Chapter -1 Tool Materials

CHAPTER 1

CUTTING-TOOL MATERIALS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Many types of tool materials, ranging from high carbon steel to

ceramics and diamonds, are used as cutting tools in today’s
metalworking industry. It is important to be aware that differences
do exist among tool materials, what these differences are, and the
correct application for each type of material. The various tool
manufacturers assign many names and numbers to their products.
While many of these names and numbers may appear to be similar,
the applications of these tool materials may be entirely different. In
most cases the tool manufacturers will provide tools made of the
proper material for each given application. The best tool is the one
that has been carefully chosen to get the job done quickly,
efficiently and economically.

1.2. REQUIREMENTS OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

The cutting tool materials must possess a number of important

properties to avoid excessive wear, fracture failure and high
temperatures in cutting, The following characteristics are essential

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

for cutting materials to withstand the heavy conditions of the

cutting process and to produce high quality and economical parts:

a) Hot hardness.
b) High toughness.
c) High wear resistance.
d) Low friction.
e) Chemical stability and inertness.

a) Hot Hardness
Generally the hardness of a material was measure at room
temperature. When selecting a cutting tool material or grade,
production goals should be considered. If the cutting speeds will be
very high or the material being machined is of a higher hardness,
the cutting tool material must have a high degree of hot hardness.
Hot (red) hardness is the ability of a tool material to maintain
hardness (and wear resistance) at elevated temperatures.

b) Toughness
Cutting is often accompanied by impact forces especially against
interrupted cuts and cutting tool may fail very soon if it is not
strong enough. Therefore, the tool material should have high
resistance against thermal and mechanical shock.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

c) Wear Resistance
Although there is a strong correlation between hot hardness and
wear resistance, later depends on more than just hot hardness. Other
important characteristics include surface finish on the tool,
chemical inertness of the tool material with respect to the work
material, and thermal conductivity of the tool material, which
affects the maximum value of the cutting temperature at tool-chip
interface. Due to such wear the following effects will be observed:

• Deterioration in surface finish of the workpiece.

• Change in the dimension of the workpiece.
• Increase in the cutting force, causing deflection of the
workpiece thus finally affecting the dimensional accuracy.
• Increase the temperature of the work and tool.

d) Low Friction
Due to friction between two mating parts, heat is generated. Low
friction means low frictional force and hence low heat is
generation. Reducing the tool temperature by reducing the friction
between tool and work material, especially between chip and rake
face, will increase tool life. Hence if the tool material has lower
coefficient of friction, the heat generated will be lower, the rise in
temperature of the tool will not be very high.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

e) Chemical Stability
If the work material has affinity with the tool material, the tool will
wear out easily. Tool wear means loss of dimensional accuracy of
the work piece. Hence, the tool material should have chemically
inert to the work material and cutting fluid.

1.3. TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

1) Carbon too steel

2) High-speed steel (HSS)
3) Cast-nonferrous alloys (Stellite)
4) Cemented Carbides
5) Coated Carbide Tools
6) Ceramics
7) Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
8) Diamond

1.3.1. Carbon Tool Steel

The only tool material for metal cutting from the beginning of the
industrial Revolution until the 1870S was carbon tool steel. In
simple terms it is a high carbon steel (steel which contains about
0.8 to 1.3% carbon). This high carbon content allows the steel to be
hardened, offering greater resistance to abrasive wear.

The hardness of high carbon tool steel was 58-64 HRC and hot
hardness temperature was 200°C, i.e. failure of the tool was

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

occurred when the cutting temperature exceeds 200°C. Carbon steel

tools were used successfully for cutting copper at speed 110 m/min,
but for cutting iron the cutting speed was reduced to 5-7 m/min to
ensure reasonable tool life. However, because it is quickly over
tempered (softened) at relatively low cutting temperatures, (180-
250°C), it is now used as cutting tool material in files, saw blades,
chisels, etc. The use of plain high carbon steel is limited to low heat
applications.

Summary for the Main characteristics of Carbon Tool Steel:

• Oldest of tool materials

• Contains about 0.8 to 1.3% carbon
• Used for drills taps, broaches, reamers, files, saw blades,
chisels
• Inexpensive, easily shaped, sharpened
• No sufficient hardness and wear resistance
• Limited to low cutting speed operation
• Hot hardness temperature up to 200°C

1.3.2. High-Speed Steel (HSS)

Fred W. Taylor, a famous engineer of the early 1900s, in his
development of metal-cutting practices, and along with other
engineers and metallurgists, created a steel for machining metals,

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

which at that time greatly increased the speed of cutting over other
hardened and tempered steels by as much as 90% for cast iron.

The term high speed was adopted then to reflect this extraordinary
gain in the rotational velocity of bar stock. The term "high-speed
steel" persists, and its use today reflects this early nickname. In
comparison to today's materials, these materials are not high speed.
Nowadays, the speed for this material is characterized as low speed
in comparison to other more advanced tool materials.

High-speed steels (HSSs) are high in alloy content, have excellent

hardenability, and retain a good cutting edge to temperatures of
around 650°C. If the HSS alloy is molybdenum-based, its
identification is M, while tungsten-based HSS is called T. Other
common alloying elements are vanadium, molybdenum, and cobalt.
Although there are numerous high-speed steel compositions, they
may be grouped in three classes.

1. 18-4-1 High-Speed Steel. This steel, containing 18% tungsten,

4% chromium, and 1% vanadium, is one of the best all-purpose tool
steels.

2. Molybdenum High-Speed Steel. Many high-speed steels use

molybdenum as the principal alloying element, since one part will
replace two parts of tungsten. Molybdenum steels such as 6-6-4-2

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

containing 6% tungsten, 6% molybdenum, 4% chromium, and 2%

vanadium have excellent toughness and cutting ability.

3. Super high-speed steels. Some high-speed steels have cobalt

added in amounts ranging from 2% to 15%, since this element
increases the cutting efficiency, especially at high temperatures.
One analysis of this steel contains 20% tungsten, 4% chromium,
2% vanadium, and 12% cobalt. The remainder is essentially iron.
Because of the greater cost of this material, it is used principally for
heavy cutting operations that impose high pressures and
temperatures on the tool. These materials can be hardened to
Rockwell C scale of 70, but for cutting tool applications, they are
hardened to 67 to 68.

Summary for the Main characteristics of High Speed Steel:

• Hardened to various depths
• Good wear resistance than carbon tool steel
• Suitable for high positive rake angle tools
• Hot hardness temperature up to 650°C
• H.S.S. available in wrought, cast & sintered (Powder
metallurgy)
• Coated for better performance
• Subjected to surface treatments such as casehardening for
improved hardness and wear resistance.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

1.3.3. Cast-Nonferrous Alloys (Stellite Tools)

A number of nonferrous alloys containing principally chromium,
cobalt, and tungsten with smaller percentages of one or more
carbide-forming elements, such as tantalum, molybdenum, or
boron, are excellent materials for cutting tools. These alloys are
cast, to shape, have high red hardness, and are able to maintain
good cutting edges on tools at temperatures up to 925°C.
Compared with high-speed steels, these alloys can be used at twice
the cutting speed and still maintain the same feed. However, they
are more brittle, do not respond to heat treatment, and can be
machined only by grinding.

Intricate tools can be formed by casting into metal molds and

finished to shape by grinding. The range of elements in these alloys
is 12-25% tungsten, 40-50% cobalt, and 15-35% chromium. In
addition to one or more carbide-forming elements, carbon is added
in amounts of 1-4%.

These alloys have good resistance to cratering and can resist shock
loads better than carbide. As a tool material they rank midway
between high-speed steels and carbides for cutting efficiency.
However, like other cast materials, these alloys are relatively weak
in tension and tend to shatter when subjected to shock load.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

Summary for the Main characteristics of Stellite Tools:

• Good wear resistance (higher hardness)
• Less tough than high-speed steels and sensitive to impact
forces
• Less suitable than high-speed steels for interrupted cutting
operations
• Continuous roughing cuts at relatively high cutting feeds and
speeds
• Finishing cuts are at lower feed and depth of cut
• Hot hardness temperature up to 925°C
• Relatively weak in tension and tend to shatter when subjected
to shock load.

1.34. Cemented Carbides

Two-groups of carbides used for machining operations:
• Tungsten carbide
• Titanium carbide
These carbides are also known as cemented or sintered carbides,
which have high elastic modulus, thermal conductivity, and low
thermal expansion.

Carbide cutting tool inserts are made only by the powder

metallurgy technique. Powders of carbides (1-5 μm in size) are
mixed with suitable matrix and pressed to the desired shape. The
composite materials are sintered in a hydrogen atmosphere furnace

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

at 1550°C. Those carbide tools are a class that differs from alloyed
tungsten carbide and cobalt (Stellite), which are augmented with
varying quantities of titanium carbide (TiC) and/or tantalum
carbide (TaC). Machines using carbide tools must be rigidly built,
have ample power, and have a range of cutting speeds and feeds
suitable to the material.

Characteristics of Tungsten Carbide Tools:

• The suitable matrix for tungsten carbide is cobalt.
• As cobalt content increases – strength, hardness, and wear
resistance increases.
• Carbide tools containing 94% tungsten carbide and 6% cobalt
are suitable for machining cast iron and most other materials
except steel.
• Steel cannot be machined satisfactorily by this composition
because the chips weld to the carbide surface and cause
excessive cratering.
• A typical analysis of carbide suitable for steel machining is
82% tungsten carbide, 10% titanium carbide, and 8% cobalt.
This composition has a low coefficient of friction and, as a
result, has little tendency toward top wear or cratering.

Since variation in composition alters the properties of carbide

materials, various commercial grades are available for various
applications, Table 1.1.

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 Chapter -1

Table 1.1. Classification of tungsten carbide according to machining applications

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Tool Materials
Chapter -1 Tool Materials

Characteristics of Titanium Carbide Tools:

• Nickel-Molybdenum alloy is suitable as matrix.
• Tic suitable for machining hard materials (Steels & cast irons).
• Titanium carbide has higher wear resistance than tungsten
carbide.
• Cutting speeds are higher than those for tungsten carbide.

General Characteristics of Carbide Tools:

• Red hardness temperature ranging from 900 to 1000 °C.
• It has high compressive strength, 3.1-5.9 GPa.
• Grinding of carbides tips is difficult and can be done only with
silicon carbide or diamond wheels.
• Clearance angles should be held to a minimum.
• Carbide tools permit cutting speeds two to three times that of
cast alloy tools, but at such speeds that a much smaller feed
must be used.

1.3.5 Coated Carbide Tools

While coated carbides have been in existence since the late 1960’s,
they did not reach their full potential until the mid 1970’s. The first
coated carbides were nothing more than standard carbide grades
which were subjected to a coating process. As the manufacturers
gained experience in producing coated carbides, they began to
realize that the coating was only as good as the base carbide under
the coating (substrate).

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

It is advisable to consider coated carbides for most applications.

When the proper coated carbide, with the right edge preparation is
used in the right application, it will generally outperform any
uncoated grade. The thickness of the coating materials was ranged
from 0.005 to 0.007 mm on the substrate.
Numerous types of coating materials are used, each for a specific
application. The most common coating materials are:
• Titanium Carbide (TiC)
• Titanium Nitride (TiN)
• Ceramic Coating
• Diamond Coating
• Titanium Carbonitride (TicN)
• Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
Thickness of coating materials range from 2 to 15 µm.

Multi Phase Coatings:

Multi-layered combinations of the coating materials are used. The
microstructure of a multilayered coated carbide insert at 1500x
magnification is shown in Fig.1.1. These coated carbides have high red
hardness, and are able to retain a good cutting edge to temperatures of
around 1100°C. The first layer should bond well with substrate. The
outer layer has high wear resistance and low thermal conductivity.
The intermediate layers should bond well & compatible with both
layers.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

Characteristic of Coating Materials

• High hot hardness temperature (1100°C).
• Chemical stability.
• Low thermal conductivity.
• Good bonding.
• Little or no porosity.

Fig.1.1. Multiphase coatings on a tungsten-carbide substrate. Three

alternating layers of aluminum oxide are separated by very thin layers of
titanium nitride. Coating thicknesses are typically in the range of 2 to 10 μm.

Coating Techniques:
• Chemical –vapor deposition (CVD)
Plasma assisted CVD
• Physical-vapor deposition(PVD)
• Medium –temperature chemical- vapor deposition (MTCVD)

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

1.3.6. Ceramics
Aluminum oxide powder, along with additives of titanium,
magnesium, or chromium oxide, is mixed with a binder and
processed into a cutting tool insert by powder metallurgy
techniques. The insert is either clamped onto the tool holder or else
bonded to it with an epoxy resin. The resulting material has an
extremely high compressive strength but is quite brittle. Therefore,
the inserts must be given a 5° to 7° negative rake to strengthen their
cutting edge and be well supported by the toolholder. Ceramics tool
have high red hardness, and are able to maintain good cutting edges
on tools at temperatures up to 1200°C.

Characteristics of Ceramic Tools:

• High Abrasion resistance and hot hardness.
• Chemically stable than high-speed steels & carbides, so it has
less tendency to adhere to metals.
• Good surface finish obtained in cutting cast iron and steels
• Negative rake-angle preferred to avoid chipping due to poor
tensile strength.
• Hot hardness temperature up to 1200°C.

1.3.7. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)

CBN is a material that is next to diamond in hardness. CBN is
made by bonding 0.5-1.0 mm layer of poly crystalline cubic boron
nitride to a carbide substrate by sintering under pressure. The

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

cutting tool uses a layer of 0.5 - 1 mm layer that is bonded to a

tungsten carbide insert, Fig.1.2. Carbide provides shock resistance,
while CBN layer provides high resistance and cutting edge
strength. Cubic boron nitride tools also are used for grinding wheels
and abrasives. Cubic boron nitride tools are made in small sizes
without substrate.

Characteristics of CBN Tools:

• The cost of CBN can be 30 times that of a carbide insert, so
their use is limited to well-chosen, cost effective applications.
• CBN is used for machining very hard ferrous materials such as
steel dies, alloy steels and hard-facing materials.
• Hot hardness temperatures up to 1500°C.
• CBN is used for non-ferrous machining and for machining
abrasive materials such as glass and some plastics.

Tungsten-carbide insert

Polycrystalline cubic boron

nitride or diamond layer, Braze
with carbide substrate

Fig. 1.2 Construction of a polycrystalline cubic boron

nitride or a diamond layer on a tungsten-carbide insert.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

1.3.8. Diamonds
Diamonds are the hardest known substance (Brinell hardness ≈
7000). They have low thermal expansion (≈ 12% of steel), high
heat conductivity (≈ twice of steel, 1/3% of aluminum), poor
electrical conductivity, and very low coefficient of friction against
metals (≈ friction of 0.05 on dry steel in air), but they have limited
chemical stability. Research is progressing on vapor coating on
diamonds.

Diamonds, obviously, are expensive, which limits their general

application as cutting tools. Diamonds are not able to cut steels or
ferrous material. At high temperatures, diamonds graphitize on
these materials.

Diamonds used as single-point tools for light cuts and high speeds
must be rigidly supported because of their high hardness and
brittleness. They are used either for hard materials difficult to cut
with other tool materials or for light, high-speed cuts on softer
materials where accuracy and surface finish are important.
Diamonds are used in machining plastics, hard rubber, pressed
carbon, and aluminum with cutting speeds from 5 to 25 m/s.
Diamonds are also used for dressing grinding wheels, for small
wire drawing dies, and in certain grinding and lapping operations.
Diamonds have high red hardness, and are able to maintain good
cutting edges on tools at temperatures up to 1500°C.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

Fig.1.3 shows hardness of various cutting tool materials as a

function of temperature. Fig.1.4 show ranges of properties of
various groups of tool materials. These properties include hot
hardness, wear resistance, and toughness of cutting tool materials.

Tables 1.2 to 1.5 summarized a very important data for selection

the suitable cutting tool from the following point of views:
1- Tool cost
2- Hot hardness temperature
3- Toughness
4- Mechanical properties
5- Machining conditions

(oC)
Hardness (HRA)

Carbides
(HRC)

Temperature (oF)
Fig.1.3 Hardness of various cutting tool materials as a function of temperature.

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 Chapter -1 Tool Materials

Diamond, Cubic boron nitride

Alumina
Hot hardness and wear resistance

Silicon nitride

Cermets
Coated carbides

Carbides

HSS

Strength and Toughness

Fig.1.4 Ranges of properties of various groups of tool materials.

Table 1.2. Hot hardness temperatures and cost some tool materials.

Hot Hardness Cost ($)

Too Materials Temperature,
o
C
1. Carbon too steel 200
2. High-speed steel bit (HSS) 650 1-2
3. Cast-nonferrous alloys 925
4. Carbides inserts (WC) 1000 5-9
5. Coated Carbide Tools 1100 6-10
6. Ceramics (AL2O3) 1200 8-12
7. Cubic boron nitride (CBN) 1500 60-90
8. Diamond-coated inserts 1500 50-60
9. Diamond-tipped inserts 1500 90-100

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

Table 1.3. Typical properties of tool Materials

Carbides
Cubic Single-
High- Cast
Property Ceramics boron crystal
speed alloys WC TiC
nitride diamond
steels
4000-5000 7000-8000
83-86 HRA 82-84 HRA 90-95 HRA 91-93 HRA 91-95 HRA
HK HK
Hardness
1800-2400 1800-3200 2000-3000
46-62 HRC
HK HK HK
Compressive
4100– 4500 1500– 2300 4100– 5850 3100– 3850 2750– 4500 6900 6900
strength,
MPa

Transverse
rupture 2400– 4800 1380– 2050 1050– 2600 1380– 1900 345– 950 700 1350
strength,
MPa

Impact 1.35– 8 0.34– 1.25 0.34– 1.35 0.79– 1.24 < 0.1 < 0.5 < 0.2
strength, J

Modulus of
200 – 520– 690 310– 450 310– 410 850 820– 1050
elasticity,
GPa

Density, 10,000–
8600 8000– 8700 5500– 5800 4000– 4500 3500 3500
3 15,000
kg/m

Melting or
decompo-
1300 – 1400 1400 2000 1300 700
sition
temperature
°C

Thermal
conductivity, 30– 50 – 42– 125 17 29 13 500– 2000
W/ m K
Coefficient
of thermal
expansion, 12 – 4– 6.5 7.5– 9 6– 8.5 4.8 1.5– 4.8
–6
x10 °C

20
 Table 1.4. General characteristics of cutting-tool materials
Chapter -1

21
Tool Materials
Chapter -1 Tool Materials

Table 1.5. Operating characteristics of cutting-tool materials

Modes of
General
Tool materials tool wear or Limitations
characteristics
failure
High-speed High toughness, Flank wear, Low hot hardness,
steels resistance to crater wear limited
fracture, wide hardenability, and
range of roughing limited wear
and finishing cuts, resistance
good for
interrupted cuts
Uncoated High hardness over Flank wear, Cannot use at low
carbides a wide range of crater wear speed because of
temperatures, cold welding of
toughness, wear chips and
resistance, versatile microchipping
and wide range of
applications
Coated Improved wear Flank wear, Cannot use at low
carbides resistance over crater wear speed because of
uncoated carbides, cold welding of
better frictional chips and
and thermal microchipping
properties
Ceramics High hardness at Depth-of-cut Low strength, low
elevated line notching, thermo-mechanical
temperatures, high micro- fatigue strength
abrasive wear chipping,
resistance gross fracture
Polycrystalline High hot hardness, Depth-of-cut Low strength, low
cubic boron toughness, cutting- line notching, chemical stability
nitride (cBN) edge strength chipping, at higher
oxidation, temperature
graphitization
Polycrystalline Hardness and Chipping, Low strength, low
diamond toughness, abrasive oxidation, chemical stability
wear resistance graphitization at higher
temperature

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

1.4. CHIP BREAKER

In high-rate production turning, control and disposal of chips are

important for operator safety and protection of the part and tools.
Long curling chips snarl about the workpiece and the machine.
Their sharp edge and high tensile strength make their removal
difficult and hazardous, particularly when the machine is in
operation.

Therefore it is important to introduce a chip breaker to the cutting

tool, which curls and stresses the off-coming chips, and encourages
their fracture into short lengths for easy removal. Short chips are
desired because they handle well in the various chip disposal
systems. Various chip breakers incorporated into the tool holder or
tool are illustrated in Fig.1.5.

Summary of Chip Control Methods:

1. Brazing or screwing a thin carbide plate or clamp on the face of
the tool is used with insert-type tools. As the chip is formed, it hits
the edge of the plate and is curled back to the extent that it breaks
into short pieces, Fig.1.5-a & b.

2. Grinding a small flat to a depth of 0.38 to 0.76 mm on the face of

the tool along the cutting edge is known as a step-type chip breaker,
Fig.1.5-c. It may be either parallel with the edge or at a slight angle.
The width varies according to the feed and depth of cut and may
range from 1.6 to 6.4 mm.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

(a) (b)
Chip breaker
Before
Chip Clamp

After Rake face

Chip
of tool
Tool breaker

Tool
Workpiece

(c) (d) (e)

Chip-reversing notch Rake face

Step type Radius type Positive rake 0 Rake

Fig.1.5. (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that
the chip breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the chip. (b) Chip
breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in cutting
tools acting as chip breakers.

3. Grinding a small radius behind the cutting edge to a depth of

0.25 to 0.50 mm is a popular technique, Fig.1.5-d. The correct
dimension for the land distance and depth depends on the feed and
should be increased slightly as the feed is increased.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

4. Proper selection of tool angles controlling the direction of the

curled chip is another way to cause breakage of the curling chip,
Fig.1.5-e. The chip direction flows the chip into some obstruction
and stresses the chip to its breaking point.

Tests carried out machining cylinder bores with CBN300 chip

breaker showed an increase in tool life of 50% compared with the
equivalent negative rake insert geometry.

1.5. CLAMPING OF TOOL TIPS

1.5.1. Brazing of Tool Tip

Carbides, ceramics, and diamonds are used in the form of inserts or
tips, which are clamped or brazed to a steel shank. Common insert
shapes of carbide inserts are shown in Fig.1.10. Because of the
difference in coefficients of expansion, brazing should be done
carefully, Fig.1.11. Tips are available in different shapes, such as
square, triangular, circular, and various special shapes.

Fig.1.10. Standard shapes for insert carbide-cutting tools:

A, Triangular. B, Diamond. C, Square. D, Diamond. E, Round.
F, Diamond. G, Rectangular. H, Parallelogram.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

Shank

Tip

Braze

Fig.1.11. Brazing tip to shank of a toolholder.

1.5.1. Precautions to Brazing

1. Rake angles are given to the shank at the tip.
2. Brazing should only take place on the underside surface of the tip.
3. For heating the joint the oxy-acetylene may be used.
4. Brazing layer should have sufficient thickness.
5. Brazing material should have low melting point and high ductility.
6. Tool shank should be made of steel σ ≥ 70 Kg/mm2 (steel 70).
7. Tip thickness ≤ ¼ shank thickness
8. Flux was used to improve the fluidity of the brazing metal (Cu) and
to remove oxide films.

Disadvantages of Brazed Tools:

1. Time and cost consumed in grinding grooves or steps on the
tool face, brazing, and tool exchange.
2. Cracking of the tip during brazing or regrinding.
3. Cracks are often formed due to brazing stresses caused by the
nonuniform cooling of the tip.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

4. Cracks reduce the strength of the tip and lead to severe

chipping and failure in operation.
5. Brazing stresses may also lead to scaling of the tip, which
lowers the quality of the tool.
6. Lower tool life.
7. Tool setting is required after each tool change.

1.5.2. Mechanical Clamping of Tool Inserts

The disadvantages of brazed-tip tools have led to use the

mechanical clamping methods, Fig.1.12. It gives good service in
cutting a heavy chip (depth of cut up to 15 mm and a feed up to 1.5
mm/rev.)

Advantages of Mechanical Clamped tools:

1. Rapid exchange of cutting edge, no tool resetting is required.
2. No regrinding is required.

Clamp Shank Chip breaker

screw Screw
125-130o
Clamp Washer
Clamp
Stop
Insert Serrations
Insert Shim

Shank
Seat

Fig.1.12. Mechanically clamping insert to shank of a toolholder.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

1.6. TOOL WEAR

Cutting tools are subjected to many factors that determine the wear
of the tool. Some of the most important factors are:
•High localized stresses at the tip of the tool.
•High temperatures.
•Sliding of chips along the rake face.
•Sliding of tool along cut workpiece.

Wear is a gradual process, and it also depends on:

• Tool and workpiece materials.
• Tool geometry.
• Process parameters.
• Cutting Fluids.

Tool wear and changes in tool geometry classified as:

• Flank wear.
• Crater wear.
• Nose wear.
• Notching.
• Chipping or gross fracture.
• Plastic deformation of the tool tip.

•Flank Wear: Occurs on the relief face of the tool (flank) due to
rubbing of the tool on the machined surface, causing adhesive and
/or abrasive wear, and high temperatures.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

•Crater Wear: It is attributed to the diffusion of atoms across the

tool-chip interface. Diffusion rates increase with temperature; thus,
crater wear increases with increasing temperature.

•Nose Wear: Rounding of a sharp tool due to mechanical and

thermal effects. Affects chip formation and causes rubbing of the
tool over the workpiece increasing the temperature.

•Notching: A groove or notch develops in a region that undergoes

work-hardening. This region develops a thin work-hardened layer
that can originate a groove.

Oxide layers on a workpiece also contribute to notch wear because

these are hard and abrasive. To prevent this, the depth of the cut
must be grater than oxide layer thickness.

•Chipping: Sudden loss of material due to mall fragments of the

cutting edge of the tool breaking away. It occurs typically on brittle
tool materials such as ceramics.

Chipping also occurs in a region where a small crack or defect

already exists. The two main causes of chipping are mechanical
shock and thermal fatigue.

•Plastic Deformation: May occur when the tool undergoes stresses

higher than the yield strength of the tool material.

Figures.1.6 and 1.7 show different types of wear mechanisms in a

cutting tool.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

(a) (b) (c)

Flank Flank wear
face Depth-of-cut line
crater Crater
wear Rake face wear
depth
(KT) Tool
Flank face
Rake
Flank face
wear Depth-of-cut line

Fig.1.7. Flank and crater wear of turning tool.

1.7. TOOL LIFE

Tool life is the time a tool can be reliably be used for cutting before
it must be discarded/repaired. The life of a tool is important in
metal cutting since considerable time is lost whenever a tool is
replaced and reset. Tool life can be measured by the following
ways, (i) actual time to failure, (ii) volume of metal removed to
failure, (iii) number of components to failure, (iv) cutting speed as
V35=130, i.e. if the cutting speed is 130 m/min., then the tool life is
35 min., and (v) flank wear reaches a certain amount (measured as
the length along the surface generated due to abrasion starting from
the tip). Table 1.6 shows the maximum permissible flank wear for
different machining operations using HSS and carbide tools.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

Rake face

Crater wear

Flank

Notch wear
Flank wear
Flank
Edge chipping
Flank wear
Nose wear

Fig.1.6. Schematic of tool wear distribution

Table 1.6 Typical flank wear limits

Tool Machining process

material Turning Face End End Drilling
milling milling- milling-
slotting peripheral
HSS 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.45
Carbide 0.9 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.45

It was found by Frederick W. Taylor that the relationship between

tool life and cutting speed is exponential. It can, therefore, be
plotted on a logarithmic scale so that it takes the form of a straight
line, as shown in Figure 9.18. In fact, this was the basis for
establishing an empirical formula that correlates tool life with
cutting speed, Eq.1.1.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

VTn = c (1.1)
Where
V = cutting velocity in ft./min.
T = tool life in minutes
C = a constant based on the tool and work
n = a constant based on the tool material.

Equation 1.1 is very useful in obtaining the tool life for any cutting
speed if the tool life is known at any other cutting speed.

Fig.1.8 shows tool wear stages during its life. They are: stage I
(running wear), in this region the tool point is starting to dull, stage
II (steady state wear) is a typical tool wear region, and stage III
(rapid, Fatal wear). V1, V2, V3 are the cutting velocities where
V3>V2>V1.

The value of “n” was determined as following:

(i) subject the material/cutting tool combination to different
velocities (keep all other conditions the same), (ii) tool life curve,
Fig.1.8, was determined for the different cutting speeds, (iii) for the
used wear criteria (e.g., w) the tool lives for the different cutting
velocities was determined (TL1, TL2, and TL3).

When the cutting speed is plotted as a function of the tool life on

log-log paper, a straight line results, as shown in Fig.1.9; this is the
tool life curve. The value of “n” can be determined by using the
formula shown on Fig.1.9.

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Chapter -1 Tool Materials

V3
V2

Stage I (Rapid initial wear)

Wear measurements, eg. VB, KT or w
Stage II (Uniform
wear, tool life V1
measured in this

w Slope = Wear

Stage III (Rapid

catastrophic)

TL1 TL2 TL3

Time, t

Fig.1.8. Typical wear curve

Fig.1.9. Tool life versus cutting velocity.

33