11.

2 THE NATURE OF THE REGIME

There has been a debate among scholars on whether the regime in Japan during the 1930s and 1940s was Fascist or
Militarist.

Fascism means:

- Aggressive nationalism based on belief that one race is superior

- A highly controlled authoritarian political state

- The state is symbolized by a single leader

Militarism means:

- The military plays the dominant role in running the country

- The military is the main maker of economic and political policies

- An aggressive and expansionist foreign policy is pursued under military dominance

Some scholars consider Japan to be a Fascist state like Italy under Mussolini and Germany under Hitler during that
time. This is because Japan showed some Fascist characteristics like:

- Aggressiveness in foreign relations

- Feeling of superiority over other Asians

- Repressive policies against dissent at home

However, Japan's situation was different from Italy and Germany:

- There was no sudden coup to overthrow the government like in those countries

- There was no mass Fascist party like the Nazi party

- There was no single dominant leader like Hitler or Mussolini

In Japan, it was the military that was all-powerful and had the decisive authority, though the Emperor remained the
symbolic head. So it would be more accurate to describe Japan's regime as Militarism rather than Fascism during this
period.

The ultra-nationalist sentiments among Japanese people from various sections of society, rooted in the idea of Japan's
"uniqueness", also enabled the rise of militarism.

Here is an explanation of SECTION 11.3 in simple words and sentences, in around 300 words:

From the Meiji period itself, the military played a very important role in the administration and affairs of the state in
Japan. Many of the prime ministers were actually military leaders. Even when a political party formed the government,
top military officers would be given important positions like home minister and foreign minister.

The Meiji constitution gave a lot of powers to the Emperor. It stated that the Emperor was the supreme commander
of the army and navy forces. The Emperor could decide on the organization and strength of the military. The military
general staffs could directly advise the Emperor. They could make plans and implement them without taking approval
from the government. They did not even need to inform the government due to military secrecy rules.

Only a military officer could become the defense minister. So the military could refuse to appoint an officer to a
particular cabinet. This meant no Prime Minister could form a government if it was not acceptable to the military.

The military could topple any government by simply asking its defense minister to resign, or by refusing to nominate a
defense minister for that cabinet. The military frequently used this tactic to assert its authority over the government.
So, while Japan had a parliamentary system, the real power lay with the military due to the special constitutional
provisions giving authority to the Emperor as supreme commander, and the military's control over defense portfolios
in the cabinet.

Here is an explanation of SECTION 11.4 in simple words and sentences, in around 400 words:

The military was very unhappy with the performance of the political parties that formed governments in Japan after
World War I. There were several major reasons behind the military's displeasure with these parties.

Firstly, the political parties resisted increasing the budget and expanding the size of the military forces. For example,
Prime Minister Kato Takaaki's government had actually reduced the number of divisions in the Japanese army from 21
to just 17. The military wanted to keep growing bigger and stronger, but the parties did not support this.

Secondly, the military strongly disagreed with the policy towards China followed by the political parties. In 1922, Japan
had signed an agreement with China to restore full sovereignty over Shandong province back to China. The Japanese
economic privileges in that region were kept, but giving up territory was seen as a setback. After this, Japan's overall
China policy under the parties aimed more at economic goals rather than military expansion on the mainland. The
military saw this as a "soft" and lenient approach against China.

Furthermore, the rise of the Guomindang nationalist movement under Chiang Kai-shek in China worried the Japanese
military deeply. Chiang demanded reviewing all the foreign privileges and rights in China, including those of Japan. He
questioned Japan's dominant position in areas like Manchuria. The military felt these developments threatened Japan's
gains in China achieved over decades.

Apart from foreign policy differences, the political parties faced criticism on domestic issues too. They were seen as
being too closely allied with the big industrial and business houses known as zaibatsu. Policies like allowing cheap rice
imports from Korea and Taiwan benefited the traders but lowered incomes of local farmers in Japan. So the parties
were accused of favoring industrial interests over farmers.

The parties were also blamed for allowing the inflow of foreign ideologies like communism and socialism, which were
considered dangerous as they could undermine the authority of the Emperor. The communist party was eventually
banned.

Overall, the military felt that the political parties were acting as a hindrance in the growth and strengthening of Japan's
armed forces. Their foreign policies did not support aggressive expansion. And on the domestic front too, the parties
seemed to favor industrial capital over the interests of the conservative rural classes from which many military officers
came. This caused great hostility between the military and political parties over time.

Here is an explanation of SECTION 11.5 in simple words and sentences, in around 300 words:

Japan successfully used education as a tool to promote nationalism among its people. The education system was
inspired by the German model, as the Japanese believed that "battles can be won in classrooms."

Primary schools were seen as the most important place to inculcate nationalist feelings in young minds. Mori Arinori,
an influential figure in shaping Japan's education policy, had said that the purpose of schools was not just for students,
but for the sake of the country itself. He wanted Japan to become the leading nation in the world.

As a result, moral studies that taught obedience, devotion, love for the country, loyalty and reverence for the Emperor
were given top priority in the school curriculum.

The teachers' training was also oriented to make them ideal examples of these values of obedience, patriotism and
discipline for the students. Retired military officers were employed to instill physical and mental discipline among the
teachers.

The twin aims of education were to promote loyalty, patriotism and also create a new generation of engineers,
managers, financers etc. needed for an industrializing nation.
After the war with China began in 1937, the entire country was put on a war footing. The education system was
reformed to suit the needs of a nation at war. Primary schools were renamed "national schools" with the purpose of
training loyal subjects of the Emperor.

The content promoting nationalism and ideals like faithfulness, prosperity of the imperial throne, reverence for
ancestors etc. was increased in the curriculum. Understanding Japan's mission in East Asia and the wider world was
also emphasized.

So, from the very beginning, education played a vital role in inculcating a deep sense of nationalism, loyalty to the
Emperor and militarism among the Japanese people across generations.

11.6 FREEDOM OF THOUGHT AND EXPRESSION CURBED

The Meiji Government implemented several internal security laws and publishing regulations to curb the freedom of
thought and expression in Japan. This was done to suppress any discontent arising from the changes happening in the
political, economic and social structures due to modernization.

Industrialization had led to the growth of an urban working population, which disrupted the traditional family system
in Japan. Western values and ideas also started entering Japanese society, which tended to erode the existing social
system based on Confucian principles.

The government only allowed the publication of literature that favored its policies and views. Any critical or opposing
views were not permitted to be published or expressed freely.

11.6.1 Opposition to Military

In the 1870s and 1880s, there was a widespread People's Rights Movement demanding more civil rights and democracy
in Japan. To crush this movement, the government used methods like imprisoning leaders, harassing activists, as well
as enacting regulations.

In 1880, a regulation prohibited any public assembly of people. In 1883, another regulation made it mandatory for
newspapers to get prior government approval before publishing anything.

Even plays, movies and other public performances had to first seek the approval of the authorities before being opened
for the public.

However, the People's Rights Movement did achieve some success, leading to the establishment of a parliamentary
system of government in 1889 through the Meiji Constitution. But this constitution guaranteed only limited freedom
of expression "within the limits of law."

After World War I, there was strong opposition at home to the rising tide of militarism. The socialists, communists and
anti-war writers openly criticized the military's expansionist policies through their writings and publications.

Literary works like Kobayashi Takiji's Cannery Boat (1929) and Kuroshima Denji's City Under Arms depicted the
brutalities of the military towards civilians and soldiers. Such anti-war writings showing the military in a bad light were
banned.

The Communist Party, which was the most vocal against military expansionism, was also banned by the government.
Many of its leaders were imprisoned while others went underground.

11.6.2 Post 1930 Regulations

As Japan's involvement in wars increased in the late 1930s and 1940s, the government's control over freedom of
thought and expression became even tighter. Existing regulations were amended to expand their scope.

The Peace Preservation Law of 1925 was amended in 1928 and 1941 to allow preventive detention of political activists
and indefinite detention of political prisoners without trial.
New restrictive laws were also introduced, like the National Defence Security Law of 1941. Under this law, all
discussions in official meetings were classified as "state secrets." Anyone revealing or trying to obtain such information
could face severe punishment.

Special laws on wartime crimes enacted in 1942 were later revised to include any interference or obstruction of
government administration under their purview.

Due to such repressive laws, public debate or dialogue on issues related to the war became completely impossible.
Newspapers could only publish what the government wanted the public to know about the war situation.

It is therefore not surprising that many people tended to support the military government's policies, as they did not
have access to factual information or alternative viewpoints.

The military's task of controlling the narrative was further aided by the existence and propaganda of various patriotic
societies and organizations that had existed since the Meiji period.

These societies published 'ultra-nationalist' literature and reinforced the military's ideology among the masses. Many
military officers themselves were members or believers in the ideologies professed by such societies.

So, in summary, through a series of strict laws, censorship regulations and the promotion of nationalistic propaganda,
the government and military successfully crushed any dissent, criticism or alternative views in the public sphere during
this period leading up to and during World War II.

Here is an explanation of SECTION 11.7 in simple words and sentences, in around 300 words:

At the highest level, the Japanese army was divided into two main factions over the approach to deal with the economic
and political crisis faced by the country.

The first faction was called the Kodoha (Imperial Way faction). It included top generals like Araki Sadao and Mazaki
Jinzaburo. This faction emphasized loyalty, morals and values, and did not stress much on structural changes in
governance or economy.

The second faction was known as the Tosei (Control faction). It comprised of high-ranking staff officers like Nagata
Tetsuzan, Tojo Hideki and Ishiwara Kanji. The Tosei faction was not opposed to capitalism or a parliamentary system
per se. However, their focus was on enforcing strict state control over the system so that Japan could prepare well for
wars.

The Tosei group found support from businessmen, bureaucrats and some intellectuals who favored controlled
capitalism over radical changes.

The struggle for power and influence between these two factions within the military was quite intense. Initially, the
Kodoha faction was dominant when Araki became the War Minister in 1931 and Mazaki the Vice Chief of Staff.

However, the Tosei group exercised greater control in the area of Manchuria where the military held direct sway. As
times changed, fortunes kept fluctuating for both factions.

In 1935, after Araki resigned, Nagata from the Tosei faction managed to get Mazaki dismissed from his post. But in
retaliation, Mazaki's supporters murdered Nagata soon after.

There were also instances of young officer revolts, with some conspiring to establish a new regime under Kodoha
leaders like Mazaki. Such revolts were crushed and many officers executed.

While this internal feuding continued, it did not weaken the military's overall grip on government policy and national
affairs. Ultimately, it was the Tosei faction that emerged victorious in this power struggle by the late 1930s.
Here is an explanation of SECTION 11.8 in simple words and sentences, in around 300 words:

The army's authoritarianism and interference in government affairs was clearly reflected in the way it controlled the
formation of cabinets in Japan.

If the Prime Minister or any minister appointed to the cabinet was not acceptable to the military, it would simply refuse
to appoint a military officer to serve in that cabinet. This would make it impossible for the Prime Minister to form a
government.

The military frequently used this tactic to exert pressure on political leaders and have its way. Several Prime Ministers
faced such obstructions from the military over the years.

When Hirota Koki was invited to form a cabinet, he could not finalize the list of ministers until it was approved by the
military.

The Hirota cabinet later had to resign when the military objected to a question asked in the Diet, which it saw as being
anti-military.

Ugaki Kazushige, who was next in line to become Prime Minister, faced harassment from the very start. As he was
traveling to Tokyo, military police stopped him midway and conveyed that the army did not approve of his candidature.

In 1936, regulations were revised so that only serving active military officers could be appointed as defense ministers
in the cabinet by the Prime Minister.

The political parties played a role in representing public opinion through their presence in the Diet. But in 1940, all
parties were dissolved and replaced by a single association (Imperial Rule Assistance Association) that pledged support
to government policies.

This move reduced the role of political parties in decision-making to the lowest level. It cleared the way for the military
to dominate the policies and administration of the country without any effective opposition.

So, through such measures, the military was able to dictate terms to the civil authorities and undermine democratic
processes to establish its supreme authority over government formation and functioning.

Here is an explanation of SECTION 11.9 "The War and Economic Policies" in simple terms:

After Japan went to war with China in 1937, Japan's involvement in the conflict kept increasing. The war was spreading
to different parts of China, and Japan was suffering huge losses in terms of soldiers and money. Due to these
developments related to the war in China, the military in Japan pushed for measures that would prepare the country
for an even bigger war. The government also increased its control over the economy.

When Konoe Fumimaro became Prime Minister in 1937, the government took steps to control civil aviation and fuel
distribution. A Planning Board was created to coordinate economic policies related to the war effort. Important
decisions were made in secret meetings between the Prime Minister, Foreign Minister, and Navy Minister, keeping
other ministers uninformed.

In 1938, a law was passed giving the military more authority over labor, raw materials etc. Industries contributing to
military production were encouraged. In Manchuria, which was under full military control, efforts were made to
develop coal, iron, steel, automobile and aircraft industries to support the war.

So, in summary, after 1937 the military pushed for economic policies and measures to gear up Japan's economy for a
larger war, with the government increasing control over industries, resources and labor to support military production
and the war effort.
Here is an explanation of SECTION 11.10 "The War and Military Behaviour" in simple terms, using shorter sentences:

As the war progressed, from mid-1942 to mid-1944, Japan tried to develop and expand its empire. Japan wanted to
economically exploit this empire. In November 1941, Japan planned to turn the whole of East Asia into a "Greater East
Asia Co-prosperity Sphere". The idea was that Japan, China and Manchuria would be the industrial bases of this region.

The stated aim of the Co-prosperity Sphere was to "liberate" Asia from Western colonial control. However, Japan's
main goal was to replace the European powers and establish its own domination in the region. An official document
stated that Japan did not consider all Asians as equals. The intention was Japanese superiority over other Asians.

On 7th December 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and quickly defeated the United States forces there. After this,
Japan rapidly established its rule over Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands.

The behavior of the Japanese military towards the countries it occupied was extremely brutal. Japanese soldiers
committed horrifying atrocities, looting, rapes and murders in these areas.

In Korea and Taiwan, which were under Japanese rule earlier, people were treated as second-class citizens. They were
forced to learn Japanese language and adopt Japanese names under an assimilation policy.

As the war went on and Japan needed more soldiers and laborers, Koreans were brought to Japan and made to work
in factories or join the military.

In Southeast Asian countries like Malaya, Philippines, Burma and Indonesia, people resented Japanese occupation
more than the previous European rulers. This was because of the racial superiority displayed by Japanese, disrespect
for local customs, curtailment of rights, and economic exploitation of these regions for Japan's benefit.

So, while portraying itself as a "liberator", Japan's occupation policies and the behavior of its military resulted in
widespread hatred and organized opposition in the occupied territories.