TEMPERATURE

Learning outcomes/Objectives
 Define temperature and state the SI unit of temperature
 State the physical properties (thermometric properties) of a body used for temperature
measurement.
 Describe the scales of temperature
 Name and describe instruments for measuring temperature
 Compare the range, sensitivity and accuracy of thermometers based on the
thermometric properties.
 Interconvert Celsius and Kelvin
 Relate the thermodynamic absolute scale to the mean kinetic energy of a body
DEFINITION OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body (In simple terms).

To be more concise, Temperature is a measure of the amount of heat in a body / measure of the heat
energy level.

Temperature is one of the fundamental/base quantities and its SI unit is the Kelvin (K).

Commonly used unit of temperature is degree Celsius (°C)

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Bodily senses are not good estimators of temperature. A metal rod feels colder than a piece of cloth
when both are at the same temperatures which is lower than the body temperature. The reason is that
the metal conducts heat energy from the hand far more rapidly than the cloth, what you feel with your
hand also depends upon its initial state.

What then, is required to measure temperature?

 Any physical property of a body which varies uniformly with temperature can be used to
measure temperature.
Such a property is called a thermometric property.
 Thermometric properties include:
a) the variation in volume of a fixed mass of a liquid,

b) the variation of the resistance of a metal, for example a length of platinum wire

c) the variation in an electro motive force of a thermo-couple when the two junctions

are at different temperatures

d) the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume.

INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Temperature of a body can be measured using different types of thermometers. The type of
thermometer chosen for any temperature measurement will depend on the temperature ranges

 LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETER

 Uses a liquid in its operation.
 The two liquids normally used in it are mercury and alcohol.
 The liquid is contained in thin walled bulb at the end of the long thick-walled capillary tube
 Glass is a bad conductor of the heat energy so the walls of the bulb are thin to enable the heat
energy to pass through quickly, and the liquid to attain the temperature of its surroundings.
 Since the bulb is small, the bore of the capillary tube must be very fine so that a small change in
temperature produces a reasonable movement of the liquid column.
 It is easy to see the liquids thread, in a thermometer because the thick-walled tube acts as a
cylindrical magnifying glass.
 A liquid-in-glass thermometer uses the principle that when liquid is heated it expands and rises
up the capillary tube and if it is cooled it contracts.

SHORTFALL /DISADVANTAGE(S) OF LIQUID -IN-GLASS THERMOMETER

o are not particularly accurate.

o They have a limited range and are easily broken.
o They can be read more accurately if the size of the interval between the graduations is
increased. This is done either by increasing the size of the bulb or by using the finer bore or by a
combination of both. If the bulb is larger the increase in volume of the liquid will be greater for
the same rise in temperature, and the mercury will move a longer distance along the stem.
Decreasing the bore produces the greater length of liquid for the same increase in volume and
the same rise in temperature.

THERMOMETRIC LIQUIDS

The liquids used in thermometers are mercury and alcohol. Both have advantages and disadvantages

a) MERCURY

The advantages of using mercury in a thermometer are:

o a) it does not wet cling to the sides of) the tube;

o b) it is a good conductor and the whole liquid quickly acquires the temperature of the
surroundings;
o c) it expands uniformly
o d) it has high boiling point (357 00 C);
o e) it has a low specific heat capacity.
o The advantages of using mercury are
o a) it has a high freezing point (- 39 0C);
o b) its expansivity is fairly low
o The high freezing point means that it cannot be used in winter in countries where the
temperatures gets very low.
 b) ALCOHOL

The advantages of using alcohol in a thermometer are

o a) it expands uniformly
o b) it has a large expansivity
o c) it has low freezing point (- 115 0C)
o The disadvantages of using alcohol are,
o a) It wets the tube
o b) it has a low boiling point (78 0 C)
o c) it has high specific heat capacity
o It is sometimes stated that being colorless is a disadvantage, but this is not really a problem as it
is quite easy to add a little coloring matter. Alcohol is used in cold countries of its low freezing
point.

SCALES OF TEMPERATURE

In order that temperatures readings have got the same meaning wherever they are taken, it is necessary
to have a fixed scale of temperature. A scale must be defined by two fixed reference points which are
easily obtainable and easily reproducible

LOWER FIXED POINT

This is a temperature of pure melting ice at the pressure of one standard atmosphere.

UPPER FIXED POINT

This is the temperature of dry steam from water boiling at a pressure of one standard atmosphere. It is
important to stipulate the pressure since both the freezing point and the boiling point of water vary with
pressure.

FUNDAMENTAL INTERVALS

This is the distance between the fixed points. it is divided into a number of equal divisions. Each division
is one degree.

DETERMINATION OF THE LOWER FIXED POINT

This point is fixed by submerging the bulb and the lower part of the stem of the thermometer in a funnel
containing pure melting ice. Care is taken to ensure that the bulb is in good conduct with the ice, and
the mercury level is just above the surface of the ice. When the liquid level in the thermometer remains
steady for some time a mar is made at that point on the stem. Suppose the distance of the mark above
the bulb is level 0.
DETERMINATION OF THE UPPER FIXED POINT

This point is fixed by suspending the thermometer in steam above boiling water. The thermometer is
contained in a double walled jacket so that is completely surrounded by steam, and the mercury thread
protrudes just above cork. When the liquid level remains steady for some time a mark is made at this
point on the stem. Suppose the distance of this mark above the bulb is l100. A manometer is
incorporated in the apparatus to check that the pressure inside the apparatus is the sane as that
outside, and the external pressure is noted.

CELCIUS SCALE TEMPERATURE

On this scale the lower fixed point is 0°C and the upper fixed point is 100 0 C. The fundamental interval is
divided into one hundred equal division. If the thermometer is needed to measure temperature outside
the fixed point then the scale markings are continued below the 00C mark and above the 1000C. The
distance between the consecutive marks on the scale remains the same. This assumes that the liquid
expands uniformly.

When dealing with the expansion of a liquid, volumes are needed, but if it is assumed that the area of
cross section of the stem remains constant then length maybe used instead of volume.

Then the length of a degree interval on the Celsius scale is:

(l100 – l0) /100

Because l100 - l0 is the fundamental interval.

When the thermometer is place in a liquid whose temperature ϴ is unknown, the liquid level is at a
distance lϴ above the bulb. Then the value of the temperature ϴ: is obtained by simple proportion.

ϴ = (lϴ - l0)/ (l100 – l0) x 100

GENERAL EQUATION

Any physical property of a body which varies uniformly can be used to measure temperature. The
general equation for the Celsius scale is:

ϴ = (Xϴ - X0)/ (X100 – X0) x 100

Where, X is the property that varies ‘uniformly’ with temperature E.g. X could be the resistance of a
platinum wire in a Pt resistance thermometer or the electromotive force (emf) of a thermocouple

KELVIN SCALE OF TEMPERATURE

 This is the scale used for all scientific work. The SI unit for temperature.
 The lower fixed point (the zero) on the kelvin scale is also the temperature of pure melting ice at
a pressure of one standard atmosphere (1 atm) and its value is 273. 15 K. (0°C). The upper fixed
point is the temperature of dry steam water boiling at a pressure of one standard atmosphere
and its value is 373.15 K.(100°C)
 Both the fundamental interval and the size of the degree are the same on the Celsius and kelvin
scales. It follows that changes in temperatures on both scales will be equal: ∆ϴ 0C = ∆ϴ K.
SOME COMMON LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS

a) CLINICAL THERMOMETER

A very important maximum thermometer is the clinical thermometer, which is used to take the
temperature of the human body. Mercury is the liquid used in this thermometer. The glass wall of the
bulb is very thin so that the mercury quickly acquires the temperature of the body.

Special features of the clinical thermometer:

 The bore of the capillary tube is very fine to give a large change in length for a small change in
temperature.
 The feature that transforms it into a maximum thermometer is the constriction in the capillary
just above the bulb.
When the temperature rises the expansion of the relatively large volume of mercury in the bulb
produces a force which pushes the mercury through the constriction and up the tube. When the
thermometer is taken out of the patients mouth or armpit, the mercury molecules are not
strong enough to pull the mercury back through the constriction, and the thread breaks at the
constriction. Thus, the mercury in the capillary tube cannot get back into the bulb, and the
maximum temperature (the patient’s temperature) can be read off.
 The thermometer stem is usually triangular in shape to increase the magnification, and enable
the thermometer to be read more easily.
 The thermometer is given a sharp shake to get the mercury back into the bulb.

N.B The scale is restricted to a small range 35 – 42 0C. Normal body temperature is 36.90C (37 0 C to the
nearest degree) The short range enables the stem to be reasonably short. Under no circumstances
should the thermometer be washed in very hot water after being taken out of the patient’s mouth or
the thermometer is likely to burst. It should be sterilized using a sterilizing solution.

b) BIMETALIC THERMOMETER

A bimetallic strip, wound into a coil, may be used to make a thermometer. When temperature increases
causing the pulley to which the movable end is attached to rotate and thus move the pointer over the
scale. This type of thermometer can be robust and very compact (about as big as a pocket watch) and is
used to record the temperature in freezers, ovens, etc.

c) PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETER

This thermometer uses the variation with temperature of the resistance of a coil of platinum wire as its
standard. It is made from a double coil of platinum wire wound on a strip of a notched mica and placed
inside a porcelain tube. The coil is doubly wound to counteract the effects of electromagnetic induction.
A pair of compensating leads are added to nullify the change in resistance of the leads to the platinum
coil. The thermometer is placed where the temperature is required and the resistance of the coil is
measured on a Wheatstone Bridge. Usually a scale will be calibrated to read the temperature directly,
but if the actual resistance R0 is measured the temperature can be calculated from

0 = (Rϴ – R0)/ (R100 -R0) X 100

Where R0 and R100 are there resistance at 0 0C and 1000C respectively. This temperature will be in 0C.
The advantages of a resistance thermometer over a liquid in glass thermometer are;

a) it is far more accurate;

b) it has a very large range

c) it can be read at a distance if it has long led.

The observer does not need to be close to where the temperature is being measured, e.g. in a furnace.

WORKED EXAMPLE

The resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer at 0°C is 6.0 Ω, at 100°C is 8.4 Ω and at ϴ°C is 14.4
Ω. Calculate the value of ϴ. The thermometer is then placed in a vacuum flask containing liquid nitrogen
at -200°C determine the value of its resistance.

SOLUTION:

a) Given: R0 = 6.0 Ω; R100 = 8.4 Ω; Rϴ = 14.4 Ω; ϴ =?

0 = (Rϴ – R0)/ (R100 -R0) X 100

= (14.4 – 6.0)/ (8.4 – 6.0) x 100

= 350°C (ANS)

b) R0 = 6.0 Ω; R100 = 8.4 Ω; ϴ = -200°C; Rϴ =?

-200 = (Rϴ - 6.0)/ (8.4 – 6.0) x 100 [Simplify and solve for Rϴ)

Rϴ = 1.2 Ω (ANS)

 SELF ASSSESSMENT EXERCISE

Question 1

An ungraduated thermometer is attached to a centimeter scale and reads 7.5 cm in melting ice and
23.5 cm in steam at 1000C and 55 cm in a freezing mixture. Determine the temperature of the
freezing mixture?

Question 2

The resistance of a coil of platinum wire is 10 Ω at 00C and 14Ω at 1000C. Calculate the temperature
when its resistance is 15.4Ω?

Question 3

The resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer is 10Ω at 0 00 C and 14 Ω at 100 °C. Calculate
its resistance when it is placed in liquid nitrogen at -200 °C?