sustainability of disposing waste,
helping society move towards zero waste targets. This strategy involves mixed waste being a
viable option for waste input, in which a mechanical sorting system, separated recyclables, from
biological treatment, and rejects solid waste which will end up in landfill. This automatic system
separates the waste in a single area, defining easy separation. The biological treatment section,
then separates compost from other sources of waste which will end up in a bioreactor. This
treatment of waste results in the low-energy cost, high-saving yield approach which is crucial for
the sustainability approach to waste.

Garden waste is recycled in larger quantities due to it’s split nature from the rest of household
waste.

The community has a decent effort applied towards recycling, with garden recycling nearly being
entirely sustainable, however, certain areas like plastics, cartons and food waste lack initiative
and require more recycling in order to hit higher levels of sustainability.

This could be achieved through the deliberate educating of the community, through teaching
them further strategies to reduce their dependency on unrecyclable materials and how to
effectively separate their waste into sustainable sections. Secondly, legislation could be placed
to encourage more protocols and laws to ensure recycling is mandatory, working with
companies such as supermarkets, could introduce ‘buy-back’ policies in order to further
encourage recycling.

Recycling is a waste management strategy employed throughout Australia. Despite Australia

having relatively high proportions of recycling occurring, through the splitting of waste due to
labeled bins and the Waste Less Recycle More education campaign, a large proportion of
recyclable material still ends up in landfill. In 2018, when China stopped buying recyclable
material off Australia, the industry froze, with it becoming unprofitable, and undesirable.
Therefore the industry requires a re-structuring and addition of more recycling plants in order to
improve it’s ability to reduce the volume of material ending up in landfill.

A upcoming technology is waste-to-power plants, which focuses on agriculture, factory and

commercial waste which can be converted into electricity, this is achieved through the burning of
the waste, in order to spin a turbine and generate electrical energy. Ultimately the byproduct of
this process is ash, which weighs approximately 20 percent of the original mass, which is greatly
reducing the volume of waste which needs to end up in landfill.

Sustainability is the ability to use materials in a speed and manner which does not exceed the
growth rate of the material, and jeopardize it’s security for the future.

The rationale behind sustainability is being able to provide future generations with the same
quality of life and materials we currently are experiencing. A real life example of this is our use
of fossil-fuels which provide us with a substantial improvement to quality of life, but are limited in
quantity and provide harmful repercussions to the future of the planet, which reduces the quality
of life for future generations, hence being unsustainable.

The three pillars of sustainability are a representation of sustainability through an economic

perspective, social perspective and environmental perspective. This describes an outview on
sustainability as being a careful balance between managing the environmental preservation of
the land with economic growth and social/cultural growth.

Sustainability means different things to different people, a modern outlook on sustainability

includes the three-pillars approach which is a careful balance between environmental
conservation, economic growth and societal wellbeing. Whilst a older first nation outlook on
sustainability is the living of the land approach, where the belief is that it is their duty to look
after the land, and only take what the land offers, where further extensions of this are through
nomatic movement.

Ecological footprint defines the energy required to maintain a certain lifestyle

Human activities which contribute to ecological footprint include, burning of fossil fuels, so
electricity production, transportation, clearing of land for agricultural use or material gathering.

Earth overshoot day is occurring sooner every year due to the increased demand for resources
and electricity seen throughout the world, the developed world has an ever-growing demand for
consumerism and products, whilst the developing world are starting to require the importance of
electricity and the luxuries of the developed world. This economic evolution requires larger
amounts of energy and materials every year.

Possible solutions in order to push back Earth Overshoot day include the switch from fossil fuel
power sources to renewable energy sources, such as solar farms, wind farms and
hydroelectricity power generation. Furthermore sustainable approaches to waste management,
and recycling reduce the need for material requirements and mining. Reduction and
improvement of agricultural practices reduces the amount of land required. In which a
combination of these strategies would push back Earth Overshoot day.

Overharvesting poses a serious threat to ocean fish populations, due to it’s detrimental
consequences upon the ecosystem and surrounding food chain. A specific example of
overharvesting is the fishing of the Orange Roughy during the 1980’s and 1990’s. The Orange
Roughy was a deep sea fish which was found throughout Southern portions of Australia’s coast,
they were high in population, and due to their low bone density, and high meat proportions were
ideal for fishing. This lead to a rapid increase in their fishing, however over the next two
decades fishing portions dropped from 40,000 tonnes per year to only tens of tonnes. This
severely depleted the orange roughy fish stocks through the region, on top of this, due to their
high maturity age it was challenging for their population to recover. Overharvesting poses a
detrimental consequence to fish populations, and the harmful repercussions from Orange
Roughy overfishing are estimated to last 80-100 years.
A range of human activites can be responsible for water pollution, such actions include
operating of landfill’s, general waste pollution, mining companies can have tailings spill from
tailings dam’n or seepage leaks which pollute local waterways. Furthermore accidents with ship
trade routes and other pollution causing activities, such as operation of oil rigs.

Water pollution produces a wide range of consequences upon the environment, foremost, it
damages the local marine ecosystem, polluting waterways’ and spilling toxic harmful chemicals
into neccesary water ways. Spillovers of nutrients can result in algae blooms and eutrophication,
alternatively spilling of toxic heavy metals can cause biomagnification, resulting in death of
ecosystems. Alternatively general pollution such as plastic bags and fishing nets can trap larger
marine organisms such as turtles, sharks and whales which could get caught in the nets or
mistake the plastic bags as food.

The maintenance of aquatic ecosystems is crucial, this is due to a variety of factors. Foremost
aquatic ecosystems provide necessary food sources for humanities growth, through food
sources and vital production of nutrients/minerals. Furthermore, organisms through aquatic
ecosystems break down released wastage and emitted chemicals into the atmosphere, wheras
the pollution of this waterways stops this process from occurring. Therefore the maintenance of
healthy aquatic ecosystems is crucial for food production and the continuation of sustainability
on Earth.

The graph shows a clear relationship between the amount of dissolved phosphorus and the
growth of algae found in ponds. As phosphorus increases in mg/m3, tso does the Algal biomass
as chlorophyll. When the quantity of phosphorus is approximately 10 mg per cubic meter, algal
biomass stands at approximately 1 mg per cubic meter. However when dissolved phosphorus is
around 100 mg per cubic meter, algal biomass stands close to 80 mg per cubic meter.

The presence of phosphorus in pond water, could occur through a variety of factors, foremost,
seepage of nutrients into ponds through the run-off of fertiliser products in nearby agriculture
establishments.

1 The better option provides a larger ecosystem for the animals, this is crucial as it
provides more land for grazing, roaming, and results in less competitive hunting due to
a smaller restricted region

2 The better option is due to it being a larger circle in comparison to numerous smaller
circles, this is due to it keeping the ecosystem conjoined in a singular region, and allows
for the ecosystem to thrive as one larger region, in comparison to numerous smaller
regions which would place pressure on co-insiding flaura and fauna.

3 The better option is due to the regions of ecosystems being placed closer together in
comparison to more split apart, this makes it easier for organisms to interact with
nearby communities.
 4 The better option is due to the connectivity of landbridges which allows organisms to
have asafe pathway to explore nearby ecosystems.

Habitat loss has a wide range of negative global consequeucnes, where habitat loss poses the
largest threat to ecosystems, larger threat then invasive species, pollution and climate change.
Habitat loss directly shortens the amount of food available for organisms, increasing the amount
of competition through the region. Furthermore, it can force animals out of their ideal
ecosystems into ecosystems which they aren’t equipped with, greatly disrupting sustainability as
a whole.

Nomatic movement is a indigenous strategy for effectively managing resources. Nomatic

movement describes the regular movement of indigenous tribes in order to let resources of
regions regenerate, this allows ecosystems to recover from hunting in a sustainable manner.
Furthermore the approach of totenism, assigns tribes to conserve a specific species, where
other tribes will need to seek permission in order to hunt that species, this allows tribes to focus
on conserving local ecosystems, and managing their resources effectively.

Fire stick farming is a aboriginal practice, used to manage the land, in which burning of short
shrubbery and dead plants effectively mitigates the risk of a bushfire. This is achieved through
potential fuel of a bushfire being reduced, furthermore fire stick farming increased epicormic bud
growth and escalated the growth of native plants. This reduced the risk posed by bushfires
greatly.

The merging of traditional and western knowledge, can be demonstrates through the inclusion
of bushfire practicies. Western traditional bushfire practice include hazard reduction burning
which includes burning large regions of high-risk prone areas, however this practices seemed
relatively ineffective. Therefore an incorporation of Indingenous practices such as Fire Stick
Farming can offer alternative bushfire management strategies, which when in combination with
traditional western knowledge can greatly reduce the risk posed by bushfires.

Nomatic movement seen throughout Indigneous communities, are a strategy which has been
utilised to have effective natural resource management, nomatic movement involves the
continuous relocation of a first nation tribe in order to allow regeneration of ecosystem
populations throughout the region, this is a sustainable approach to hunting, and supports
healthy sustainability practices.

Indigenous traditional knowledge and practices have been recognised for their contribution to
modern land management strategies, one such practice is Fire Stick Farming in which first
nation people would focus on the burning of hisk-risk potential fuel for bushfires, including
shrubbery and dead vegetation. This strategy has proved to be highly effective, and have been
merged with western ideals of bushfire reduction strategies.

Local community initiatives have a wide range of measures to improve the sustainability of local
communities