SECOND QUARTER

UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS

TEACHER: MRS. PIA LUZ DE SOLA

LECTURE TRANSCRIPT

TOPIC OUTLINE Social Functions according to Merton

Manifest Functions o The consequences of a social
● How Society is Organized process that are sought or
● Forms and Functions of State and Non-state anticipated.
Institution o Things that are put in place
● Functions and Importance of Education in the intentionally to keep society moving
Society forward.
• Social Stratification Latent Functions o The unintended consequences
• Social Inequality from manifest function
• Adaption Dysfunctions o Undesirable consequences for the
operation of society
How Society is Organized CONFLICT THEORY
• a theory that emphasizes the role of coercion, conflict
According to Aristotle:
and power in society and that social inequality will
“Man is by nature a social animal.”
inevitably occur because of differing interests and values
between groups, particularly the competition for scarce
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF SOCIETY resources.
● Social groups are fundamental parts of human life. They
are a multitude of people who see each other often and KARL MARX
think of themselves as part of a group.
• Karl Marx (1818–1883) saw society as being made up of
two classes, the bourgeoisie (capitalist) and the
STRUCTURAL – FUNCTIONAL THEORY
proletariat (workers), who must compete for social,
• Also called functionalism, sees society as a structure
material, and political resources.
with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological
and social needs of the individuals in that society.
Class Conflict Theory
Inequality between two classes under capitalism
HERBERT SPENCER
● Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) saw similarities between
society and the human body. He argued that just as
the various organs of the body work together to keep the BOURGEOISIE: owner of
body functioning, the various parts of society work means of production such as
together to keep society functioning (Spencer 1898). machines & factory.

ÉMILE DURKHEIM
• Émile Durkheim believed that society is a complex
system of interrelated and interdependent parts that work
together to maintain stability (Durkheim 1893), and that
society is held together by shared values, languages, PROLETARIAT: the working
and symbols. class; sells service to
bourgeoisie.
ROBERT K. MERTON
• Robert K. Merton laid out his theory of manifest function
(and latent function and dysfunction too) in his 1949
book Social Theory and Social Structure.
RACIAL CONFLICT
• The race-conflict approach is a sociological perspective
that looks at disparity and tension between people of
different racial and ethnic groups.

GENDER EQUALITY
• Everyone must receive equal treatment
This includes:
➢ Equal pay and benefits for comparable roles
➢ Equal consideration of needs
➢ Equal opportunities for progression and
promotion.

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 CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS VS FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS
CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS He had three steps to his theory.
1. We imagine how we appear to others.
False consciousness is Marx’s 2. We draw conclusions based on the reactions
These are just some of the term for the proletarian’s we get.
structural constrains that inability to see her real 3. We begin to develop an identity. Positive,
prevent workers from joining position within the class Neutral, Negative.
together in what Marx called system, a mis-recognition that
class consciousness, or a is complicated by the control GEORGE HERBERT MEAD
common group identity as that the bourgeoisie often • George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) is considered a
exploited proletarians and exerts over the media outlets founder of symbolic interactionism, though he never
potential revolutionaries. that disseminate and normalize published his work on this subject (LaRossa and Reitzes
information. 1993).

HERBERT BLUMER
• Mead’s student, Herbert Blumer, actually coined the
Class consciousness is False consciousness is a way
term “symbolic interactionism” and outlined these basic
awareness of one's own social of thinking that prevents an
premises:
class and economic rank in the individual from perceiving the
❖ humans interact with things based on meanings
context of larger society true nature of their social or
ascribed to those things
economic situation
❖ the ascribed meaning of things comes from our
interactions with others and society
❖ the meanings of things are interpreted by a
Involves people are who are Involves people who do not
person when dealing with things in specific
well-aware of their social and realize their true social and
circumstances (Blumer 1969)
economic situation in society economic situation in society
ERVING GOFFMAN
Workers understand that they Hold values and beliefs that • He developed a technique called dramaturgical
are being exploited benefit the ruling class, and do analysis. Goffman used theater as an analogy for social
not understand that they are interaction and recognized that people’s interactions
being exploited showed patterns of cultural “scripts.”
• DRAMATURGICAL APPROACH
The focus on the importance of interaction in building a
society led sociologists like Erving Goffman (1922–1982)
MAX WEBER to develop a technique called dramaturgical analysis.
• German sociologist Max Weber agreed with some of • Frontstage- this is the carefully thought-out act
Marx’s main ideas, but also believed that in addition to that you do in social settings just to gain favor.
economic inequalities, there were inequalities of • Backstage- is a much more private area of your
political power and social structure that caused life that not a lot of people know about it. And
conflict. you can sort of kick back and relax, and do
whatever you want.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST THEORY
• Symbolic Interactionist Theory is a micro-level theory that GROUP
focuses on meanings attached to human interaction, • is any collection of people who interact on the basis of
both verbal and non-verbal, and to symbols. shared expectations regarding one another’s behavior
Communication—the exchange of meaning through (Kornblum, 2003).
language and symbols—is believed to be the way in • consists of two or more people who are bound together
which people make sense of their social worlds. in relatively stable patterns of social interaction and who
share a feeling of unity (Hughes and Kroeler, 2009)
Example: PSST!
➢ Some girls, consider it as a form of compliment
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE GROUPS
but to others it is a form of harassment.
➢ Republic Act No. 11313: Safe Spaces Act 1. There must be two or more people.
(Bawal Bastos Law) 2. There must be interaction.
3. The members must be together physically.
CHARLES HORTON COOLEY
• He introduced the looking-glass self (1902) to describe REQUIREMENTS FOR A GROUP
how a person’s self of self grows out of interactions with 1. Motivational base shared by individuals (based on
others. needs, interests, desires, noble activities, insecurities, or
• He is trying to understand how we understand ourselves. problems)
Cooley was a symbolic interactionist, meaning he looked 2. Size of the group
at our individual interactions as a way of trying to 3. Type of group goals
understand meaning in our lives and how we developed 4. The kind of a group cohesion/unity (the capability to
a sense of self. function and interact collectively in the direction of their
goals)
“ I am not what I think I am, I am not what you think
I am; I am what I think you think I am”

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUP
1. A group has identity identifiable by both its members and
outsiders.
2. A group has a social structure in the sense that each part
or member has a position related to other positions.
3. Each member in a group has roles to play.
4. There is mutual reciprocity among members in a group.
GROUP AS DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER COLLECTION OF PEOPLE
LIKE:
1. Aggregate - a simple collection of people who are in the
same place at the same time without interacting with
each other.
2. Category - a simple collection of people who share
distinctive characteristics.
3. Collectivity - Collection of people in a given place and
time
IMPORTANCE OF A GROUP
1. A group is a major source of solidarity and cohesion.
2. A group reinforces and strengthens our integration into
society.
3. A group shares basic survival and problem-solving
techniques to satisfy personal and emotional needs.
4. A group gives meaning and support to an individual.
HOW IS A GROUP FORMED?
• The desire to achieve an objective
• To meet the needs of the individual member
• People are treated alike by others
SOCIAL GROUP
• Can be defined as a collection of people who regularly
interact with one another (shared expectations, sense of
common identity, etc.).
Types of Social Groups:
A. According to the nature of social ties
• Primary
- Personal and intimate relationship;
face to face communication;
permanence duration; a strong sense
of loyalty or “we” feeling; small in size;
informal structure; traditional or non-
rational decision-making.
• Secondary
- Large; impersonal, aloof relationship;
indirect communication; temporary
duration; weak group cohesiveness
based on self-interest; rational
decision-making; formal structure.
B. According to reference/identification
• In-Groups
- Group with which the individual
identifies and which gives him sense of
belonging, solidarity, camaraderie,
esprit de corps, and a protective
attitude toward the other members.
• Out-Groups
- Viewed as outsiders by the in-group;
Any member of the in-group has
insufficient contact with the members
of the out-group
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• Reference Groups
- Group that is significant to us as
models even though we ourselves
may not be a part of the group. Is one
which an individual does not only have
a high regard for but one after which
he or she patterns his/her life. Its
central aspect is self-identification
rather than actual membership.
CONSEQUENCES OF GROUP BOUNDARIES
a. people gain a clearer sense of their diversity
b. ethnocentrism may grow
c. serious personal and social problems may arise
KINSHIP
• A social institution that refers to relations formed
between members of society.
• Sociologists define kinship as the different forms of
socially accepted relations among people develop
through blood or consanguineal relationships, marriage
or affinal relationships, adoptions, and other culturally
accepted rituals
TYPES OF KINSHIP
• Kinship by Blood
• Kinship by Marriage
• Kinship by Rituals
KINSHIP BY BLOOD
• Consanguineal kinship or kinship based on blood is
considered as the most basic and general form of
relations.
• The relationship is achieved by birth or blood affinity.
Example:
Relationships existing between:
• Parents and their children
• Between siblings
• Between nieces/nephews and aunt/uncles
❖ Lineage – refers to the line where one’s descent is
traced. Can be traced by studying either the
person’s paternal or maternal line or both.
❖ Descent – the tracking of kinship relationships
through parentage.
Unilineal descent system
- Identified by tracing the affiliation of a
person through descent of only one sex,
the female or the male, the mother or the
father in the ancestry line.
- Recognizes descent through only one
parent, either the father (patrilineal) or
the mother (matrilineal).
- Most common form of descent (60
percent of the world's cultures)
▪ Most associated with pastoralism,
horticulture, and agricultural
modes of production
Bilateral descent system
- Traces the affiliation of a person from
both the female and the male as
recognition of the equal worth and value
of both sexes in identifying the ancestry
line.
- A child is recognized as being related by
descent to both parents
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 ▪ Most associated with foraging and Polygamy
industrialism/informatics modes - One individual having multiple spouses at the
of production. same time.
o Patrilineal: tracing descent through the men only o Polygyny - marriage of one man to 2 or
o Matrilineal: tracing descent through women only more women at the same time.
o Bilateral: tracing descent through both men and o Polyandry - marriage of a woman to 2 or
women more men at the same time.
Group Marriage (co-marriage) -marriage in which several men
KINSHIP BY BLOOD and women have sexual access to one another.
• Marriage
- An important element of the family; Cultural ❖ Patterns in Marriage
mechanism that ensure its continuity; An institution Exogamy
consisting of a cluster of mores and folkways, of - marriage outside of a designated group
attitudes, and ideals of social definitions and legal Some hypotheses:
restrictions. • prevent incest
• modern genetics
• Bowman • extend territory
- People marry for combined reasons: love, economic Endogamy
and emotional security, the parents’ desires, escape - marriage within a particular group work to
from solitude or forlorn home situation, money, maintain cultural identity.
companionship, protection, adventure, or common
interests. • Referred Marriage
- Marriage makes sexual intercourse legitimate. - Individual find their possible husband or wife through
- It sanctions parenthood and provides a stable matchmakers which could be their friends or
background for rearing of children. relatives.

• Family Code of the Philippines • Fixed or Arranged Marriages

- August 3, 1988 - In this kind of marriage, the man or woman’s
- Special contract of permanent union between a man parents, community leaders, religious officials or
and a woman entered into in accordance with law for leaders determine the marital partner of the
the establishment of conjugal and family life. individual. (to ensure that the young man and
- Foundation of the family, an inviolable social woman will marry the most appropriate person
institution. according to the dictates and rules set by family,
community, or religious group).
❖ 2 Aspects of Marriage: Family Code
1. As a contract ❖ Types of Arranged Marriages
✓ It applies to a man and a woman only 1. Child Marriage – it happens when parents arranged
✓ It is permanent, compared to other ordinary for the marriage of their child long before the
contracts. marriage takes place. The marriage will be
✓ The law also prescribes a penal and civil consummated in the future.
sanctions like criminal action, for adultery or 2. Exchange Marriage – in this form of marriage, there
concubinage, legal separation or action for is a reciprocal exchange of spouse between two
support. countries, tribes, or groups.
2. As a status 3. Diplomatic Marriage – this form of marriage occurs
✓ Once the contract of marriage is legal, the when an arranged marriage has been established
status of being married is created between between two royal or political families in order to
parties. forge political or diplomatic alliances.
4. Modern arranged marriage – in this form of
marriage, the child’s parents, with consent of the
REQUIREMENTS child, choose from several possible mates. The
FORMAL ESSENTIAL parents organized a meeting with potential partner
• Authority of the • Legal capacity of the of their child. The two children will be given a short
Solemnizing Officer. contracting parties time to get to know each other. In the process of
who choosing the partner, the parents would usually
must be a male and have a say in their child’s choice.
female.
• 18 years old and KINSHIP BY RITUALS
above • Compadrazgo
• Consent freely given - Literally translated as as “godparenthood”, is a
in the presence of a ritualized form of forging c0-parenthood or family
solemnizing officer - Originated in the medieval Catholic church in
Europe.
- Can be done through the performance of Catholic
❖ FORMS OF MARRIAGE rituals like baptism, confirmation and marriage.
Monogamy - Relationship between the child’s biological parents,
- Allows or permits a man to take only one their children, and persons close to the parents but
spouse at a time. not related by blood become a family.
- It has advantage and emotional tensions. - Spiritual parents of the child (co-parents).

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 - Compadre or Kumpare & Kumare
- Inaanak
- Ninong/Ninang
- Usually present in Latin America and Catholic
countries
• The Family
- It is the basic unit of Philippine society and the
educational system begins to learn the ABC.
- The basic agent of socialization because it is here
where the individual develops values, behavior and
ways of life through interaction with members of the
family.
- Considered as the basic unit of social organization.
- Made up of a group of individuals who are linked
together by marriage, blood relations, or adoption.
- Constitute a single household that interrelates with
each other and performs the social roles of a
husband, wife, mother, father, brother, and sister.
• Characteristics of the Filipino Family
- Closely knit and has strong family ties.
- Usually extended one and therefore big.
• Functions of Family
- Reproduction of the race and rearing the young
- Cultural transmission or enculturation
- Socialization of the child
- Provides affection and a sense of security
- Provides social status
• Kinds of Family
- Structure
- Term of marriage
- Residential pattern
- Authority
❖ According to Authority:
Patriarchal
- When the father is considered the head and
plays a dominant role in the family.
Matriarchal
- When the mother is considered the head and
makes the major decisions in the family.
Equalitarian
- When both the father and mother share in
making decisions and are equal in authority
• The Family and the Household (Families vs.
Household)
- Two related concepts.
- UN defines family within a household as “those
members of a house who are related, to a specified
degree, though blood, adoption, or marriage.
- Household, on the other hand, can either be a one-
person household or a multi-person household
• One-person household
- refers to an arrangement in which one person
makes provision for his or her own food or other
essentials for living without combining with any other
person to form part of a multi-person household.
GOVERNMENT
• A multi-person household
- refers to a group of two or more persons living
together who make common provision for food or
other essentials.
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How Society is Organized
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
❖ Band
❖ Tribe
❖ Chiefdom
❖ State
1. BAND
o Small groups of people: dozen or more
o Egalitarian
o Kin-related, households
o Least complicated - Nomadic societies
2. TRIBE
o Small communities: hundreds or more
o Alliances between villages - many purposes
o Economy: crop cultivation, or herding
o Leadership: may have "Big Man”
3. CHIEFDOM
o Many people, many villages
o Chief inherits position - for life
o Chief's unites people
o Unstable system - lesser chiefs can take power by
coercion or even by killing
4. STATE
o Tens of 1,000' s to millions of people
o Most complex political organization
o Centralized government, highly bureaucratic
o States may use force: police, military, laws, and judiciary
to keep order
STATE
● A state is an organized political community acting under
a government and united by common set of laws.
● It uses absolute power in directing the path of a society.
● Dominant actors in the international arena at the time of
the initial development of the modern human rights
system.
● Uses complete political coerciveness, which may come
in the form of armed forces personnel, stricter laws, and
rigid government policies in order to attain its societal
goals and objectives.
● States differ in sovereignty, governance, geography, and
interests
● Market exchange
➢ the primary form of economic subsistence of a
state wherein standardized currencies are being
used to exchange commodities.
● The State intends to be a strong actor in the performance
of the three important political functions. The state, in
full form,
1. Maintains control over violence in its domain
2. Allocates resources and rewards at its
discretion, and
3. Stands as the major focus of identity for the
large majority of the people under its authority.
● A government is the particular group of people that
controls the state at a given time. In other words,
governments are the means through which the state
power us employed like applying the rule of law.
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NATION
● Nation refers to a large geographical area and the
people therein who perceives themselves as having a
common identity. The state is a political geopolitical
entity; the nation is a cultural or ethnic entity.
ELEMENTS OF STATES
❖ Population
❖ Territory
❖ Government
❖ Sovereignty
POPULATION
o It is the people who make the state. Population is
essential for the state. Without population there can be
no State.
o As generally used in Constitutional Law, it refers to the
entire body of those citizens of a state or nation who are
vested with political power for political purposes.
o They must be numerous enough to be self- sufficient and
to defend themselves and small enough to be easily
administered
TERRITORY
o Includes land, water, and air space or any area
controlled by the country, leader, or army
o There can be no state without a fixed territory. People
need territory to live and organize themselves socially
and politically.
o A fixed area or surface of the earth where the
inhabitants of a State live and where they maintain a
government of their own
o Must neither be too big as to be difficult to administer and
defend nor too small to as to be unable to provide for the
needs of the population.
Domains of Territory
Terrestrial Domain o Refers to the area of the land which
the state occupies.
Fluvial or Maritime o Refers to the external and internal
Domain waters.
Aerial Domain o Refers to the air space above the
land and the waters.
GOVERNMENT
o The organization or machinery or agency of the State
which makes, implements, enforces, and adjudicates
the laws of the state
o As an element of the State, a government is defined as
“that institution or aggregate of institutions by which an
independent society makes and carries out those rules
of action which are necessary to enable men to live in a
social state.
SOVEREIGNTY
o It is the most exclusive elements of State. It is the basis
which the State regulates all aspects of the life of the
people living in its territory.
o Political concept that refers to dominant power or
supreme authority. Without sovereignty, no state can
exist.
FORMS OF STATES
❖ Authoritarian Government
❖ Oligarchic Government
❖ Democratic Government
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AUTHORITARIAN GOVERNMENT
o Synonymous with a dictatorial government that holds
power and makes policies without the consent of the
people that it rules. The power of government is not
limited by law.
Example:
❖ Monarchy - a hereditary system of government
in which only one person (e.g. a king or a
queen) rules over a sovereign state or region.
❖ Totalitarianism - considered an extreme form
of authoritarianism, in which government
controls almost all aspects of the public and
private lives of the people.
OLIGARCHIC GOVERNMENT
o A form of government in which power effectively rests
with a small-elite segment of society distinguished by
royalty, wealth, family, military, or religious hegemony.
An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several
powerful people who rule.
Example:
❖ Theocracy - a government by divine guidance
or by official who are regarded as divinely
guided. Leaders are members of the clergy and
the state’s legal system is based on religious
law.
DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT
o A form of government in which the right to govern is held
by the majority of citizens within a country or a state.
ROLES OF THE STATES
1. State provides security against external aggressions and
war.
2. State ensures security against internal disturbances
disorders and crimes.
3. State legally grants and guarantees the rights of the
people.
4. The state issues and regulates currency and coinage.
5. State undertakes steps for the creation of necessary
conditions for the socio-economic-politico-cultural
development of the people.
6. State grants citizenship and protects their interests and
rights.
7. State conducts foreign relations, foreign trade and
economic relations.
8. State secures the goals of national interest in
international relations
POLITICAL LEGITIMACY AND AUTHORITY
• Authority is the right to command. It is more than
power. Authority is guaranteed by legitimacy in a formal
manner. What makes authority binding and worthy of
obedience is its legitimacy. Legitimacy gives form to
authority. Legitimacy is a “value whereby something or
someone is recognized and accepted as right and
proper. For authority to be binding and stable, it must be
legitimate.
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 Domains of Territory
NON STATE INSTITUTIONS
● People and/ or organizations that participate in
international affairs and relations but are not affiliated
with any state or nation.
● Establishment not owned and not controlled by the
government.
❖ Bank
❖ Corporations
❖ Cooperatives
❖ Labor Unions
❖ TAGs
❖ Development Agencies
BANK
● Bank is a financial institution licensed to provide several
financial services to different types of customers. Banks
are in operation mainly for their deposits and lending
functions.
Major Forms of Banks and their Description:
❖ Commercial Banks
o Financial deposits with security and
convenience could be in the form of credit
cards, debit cards, and checks.
o Provide business, individual, and personal
loans, enabling commercial banks to earn
interest.
o Serve as payment agents within and
outside the country through wire transfers.
o Subjected to more regulations
❖ Investment Banks
o Financial intermediaries that perform a
variety of services for businesses and
some government.
o Issues securities to the investing public.
o Make markets, facilities, mergers, and
other corporate reorganizations.
CORPORATION
• A form of business operation that declares the business
as a separate entity guided by a group of officers known
as the Board of Directors. They were created by
individuals, stockholders, or shareholders, with the
purpose of operating for profit.
• They have all the legal rights of an individual, except for
the right to vote and certain limitations. They are given
the right to exist by the state that issues their charter.
Common Types of Corporation:
❖ Profit Entities
o are formed to generate revenues and
provide a return to their shareholders,
according to their percentage of ownership
in the corporation.
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Examples: HBO in partnership with
International Rescue Committee, Ford
Motors and Lynda.com.
❖ Non-Profit Entities
o operate under the category of charitable
organizations, which are dedicated to a
particular social cause such as
educational, religious, scientific, or
research purposes.
Examples: Human Rights Campaign and
Greenpeace.
Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
• A business organization that extends
ownership, management, production, and
sales activities into several or more countries.
MNCs are a boon to the economic growth and
development of the states.
The Good and Bad Effects of MNCs
COOPERATIVE
• People-centers enterprises that are owned, controlled
and run by and for their members to realize their common
economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations.
Businesses are governed on the principle of one
member, one vote.
Types of Cooperative:
a. The people working there (worker
cooperatives);
b. The people buying the co-op ’ s goods or
services (consumer cooperatives)
c. The people collaborating to process and market
their products (producer cooperatives); and
d. Groups uniting to enhance their purchasing
power (purchasing cooperatives)
Cooperatives play a critical role in building community
wealth for several key reasons:
a. They often provide quality goods and services to areas
that have been shunned by traditional businesses
because they are deemed less profitable.
b. They typically invest in local communities.
c. Since most cooperative members are local residents,
business profits remain and circulate in the community.
d. Cooperative membership builds social networks and
strengthens social cohesion which are essential
elements of a strong, healthy communities by connecting
diverse community residents.
e. Purchasing cooperatives help small, local businesses
remain competitive within markets dominated by large,
national retailers.
f. Worker cooperatives create quality, empowering jobs for
community members.
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TRADE/ LABOR UNION
• Trade Unions are organizations formed by workers from
related fields that work for common interest of its
members. They help workers in issues like fairness of
pay, good working environment, hours of work and
benefits.
Functions of Trade Unions:
1. Advocating for fairness and equality for workers ’
compensation.
2. Securing better working conditions for workers.
3. Trade Unions will organize strikes and demonstrations on
behalf of worker demands.
4. Fight for social welfare for workers.
5. Promote and advocate for education and proper training for
workers.
6. Advocate and fight the government for legislative
protections of the workers
7. Promote and advocate for organizational growth and
stability.
8. Trade Unions act as representatives of workers in national
and International forums.
9. Involved in collective bargaining agreements and disputes
with management to settle any conditions of employment.
10. Advising management on correct personnel policies and
procedures.
11. Involved in collective and personal collective grievances
between management and workers
TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY GROUPS (TAGs)
• Plays an increasingly important role in international and
regional politics and have contributed to changing
policies of multilateral organizations and states.
• They are particularly visible in contentious areas as
human rights, environmental issues, international peace,
and women's rights.
DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES
• Development Agencies have been established to
develop the cooperation between the public sector,
private sector, and civil society. These are
organizations with specific aims and goals.
• The common denominator among these organizations is
the term development.
• These agencies concentrate on the growth, progression,
and advancement of specific concerns, which can be
infrastructure or social institutions.
Types of Development Agencies:
❖ International Organization
o An institution with membership drawn from
two or more countries. Its activities
transcend national boundaries as it
facilitates cooperation among its members
in the performance of one or more tasks.
o Public organization
➢ an international government
organization (IGO) with states as
its members.
➢ has a membership of individuals
or groups and is an international
nongovernment organization
(INGO) that originates for reasons
other than politics. INGOs may
lobby or work regularly with the
government and IGOs.
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❖ Non – Government Organization
o A non-profit group that functions
independently of any government.
o It serves social or political goals such as
humanitarian and environmental
causes.
o Most NGOs aim to promote the practice of
democracy among societies and social
change through their initiatives and
organizational methods.
o Many NGOs have targeted their efforts
toward population groups that tend to be
underserved by governmental programs
INTERRELATIONSHIP OF GOVERNMENT AND NON-STATE
INSTITUTION
• Government rules society. This reflects how powerful
government institutions can be.
If non-state institutions interfere with the governing body, two
possible things can happen:
1. Integration between these two institutions may take
place to achieve precise solutions for development.
2. Conflict and tension may also arise because one could
exceed the other in terms of societal control and
influences. (Penninx, 2013)
Education
DEFINITION OF EDUCATION
Education is the social institution through
which society provides its members with
important knowledge, including basic facts,
job skills, and cultural norms and values
(John J.Macionis, 2012).
o It is systematic training of the moral and intellectual
faculties of the mind.
o Education is both the act of teaching knowledge to
others and the act of receiving knowledge from
someone else. Education also refers to the knowledge
received through schooling or instruction and to the
institution of teaching.
o The act of process of imparting or acquiring general
knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and
judgement, and generally of preparing oneself or
others intellectually for mature
• Education in the Philippines is managed and regulatedby
the Department of Education, commonly referred toas
the DepEd.
• It controls the Philippine educational system, including
the creation and implementation of the curriculum and
the utilization of funds allotted by the national
government. It also manages the construction of
schools, acquisition of books and other school materials,
and the recruitment of teachers and staff.
• Before the Philippines attained independence in 1946,
the country’s education system was patterned after the
educational systems of Spain and the United States.
• Spanish and the United States brought educational
practices, which reflected their culture and ideologies.
8

o During the Spanish time, the function of educationwas
inculcated moral and religious values. Religion was the
core curriculum, and the schools were usedto spread
Christianity.
his or her higher environment.
• Basically, we learn on a day-to-day basis from life itself
from the experiences you gain from your observations.
Managing emotion is a part of informal education. (Self-
teaching, adapting)

o It mainly served the upper classes; thus, education SPECIAL EDUCATION

symbolized “social standing and prestige.” The • refers to the education of persons who are physically,
educated class consisted mostly of ilustrados. mentally, emotionally, socially, or culturally different
o When the Americans came, education was focused on from so-called “normal” individuals, such that they
the development of new social patterns that would require modification of school practices to develop their
prepare the nation for a self-governing democracy. potential.
o Public institution was institutionalized to give every • Special education provides distinct services, curricula,
person the education needed to participate in a self- and instructional materials geared to pupils or students
governing democracy. who are significantly higher or lower than the average or
norm. SPED aims to develop the maximums potential of
the child with the special needs to enable him/her to
TYPES OF EDUCATION become self- reliant and take advantage of the
opportunities for afull and happy life.
1. FORMAL EDUCATION
2. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN SOCIETY
3. INFORMAL EDUCATION
4. SPECIAL EDUCATION Herbert Spencer, British Sociologist, explains
functions are important to be performed as
FORMAL EDUCATION they make the societywhole. If each function
is working well, society attains progress. He
• This refers to the hierarchically structured,
chronologically graded educational system from lays down the functions of education as follows:
primary school to the university, including programs and
institutions for full time technical and vocational training. PRODUCTIVE CITIZENRY
• Education systems enable citizens to be productive
Domains of Territory members of a society, as they are equipped with
Terrestrial Domain o Refers to the area of the land which knowledge and skills that could contribute to the
the state occupies. development of their society’s systems and institutions.
Fluvial or Maritime o Refers to the external and internal
Domain waters. SELF-ACTUALIZATION
Aerial Domain o Refers to the air space above the
land and the waters. • Education develops one’s
sense of self. According to
Abraham Maslow, self-
NON-FORMAL EDUCATION actualization is the
• It refers to any organized educational activity outside highest form of human
the established formal system to provide selected need. It was defined as “to
types of learning to a segment of thepopulation. become more and more
what one is, to become
• As a concept, non-formal
everything that one is
education emerged in response capable of becoming.”
to the world crisis in education
identified by Philip H. Coombs
in 1967, who argued that the
formal education system has
failed to address the changing
dynamics of the environment
and the societies. (music, arts)
• Non-formal education enables a student to learn skills
and knowledge through structured learning experiences.
Example: Vocational Education. ALS, NO AGE LIMIT.
ALTERNATIVE LEARNING SYSTEM.

INFORMAL EDUCATION
• It is a lifelong process whereby every individual
acquires from daily experiences, attitudes, values, facts,
skills, and knowledge or motor skill from resources in

PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR 9

 Physiological needs
- biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air,
food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
(If these needs are not satisfied the human body
cannot function optimally.)
Safety needs
– protection from elements, security, order, law,
stability, freedom from fear.
Love and belongingness needs
- the need for interpersonal relationships motivates
behaviour; you are born to love and to be loved
(Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and
acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love.
Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
Esteem needs
classified into two categories:
(i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement,
mastery, and independence) and
(ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others.
• Education helps in creation of a better society
• Back bone of a society
• Encourage innovation and creativity
• Can create better human beings give ability to
read and write
• Understanding the responsibilities.
• Educated person new technique strategies.
• Creative tayo, why educations are the most
powerful weapon which we can use to change
the perspective of the world and educated
person knows how to deal with the different
types of problem. Through right education a
person can develop good moral values and help
us to become a good human being.
• A person that doesn’t know how to read and
write is just like a building without a foundation.
Pre-school. Communication literate, illiterate.
Evolves lahat, signages

PRIMARY EDUCATION AS A HUMAN RIGHT

Self-actualization needs -
➢ Primary education is essential in the early stages of
realizing personal potential,
human life.
self-fulfillment, seeking
➢ Humans need education to enable them to adapt to the
personal growth and peak
dictates of their society.
experiences. ➢ The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural
The late president Ramon Organization (UNESCO) declare that education is a
Magsaysay aptly observed fundamental human right and essential for the exercise
that “education is the greatest of all other human rights.
equalizer of opportunities” for ➢ It promotes individual freedom and empowerment and
everybody. yields important development benefits.

o Education has to be free and compulsory at least in the

The primary function of education is the socialization of
the new members of the society. Other most important
objectives of education are:
1. Teaching basic skills, such as reading, writing, and
arithmetic.
2. Helping children develop skills in abstracting
thinking and problem solving.
3. Transmitting the cultural heritage, from which
individual may develop an appreciation of their
society.
4. Communicating to children the basic value of the
society.
5. Teaching the special aspects of the culture, such as
art, music, literature, drama, science, technology,
andsports.
6. Teaching vocational skills that help individuals enter
the job market.
7. Training citizens for life within the political system of
their society.
8. Preparing children to live long and form meaningful
relationship with other human beings.
primary level, whereas higher education should be
made available on the basis of merit.
o Normative instruments of the United Nations and
UNESCO lay down international legal obligations for
the right to education. These instruments promote and
develop the right of every person to enjoy access to
education of good quality, without discrimination or
exclusion.
o Education is a powerful tool by which economically
and socially marginalized adults and children can lift
themselves out of poverty and participate fully as
citizens.
o Nelson Mandela has rightly said that 'Education is the
most powerful weapon which you can use to change
the world.' Yes, education is the key to eliminate all
problems. If you want to grow and be successful, then
you need to be educated!
o The issue on education taps economical aspect of the
society, as classism stands as a barrier to the social
development of humans. This also digs on the impact
of social inequality, as a systematic oppression lies
especially on the lower class. They experience
discrepancies in educational opportunities due to
financial problems.

PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR 10

 Social Stratification According to Max Weber, most societies would favor those with
power, prestige, status, wealth or class.
NATURE OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
According to Weber’s Component Theory on Social Stratification,
• It refers to what sociologists call it as “institutionalized these three would determine a person’s standing in his/her
inequality” of individual or “social injustice” due to social community.
categories (Ariola, 2012).
• the way people are Ranked and ordered in society (Cole, 1. Power - refers to the ability to influence other people. It
2019). is getting what they want despite the unwillingness of
➢ Sociologists use the term social stratification to others to give in to their desires.
describe the system of social standing. 2. Prestige - refers to the person’s position in the society.
➢ It is a system whereby people rank and evaluate This refers to having a certain status that enables
each other as superior or inferior and, on the basis someone to have resources or opportunities.
of such evaluation, unequally reward one another 3. Wealth - refers to the amount of resources that a
with wealth, authority, power, and prestige. (Hebding person has (Arcinas, 2016).
& Glick, 1992)
➢ It is the hierarchical arrangement and establishment INDICATORS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
of social categories that evolve into a social group ACCORDING TO MARIANO ARIOLA
together with statuses and their corresponding roles. Source of Income o These are the inherited wealth,
(Panopio el al., 1994) earned wealth, profits,
professional fees, salaries,
wages, private relief, among
Social stratification o is an inherent character of all others.
societies.
o It is historical as we find it in all Wealth is everything that is
societies, ancient and modern owned by a person.
o refers to the ranking of people in a
society. Inherited wealth is acquired
o people cannot change their ranks since birth and without effort.
while those in open social
stratification, Acquired wealth is achieved
people can change their ranks. through ones effort either by
o The separation of people into social talent, income or by marriage.
categories and these categories are Occupation o What people do for a living
ranked as higer or lower. determines, to a large extent,
Social differentiation o on the basis of high and low is the the social position of the person.
historical heritage of all societies. o Occupation may be classified
o refers to how people can be into professionals, non-
distinguished from one another. professionals (clerks, drivers,
o People in a group may differ in skin etc), proprietors of small
color, hair color, race, mental and business, skilled workers, semi
physical ability skilled workers, and unskilled
workers.
Education o Educational attainment of a
Indicators of Social Stratification person may be categorized as
masteral or doctoral degree
STATUS holder, college graduate, high
• The individual’s position in the social structure school graduate, elementary
• describes the position a person occupies in a particular school drop-out
setting. Types of House o Dwellings can be categorized as
• Statuses - The higher or lower positions that Dwellings permanent (concrete and
come about through social stratifications excellent in appearance), semi-
permanent (semi-concrete and
Achieved statuses very good in appearance and
➢ are earned by the individual because of his or construction), temporary (wood
her talent, skills, occupation and perseverance and fair in appearance and
construction), and poorly
Ascribed statuses constructed house (houses
➢ are assigned or given by the society or group on found in squatter areas, or those
the basis of some fixed category, without regard considered below-the-bridge
to a person’s abilities or performance. houses).
➢ you have no control over these characteristics Location of o Power, prestige and wealth are
and no opportunity or chance to choose your Residence also attached to the location of
family, your sex, and your race. residence. squatter area,
mountainous-rugged area, in
Prestige subdivision and non-subdivision
• refers to the evaluation of status. You have area.
prestige according to your status.

PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR 11

 Kinship or Family o When a person belongs to a rich
and upper class family. Children
of sultans and datus are highly
regarded as rich.
o If a person is from a family
whose house is situated in the
squatter’s area, that person is
regarded as poor or belonging
to lower class status.
Types of Social Stratification and their
Characteristics
Sociologists distinguish between two types of systems of
stratification – open system and closed system. For the
anthropologists, they include ethnic system as another type of
social stratification.
OPEN SYSTEM
• The class structure. encourages people to strive and
achieve something
• people have similar opportunities, similar lifestyles,
attitudes, behavior and possibly similar socio-economic
positions
• based on achievement, allows movement and interaction
between layers and classes
CATEGORIES of open system
UPPER CLASS
The people have great wealth and sources of income.
• They constitute the elite wealthy group in the
society
• They have high reputation in terms of power
and prestige. They live in exclusive residential
area.
MIDDLE CLASS
• The people may belong to the upper- middle
class (highly educated, business and
professional) or lower-middle (managers,
teachers.
• highly educated business and professional
people with high incomes, such as doctors,
lawyers, stockbrokers, and CEOs or to the
lower-middle class often made up of people with
lower incomes, such as managers, small
business owners, teachers, and secretaries.
• live in comfortable homes, own properties, have
some money savings, and active in community
activities. People in the lower-middle class have
not achieved the same lifestyle of the upper –
middle class but somehow have modest income
and live in simple life.
LOWER CLASS
• typified by poverty, homelessness & movement of people from the poor
unemployment
• The people belong to the bottom of socio-
economic ladder.
• (upper-lower /lower-lower) people are
considered as the working class or laborers.
• The people in the lower-lower class are
unemployed, or no source of income except by
begging or dependent from private and
government relief. Many of them live in squatter
areas.
PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR
CLOSED SYSTEM
• accommodates little change in social position. They do
not allow people to shift levels and do not permit social
relationships between levels.
CATEGORIES of closed system
CASTE SYSTEM
• people can do little or nothing to change their
social standing.
• People are born and die in their caste.
• minimal and governed by a set of rules
especially those who belong to the lower
degree.
ESTATE SYSTEM
• It is somewhat a closed system in which the
person’s social standing is based on ownership
of land, birth, or military strength. Individuals
who were born into one of the estates remained
there throughout life but in extreme cases there
is social mobility, that is people could change
their status.
ETHNIC SYSTEM
• People interact more freely with those people belonging
to the same ethnic category.
• Immigrants usually belong to a lower status than the
inhabitants based on achievement, allows movement
and interaction between layers and classes.
SOCIAL MOBILITY
• refers to the movement within the social structure, from
one social position to another.
• means a change in social status.
KINDS OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
In a democratic state like the Philippines, a person can
improve his social status but the degree of mobility varies. In an
open system, every individual is provided equal opportunities to
compete for the role and status derived regardless of gender, race,
religion, family background and political inclination. There are
three (3) types of social mobility: social mobility, geographical
mobility, and role mobility.
Social Mobility • refers to the movement upward or
downward among the social
positions in any given social
stratification. It may be upward
(vertical) mobility and downward
(horizontal) mobility. Vertical mobility
refers to the movement of people of
groups from one status to another. It
involves change in class, occupation
or power. For example, the
class to the middle class. Horizontal
mobility is a change in position
without the change in status. It
indicates a change in position, within
the rage of the status. A change in
status may come about through
one’s occupation, marrying into a
certain family and others. For
example, an engineer working in a
factory may resign from his job and
join another factory.
12
 Geographical Mobility • is otherwise known as physical • results from a society organized by hierarchies of class,
mobility. It may be a voluntary race, and gender that unequally distributes access to
movement of people from one resources and rights
geographical area to another due to • can manifest in a variety of ways, like income and wealth
change in residence, communiting inequality, unequal access to education and cultural
fro home to office, making business resources, and differential treatment by the police and
trips, and voluntary migration from judicial system, among others.
one country to another. It may be
also a forced migration which include THE FOLLOWING ARE SOME OF THE SOCIAL INEQUALITIES
forced relocation or residence, AND THE PROGRAMS THAT THE GOVERNMENT IS
eviction, dispossession of unwanted UNDERTAKING TO ADDRESS THESE INEQUALITIES.
people, and transportation of slaves.
Role Mobility • is the individual’s shifting from role to 1. Inequality in the access to social, political, and symbolic
role. Every member of a society has capital
roles to play. Different situations call Social Capital
for enactment of various roles. For • the ability of a collective to act together to
example, the father is the bread pursue a common goal.
earner of the family but may be a • the connection of individuals within the society.
teacher in school, or the leader at • Example: social status (rich people have
home or a follower in the school or preferential treatment than that of poor people)
office. A daughter may be Political Capital
submissive at home but very active • the trust, good will, and influence possessed by
and active as a campus student a political actor, such as politician, to mobilize
leader. A teacher may have varied support toward a preferred policy outcome.
roles such as being a mother, a wife, • Example: governor will be given a preferential
a guidance counselor, a community treatment over those with lower have no civic
leader and many more (Ariola, equality. Moreover, political actors coming from
2012). political families had given preferential
treatment to enter politics than those who are
not.
STRUCTURAL – FUNCTIONALISM Symbolic Capital
• Stratification is necessary to induce people with special • the resources that one possesses which is a
intelligence, knowledge, and skills to enter the most function of honor, prestige or recognition, or any
important occupations. For this reason, stratification is other traits that one values within a culture.
necessary and inevitable. • Example: rich people had greater opportunities
• Examines how society’s parts operate to enter into politics or in any other aspects
• The theory posits that social stratification represents the because of their level in the society.
inherently unequal value of different work.
GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS ADDRESSING THESE
CONFLICT INEQUALITIES ARE:
• Stratification results from lack of opportunity and from
discrimination and prejudice against the poor, women, ❖ Conditional Cash Transfer Program
and people of color. It is neither necessary nor inevitable. o locally known as Pantawid Pamilya Pilipino Program,
• Focuses on the creation and reproduction of inequality. or 4Ps
• Conflict theorists are deeply critical of social stratification, o provides conditional cash grants to the poorest of the
asserting that it benefits only some people, not all of poor in the Philippines.
society. ❖ Agrarian reform in the Philippines
o seeks to solve the centuries-old problem of
SYMBOLIC - INTERACTIONISM landlessness in rural areas.
o key national goals: the promotion of equity and social
• Stratification affects people’s beliefs, lifestyles, daily
justice, food security and poverty alleviation in the
interaction, and conceptions of themselves.
countryside.
• Strives to explain how people’s social standing affects ❖ SK Reform Act of 2015
their everyday interactions. o has the provisions that prohibits political dynasty.
• Notes that people’s appearance reflects their perceived o prohibits any person to run in any Sanggunian
social standing. Kabataan Office either elected or appointed if it has a
relative up to second degree in the barangay level to
Social Inequality governorship.
❖ Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act
SOCIAL INEQUALITY o a law that institutionalizes free tuition and exemption
• the state of unequal distribution of valued goods and from other fees in state universities and colleges
opportunities. (SUCs), local universities and colleges (LUCs) in the
• the difference in the distribution of social desirables such Philippines
as wealth, power, and prestige o foresees subsidies also for private higher education
• the unequal opportunities of individuals based on their institutions
social class or status.
• mostly inspired by Karl Marx's analysis of the rise of
industrialization.

PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR 13


2. Minority Groups
• groups composed of less-dominant classifications in
• society that experience disproportionately lower
opportunities than their dominant counterparts.
Relevant issues:
❖ Gender Inequality
❖ Ethnic Minorities
❖ Other Minorities
1. GENDER INEQUALITY
• In some countries women are paid relatively lower
than men due to their sexuality and biological
differences.
• The LGBT community has always been treated
indifferently and discriminatively because they do
not fall within a biologically defined gender group.
PROGRAMS
❖ The Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive
Development (PPGD)
o rests on a vision of development that is equitable,
sustainable, free from violence, respectful of human
rights, supportive of self-determination and the
actualization of human potentials, and participatory
and empowering
o places people at the center and aims to make
development work for all groups.
❖ The Magna Carta of Women (MCW)
o a comprehensive women's human rights law that
seeks to eliminate discrimination through the
recognition, protection, fulfillment, and promotion of
the rights of Filipino women, especially those
belonging in the marginalized sectors of the society
o conveys a framework of rights for women based
directly on international law
Salient Features:
➢ Increasing the number of women in third level
positions in government to achieve a fifty-fifty
(50-50) gender balance within the next five
years while the composition of women in all
levels of development planning and program
implementation will be at least 40 percent;
➢ Leave benefits of two (2) months with full pay
based on gross monthly compensation for
women employees who undergo surgery
caused by gynecological disorders
➢ Non-discrimination in employment in the field
of military, police and other similar services
that include according the same promotional
privileges and opportunities as their men
counterpart, including pay increases,
additional benefits, and awards, based on
competency and quality of performance.
➢ Provision for equal access and elimination of
discrimination in education, scholarships,
and training
➢ Non-discriminatory and non-derogatory
portrayal of women in media and film to raise
the consciousness of the general public in
recognizing the dignity of women and the role
PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR
and contribution of women in family,
community, and the society through the
strategic use of mass media;
➢ Equal status given to men and women on the
titling of the land and issuance of stewardship
contracts and patents.
2. ETHNIC MINORITIES
• Because some minorities live traditionalistic
lives far away from the city and technology, and
some may appear differently than usual, they
have been consistently labeled and treated as
people with minimal knowledge and
capabilities.
• Lack of resources easily available for many are
not utilized within their group, and thus receive
negative attention from the dominant public
PROGRAMS
❖ Indigenous People Rights Act (IPRA)
o Republic Act 8371, known as the Indigenous Peoples
Rights Act (IPRA), was enacted in 1997. It has been
praised for its support for the cultural integrity of
indigenous peoples, the right to their lands and the
right to self-directed development of these lands.
Under the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of 1997
(IPRA), self-delineation shall be the guiding principle
in identifying and delineating ancestral domains. As
such, indigenous cultural communities (ICC) and
indigenous people (IP) shall have a decisive role in all
activities pertinent thereto.
3. OTHER MINORITIES
• This may include people with disabilities or
people with religions that are less prevalent in
society.
• These minorities experience discrimination in
work, especially when the disabled have
physical limitations, while the religious have
practices and beliefs that are greatly disagreed
upon by the majority.
PROGRAMS
❖ Republic Act 9442
o an Act Amending Republic Act No. 7277, Otherwise
known as the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons, and
For Other Purposes' Granting Additional Privileges
and Incentives and Prohibitions on Verbal, Non-verbal
Ridicule and Vilification Against Persons with
Disability.
o Its objective is to provide persons with disability, the
opportunity to participate fully into the mainstream of
society by granting them at least twenty percent (20%)
discount in all basic services.
❖ DepEd's Policy Adoption
o Department of Education has adopted the policy to
provide special protection to children who are gravely
threatened or endangered by circumstances which
affect their normal development and over which they
have no control, and to assist the concerned agencies
in their rehabilitation
14
 ❖ Enactment of Anti-Bullying Law
o mandates directed all elementary and secondary schools
to adopt.
o policies to address the existence of bullying in their
respective institutions.
ANALYZING SOCIAL INEQUALITIES
• In a functionalist society, minorities also play social roles
that contribute to social balance and equilibrium.
However, these roles are bound by limitations and social
norms.
• In conflict societies, minority groups are seen as lower-
class individuals that will not be able to keep up with the
consistent competition occurring within the environment.
• In both societies, discrimination against minorities is
possible. Inequality among minority groups is greatly
driven by global inequalities significantly coming from the
influence of richer, more influential countries.
Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development
• This Agenda is a plan of action for people, planet and
prosperity. It also seeks to strengthen universal peace in
larger freedom. We recognize that eradicating poverty in
all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty,
is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable
requirement for sustainable development.
The Goals and targets will stimulate action over the next
fifteen years in areas of critical importance for humanity and
the planet:
a) PEOPLE
We are determined to end poverty and hunger, in all their
forms and dimensions, and to ensure that all human
beings can fulfill their potential in dignity and equality and
in a healthy environment.
b) PLANET
We are determined to protect the planet from
degradation, including through sustainable consumption
and production, sustainably managing its natural
resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so
that it can support the needs of the present and future
generations.
c) PROSPERITY
We are determined to ensure that all human beings can
enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives and that economic,
social and technological progress occurs in harmony with
nature.
d) PEACE
We are determined to foster peaceful, just and inclusive
societies which are free from fear and violence. There
can be no sustainable development without peace and
no peace without sustainable development.
e) PARTNERSHIP
We are determined to mobilize the means required to
implement this Agenda through a revitalized Global
Partnership for Sustainable Development, based on a
spirit of strengthened global solidarity, focused in
particular on the needs of the poorest and most
vulnerable and with the participation of all countries, all
stakeholders and all people.
PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere
2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition
and promote sustainable agriculture
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all
ages
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and
girls
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all.
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and
modern energy for all.
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive employment and decent work
for all.
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and
sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable.
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production
patterns.
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its
impacts*
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and
marine resources for sustainable development.
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests,
combat desertification, and halt and reverse land
degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable
development, provide access to justice for all and build
effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all
levels.
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize
the global partnership for sustainable development
As inspired by Karl Marx’s analysis in the rise of
industrialization, he defined social inequality as the difference in
the distribution of social desirables such as wealth, power, and
prestige. It also refers to the unequal opportunities of individuals
based on their social status.
Social Inequality includes:
1. Access to social, political, and symbolic capital
Political Inequality
o The distance between masses and the
decision makers, the more layers of
authority and the decision, the greater the
political inequality.
Symbolic Capital
o Refers to the resources available to a
group or individual on the basis of honor,
prestige, recognition, and serves as the
value that holds within a culture.
2. Gender Inequality
• In some countries, women are paid relatively
lower than men due to their sexuality and
biological differences.
• The LGBT community has always been treated
indifferently and discriminatively because they
do not fall within a biologically gender group.
15
 3. Ethnic Minorities
• Because some minorities live traditionalistic
lives far away from the city and technology, and
some may appear differently than usual, they
have been consistently labeled and treated as
people with minimal knowledge and
capabilities.
4. Other Minorities
• This may include people with disabilities or
people with religions that are less prevalent in
society.
• Persons with Disability (PWD) are those who
have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or
sensory impairments which in interaction with
various barriers may hinder their full effective
participation in society on an equal basis with
others.
Minority groups are composed of less-dominant
classifications in society that experience disproportionately
lower opportunities than their dominant counterparts.
5. Global Inequality
• Relationship between states and non-state
actors in the global community.
• Actors are entities that participate in or promote
international relations.
• Two types of actors involved in international
relations:
o State actor is the institution implementing
the functions of the government.
o Non-State actor is an individual or
organization that has powerful economic,
political, and social power.
❖ As powerful individuals or groups, the non-state actor
has the capability to influence decision-making in any
national, or even international, concern. The state
recognizes the value of non-state actors in the
achievement and implementation of goals in the national
and global community.
❖ Global Stratification is a relevant concept involved in
global inequality. It is the unequal distribution of social
gaps across nations that are usually seen on the ratio
between number of deaths versus number of live births
per capita as well as life expectancy.
Addressing Global Inequalities
Because global inequalities are at the macro-level, it is
also emphasized that they are focused on the same way.
Below are methods by which global inequalities may be
addressed:
• Ownership of properties and inclusiveness of the
lower class.
• Inclusive partnership across nations that focus on
technological
• advancements and innovations.
• Revise taxation plans, ensuring lower taxes for
poorer people.
• Monitoring and stopping labor abuse through higher
wages, less
• work hours, bonuses, health benefits, and non-
contractualization.
PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR
6. International Inequality
• Refers to the idea of inequality between countries. This
can be compared to global inequality between people
across countries.
• This may refer to economic as well as medical care and
education differences between countries
Analyzing Social Inequalities
The existence of minority groups in functionalist and
conflict societies are also embedded in each type of society’s
principles.
• In a functionalist society, minorities also play social roles
that contribute to social balance and equilibrium.
However, these roles are bound by limitations and social
norms.
• In conflict societies, minority groups are seen as lower-
class individuals that will not be able to keep up with the
consistent competition occurring within the environment.
• In both societies, discrimination against minorities is
possible. Inequality among minority groups is greatly
driven by global inequalities significantly coming from the
influence of richer, more influential countries.
Human Adaptation on New Challenges in the
Physical, Social and Cultural Environment
ADAPTATION
● A change or the process of change by which an organism
or species becomes better suited to its environment
● the action or process of adapting or being adapted or the
process of changing to suit different conditions.
● Adaptations enhance the fitness and survival of
everyone.
● Adaptation is not always easy and not something simple.
An individual or organism must be physically fit and
viable at all stages of its development evolution to be able
to survive.
ADAPTATION TRAITS
A. STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS
- physical features of an organism such as shape, body
covering, armament; and even the internal organization
(e.g. a penguin has blubbered to protect itself from
freezing temperatures).
B. BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATIONS
- composed of inherited behavior chains and/or the ability
to learn (e.g. bears hibernate in winter to escape the cold
temperature and preserve energy).
C. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS
- permit the organism to perform special functions like
venom (in the snakes and the like), secreting slime,
phototropism; and more general functions such as
growth and development, temperature regulation and
ionic balance. This means that adaptation is making
adjustments to decisions and activities in order to
manage risks and capture potential opportunities brought
16
 about by any changes in the environment such as global
warming and climate change.
Humans like any other organisms and animals try to act more
cautious if changes in their environment are perceived to have a
dangerous impact on their welfare. They may try to work on new
ways to meet own goals more effectively. This action is called
behavioral adaptation, risk compensation or risk homeostasis, or
rebound effect. Behavioral adaptation is defined as the things
organisms do to survive. Unlike other adaptations, these are not
always heritable but are learned. An example of this is the
difference between populations of animals that live in the wild and
those that live among humans. Wild birds tend to be scared of
people, but birds that live in urban areas are often less fearful of
people and they even see people as source of food. The ability of
humans to be able to rapidly adapt to varying environment
conditions and changes has made it possible for them to survive
in any regions or places anywhere in the world.
WAYS HUMANS ADAPT TO ENVIRONMENT CHANGES
A. GENETIC CHANGE
● an inherited or acquired modification in organisms that
makes them better suited to survive and a particular
environment.
● for instance, people whose ancestors have lived in areas
that had endemic, malaria for thousands of years often
inherit some degree of immunity to this serious disease.
B. DEVELOPMENTAL ADJUSTMENTS
● One of the more powerful types of adjustments to
environmental stresses is a change in growth patterns
and development.
● occurs in childhood and typically results in anatomical
and/or physiological changes that are mostly irreversible
in adulthood.
● an example was the now illegal custom in China of tightly
wrapping or binding the feet of young girls with cloth in
order to hinder normal growth.
C. ACCLIMATIZATION AND CULTURAL PRACTICES
● reversible changes that occur in childhood or adulthood
● an example of a long term acclimatization is people who
lose excess body fat and are very slender as a result of
mild, long- term undernourishment.
● If they later increase their diet to a consistent level of
excessive calories, they will very likely retain more body
fat and eventually become obese.
D. USE OF TECHNOLOGY
● Humans do not only interact with their environments
biologically.
● People invented technological aids that allowed us to
occupy new environments without having to first evolve
biological adaptations to them.
● Human-made technology eliminates the biological
adaptive advantages of particular individuals or groups.
PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR
ADAPTATION TO GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE
CHANGE
● Adaptation to global warming and climate change will be
needed, but it will not be as simple as it seems to be.
Global warming is still unsolved issue.
● There are different programs implemented to avoid
global warming and climate change. These actions seek
to lessen the vulnerability of all social and biological
systems to the current and immediate issue of climate
change.
● As human population will increase in number and more
people are living in highly arranged societies, there is a
greater impact of global warming, the more difficult
adaptation will be
● Adaptation is a broader one than mitigation because
adaptation requires a good understanding of the natural
environment and the ongoing effects of climate change
within and needs a thorough earth and environment
observation.
MITIGATION
● another term for adaptation to climate change
● technological change and substitution that reduces
resource inputs and emissions per unit of output
WAYS OF MITIGATION
● Using efficient energy generation technology.
● Using more efficient energy end user technology.
● Replacing fossil fuels with none or low carbon emitting
energy generating
● Adopting a more sustainable natural resource
management.
● Harvesting or extraction technologies and practice.
TRANSNATIONAL MIGRATION AND OVERSEAS FILIPINO
WORKERS
MIGRATION
• the process of geographic mobility or the change of
residence of a person from one community to another
with the intention of settling temporarily or permanently
• The movement is often over long distances and from one
country to another, or it can be within the immediate
community.
• Migration can also be done by individuals, family units or
in larger groups.
TYPES OF MIGRATION:
A. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
• the permanent transfer of residence from one country to
another.
• It is the change of residence over national boundaries.
● An international migrant is someone who moves to a
different country. International migrants can be further
classified as legal immigrants, illegal immigrants and
refugee.
○ Legal immigrants are those who moved with the
legal permission of the receiver nation.
17
 ○ Illegal immigrants are those who moved without
legal permission.
○ Refugees are those crossed an international
boundary to escape persecution.
B. INTERNAL MIGRATION
• is a change in residence within a country and refers to a
change of residence within national boundaries, such as
between states, provinces, cities, or municipalities. An
internal migrant is someone who moves to a different
administrative territory.
C. CIRCULATION MIGRATION
• is a temporary movement of a person. The change in
residence is temporary due to work or study, but the
migrant will definitely return in his home community.
Migration is not a one-way street. There are reasons why people
transfer from one residence to another because they just want to.
Sometimes, people relocate to other places or countries in the
hope of finding a greener pasture. Some move from an insecure
land to a securer region or from places without employment
opportunities to areas which are hoped to offer better economic,
political, cultural, and social prospects. Some people move to
places even if they do not want to, given the chance, but because
they need to.
TRANSNATIONAL MIGRATION
● New form of migration
● Transnational migrants are the people who having
migrated from one nation-state to another, live their lives
across borders, participating simultaneously in social
relations that embed them in more than one nation-state.
● Not all migrants can be considered as transnational
migrants, and not all who take part in transnational
practices do so all the time. Most migrants are occasional
transnational activists. They more focused on their
countries of origin while at others they are more involved
in their countries of reception.
OVERSEAS FILIPINO WORKER (OFW)
● a person of Filipino origin who works and lives outside
the country
● applies to Filipinos who are abroad indefinitely as citizens
or as permanent residents of a different country and to
those Filipino citizens who are abroad for a limited,
definite period as workers or as student
EFFECTS ON FAMILY OF MIGRANTS:
- Children of migrant workers have grown up not knowing
both of their parents and have experienced long term
absence of parents which is the reason why there is very
little affection between them.
- Many family relationships are broken as one parent
emigrates which causes a larger proportion of children
growing up with divorced or separated parents.
PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR
RESPONDING TO SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND CULTURAL
CHANGE
A. INCLUSIVE CITIZENSHIP
- a governing policy focused at giving all citizens a strong
sense that they are members of the overall society.
- includes access to public funds, public organizations,
egalitarian rights and acceptance by national figures.
B. PARTICIPATORY GOVERNANCE
- kind theory which put emphasis on democratic
engagement through deliberative practices.
- the desired output of participatory governance is citizen
engagement.
- fundamental goal of Participation most government
institutions. The right to participate in a society's
decision-making processes has been accepted as a
basic human right.
C. NEW MEDIA
- a generic term for the many different forms of electronic
communication that are made possible through the use
of computer technology.
- Technology has a vast influence on our way of living; it
also widens our social circle.
D. SOCIAL NETWORKING
- a more casual form of social media
- one of the different types of social media. Others include
forums, microblogging, bookmarking, video sites and
search engines.
- the most common example is Facebook
E. SOCIAL MOVEMENT
- set of attitudes and self-conscious actions by people
seeking to change society
- involves a large number of people mobilize to endorse or
resist any social and cultural change.
Environmentalism
- a social movement whose advocacies are in line with
concerns for the environment - its protection and
improvement
Feminism
● for the women's liberation movement
● a series of political campaigns to push for reforms on
issues involving women such as reproductive health,
domestic violence, fair labor practices, political suffrage
and sexual harassment.
18
What I Know Assessment. B. Force Migration

Read each statement below carefully. Mark “T” for statements you
believe are true, and “F” for statements you believe are false. Write
your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
T 1. Adaption refers a change by which an organism or species
becomes better suited to its environment.
F 2. Behavioral adaptions are always heritable, unlike the other
kinds of adaptations.
6. All of the following are example of mitigation, EXCEPT:
C. Conducting local or regional assessment of sensitivity to
environmental impacts.
7. Those persons who having migrated from one nation-state to
another live their lives across borders, participating
simultaneously in social relations that embed them in more than
one nation-state.

T 3. Humans normally adapt to environment changes in several D. Transnational Migrants

ways such as genetic change, developmental adjustment,
acclimatization, and cultural practices and use of technology. 8. Those people who moved with the legal permission of the
receiver nation.
T 4. People relocate to other places or countries in the hope of
finding greener pasture and employment opportunities. C. Migration

T 5. Migration is defined as the process of geographic mobility, or
the change of residence of a person from one community to
another.
T 6. A change in residence within a country is called internal
migration.
T 7. Internal immigrants can be classified as legal immigrants,
illegal immigrants and refugees.
T 8. Transnational migrants as those persons who having
migrated from one nation-state to another; live their lives across
the borders, participating simultaneously in social relations that
embed them in more than one nation- state.
9. This refers to a change of residence within national boundaries
such as between states, provinces, cities, or municipalities.
C. Internal Migration
10. Persons who moves to a different administrative territory.
C. Internal Migrants
11.The following are the challenges faced by transnational
migrants, EXCEPT:
D. Making clear and tangible policies to address the issues
12. The positive effects of transnational migrations are:

T 9. The improvement in the quality and availability of D. All of the Above

communication and transportation options to people makes
13. It refers to the adjustments made regarding decisions and
migration process more complex but fast.
activities in order to manage risks and capture potential
T 10. Behavioral adaptation is defined as the things organisms do opportunities brought about by any changes in the environment.
to survive.
A. Adaptation
Assessment 1
14. All of the following are ways on how human adapt to
Multiple Choice. Read very carefully the questions below and environmental changes, EXCEPT:
choose the letter that corresponds to your answer. Write your
D. Use of obsolete technology
answers in a separate sheet of paper.
15. It includes seamen and others who work outside the country
1. The process of change by which an organism or species
but are neither permanent nor temporary residents of the country.
becomes better suited to its environment
C. Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW)
A. Adaptation

2. Adaptive traits can be:

A. Behavioral, structural, and physiological

3. A technological change and substitution that reduces resource

inputs and emissions per unit of output.

D. Mitigation

4. The process of geographic mobility or the change of residence

of a person from one community to another with the intention of
setting temporarily or permanently.

A. Migration

5. This kind of migration exists when a person is moved against

his will such as slaves, or when the move is initiated because of
external factors like natural disaster or civil war.

PREDAS, CIARA DESIREE C. | 12 STEM BOHR 19