DC Machine Notes - 16.02.2023

DC machine
By
Dr. Krishna Roy
Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering Department
NITR
Syllabus
DC machine:
Construction
Emf and torque equations
Speed control of DC motors
2
Syllabus
DC machine:
Construction
3
Construction
4
Constructional features of rotating
electrical machines
From the construction point of view the
common essential features of all rotating
electrical machines are:
i. Stator (stationary member)
ii. Rotor (rotating member)
iii. Air-gap between the stator and rotor
iv. Shaft, bearing, foundation, etc.
5
electrical machines
Additional features:
 Exciting or field winding, which produces the
working flux.
 Armature winding in which the working emf
is induced by the working flux.
6
electrical machines
Additional features:
 The current in a winding that varies as the
machine is loaded is called the load current.
 The current that produces only a working
magnetic flux and does not vary with the load
on the machine is called magnetizing current,
exciting current or field current.
7
Basic construction of DC machine
8
The main parts of a DC machine
Stator:
– Yoke
– Poles, pole shoes
– Field Coils
Rotor:
– Armature
– Commutator and brushes
– Shaft
9
10
11
Magnetic structure-stator yoke,
stator poles, pole-faces or shoes, air
gap and armature core
12
Stator
The stator consists of
i. Yoke (or frame) made
of un-laminated
ferromagnetic material
ii. The salient field poles
bolted to the inner
periphery of the yoke
and
iii. Bearings, brush-rigging
carrying brush-holders,
end-covers etc.
13
Field Poles
A pole core may be solid
or laminated depending
upon the designing criteria,
but a pole shoe is always
laminated.
Pole cores along with the
pole shoe are fitted to the
inner periphery of the yoke
by means of bolts.
14
Rotor
The rotor consists of
i. Armature
ii. Commutator
iii. Shaft
15
Armature core
Armature core holds the
armature conductors.
It also provides a low
reluctance path to the
magnetic flux of the field
magnet.
It is of cylindrical shape
with parallel slots in the
periphery to hold the
armature conductors in place.
16
Commutator
The commutator is
fitted on the main shaft of
the machine.
It collects the
alternating armature
current and mechanically
rectifies it to DC.
17
Commutator
The commutator is a
group of wedge-shaped
copper segments,
insulated from each other
by mica sheets.
The copper segments
are tapered and arranged
side by side to form a
cylinder.
18
19
Pole Pitch
It is the distance on the
armature periphery between
two similar points of two
adjacent poles.
20
Armature winding
The armature winding is the main
current-carrying winding in which
the electromotive force or counter-
emf of rotation is induced.
The current in the armature
winding is known as the armature
current.
The armature windings of dc
machines are located on the rotor,
since they must operate in union
with the commutator.
21
Types of Armature winding
According to the way of connecting the conductors, DC
armature windings are classified as:
1. Lap Winding
2. Wave Winding
22
Lap winding
A lap winding is one in
which ends of each coil are
connected to commutator
segments which are
adjacent to each other.
To assemble the winding
as a circuit closed on itself,
the start of each subsequent
coil is connected to the
finish of the preceding coil.
23
Wave winding
In this winding the end of one coil is connected to the starting
of another coil of the same polarity as that of the first coil.
This winding forms a wave with its coil, that’s why it is named
as wave winding. It is also called series winding because its coils
are connected in series.
24
Number of Parallel paths
Number of parallel paths, aP For lap winding
a2 For wave winding
25
Types of field excitations
A dc machine can work as an electromechanical energy converter
only when its field winding is excited with direct current, except
for small d.c. machines employing permanent magnets.
There are, in general, two methods of exciting the field windings

of d.c. machines.
(a) Separate excitation and

(b) Self-excitation.
DC machines may have one or more field windings and their

method of excitation, determines the performance characteristics
of the dc machines.
26
Separate excitation:
In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is supplied

from a separate dc voltage source.
27
Self excitation:
When the field winding is excited by its own armature induced
emf, the machine is said to be a self-excited d.c. machine.
In these machines, the field poles must have a residual
magnetism, so that when the armature rotates, a residual voltage
appears across the brushes.
This residual voltage should establish a current in the field
winding so as to reinforce the residual flux.
A self-excited d.c. machine can be sub-divided as follows :
i. Series excitation
ii. Shunt excitation
iii. Compound excitation
28
Series excitation:
In series machines, the field coil is connected in series with the armature
so that the entire armature current flows through the field winding.
29
Shunt excitation:
In shunt machines, the field coil is connected in parallel with the

armature so that the entire armature voltage is available across the field
winding. 30
Compound excitation:
A compound excitation involves both the series excited winding and

the shunt-excited winding.
31
Compound excitation:
If the series field flux aids
the shunt field flux, so that
the resultant air-gap flux per
pole is increased, the machine
is called a cumulatively
compounded d.c. machine.
In case the series field flux
opposes the shunt field flux,
so that the resultant air-gap
flux per pole is decreased, the
machine is called a
differentially compounded
d.c. machine.
32
Syllabus
DC machine:
Construction
33
Syllabus
DC machine:
Construction
34
Derivation of EMF equation
35
EMF equation
Let us consider a dc machine (generator)
whose field coils are excited to produce
a flux density distribution along the air
gap and the armature is driven by a
prime mover at constant speed.
Let, L be the length of the rotor,
D be the diameter of the rotor,
P be the no. of poles,
 be the flux per pole,
Z be the total no. of conductors,
a be the no. of parallel paths
 P; for lap winding
 2; for wave winding
36
EMF equation
D
Therefore, pole pitch 
P
D
Area under each pole  L
P

Therefore, average flux density, Bav 
D
L
P
P

DL
Induced emf in a single conductor  Bav Lv
where, v  linear velocity of conductor
 Dn  n  rotational speed in rps 
37
EMF equation
Therefore, total voltage appearing across
the brushes,
Z
Ea  Bav Lv
a
Z P
   L  Dn
a DL
PnZ

a
PZ
  2n 
2a
38
EMF equation
Therefore, total voltage appearing across
the brushes,
PnZ

 PZ 
 m  Ea 
 2a  a
 Ea  K a m PN Z

where, m  2n  angular velocity in rad/s 60a
Ka 
PZ
 armature constant  K a m
2a
39
Derivation of Torque equation
40
Torque equation
Whenever armature carries a current in
presence of flux, conductor experiences
a force which gives rise to the electro
magnetic torque.
Let, L be the length of the rotor,
D be the diameter of the rotor,
P be the no. of poles,
 be the flux per pole,
Z be the total no. of conductors,
I a be the armature current,
a be the no. of parallel paths
 P; for lap winding
 2; for wave winding
41
Torque equation
D
Therefore, pole pitch 
P
D
Area under each pole  L
P

Therefore, average flux density, Bav 
D
L
P
P

DL
Ia
Current through each conductor 
a
Ia
Force on a single conductor  Bav   L
a
42
Torque equation
Ia D
Torque on a single conductor  Bav   L 
a 2
Ia D
Total electromagnetic torque, Te  Z  Bav   L 
a 2
P I a D
Z  L
DL a 2
PZ
  I a
2a
 Te  KT  I a
PZ
where, KT   torque constant
2a
43
Relation between induced Emf and
developed Torque
From the induced emf equation, Ea  K a m (1)
where, K a 
PZ
 armature constant
2a
From the developed torque equation, Te  KT I a (2)
PZ
where, KT   torque constant
2a
Comparing equations (1) and (2),
Ea K a m

Te KT I a
44
Relation between induced Emf and
developed Torque
Ea K a m m  PZ 
   K  K 
KT I a 2a 

Te Ia
a T
Or , Ea I a  mTe (3)
Equation 3 is the power balance equation.

It shows that
in case of a generator, the mechanical power supplied is equal
to the electrical power developed in the armature; and
in case of a motor , the electrical power supplied is equal to the
mechanical power developed at the armature.
45
Simple Loop Generator
An electrical generator is a machine which
converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
The energy conversion is based on
the principle of the production of
dynamically induced e.m.f.
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux,
dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in it
according to Faraday’s Laws of
Electromagnetic Induction.
 This e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the
conductor circuit is closed.
 Hence, two basic essential parts of
an electrical dc generator are
(i) a magnetic field and
(ii) a conductor or conductors which can
move so as to cut the flux
Let us consider a single-
turn rectangular copper
coil ABCD rotating
about its own axis in
a magnetic field.
The two ends of the
coil are joined to two
semicircular segment of
copper or aluminum
known as the
commutator.
Two collecting brushes
of carbon are pressed
against the copper
segments.
Their function is to
collect the current
induced in the coil and
to convey it to the
external load
resistance.
Position 1
Imagine the coil to be
rotating in clock-wise
direction.
As the coil assumes
successive positions in
the field, the flux
linked with it changes.
Hence, an e.m.f. is
induced in it. eN
d
dt
Position 1
 When the plane of the coil is at
right angles to the lines of flux
i.e. when it is in position, 1,
then flux linked with the coil is
maximum but rate of change of
flux linkages is minimum.
 It is so because in this position,
the coil sides AB and CD do
not cut the flux, rather they
slide along them i.e. they move
parallel to them.
Position 1
 Hence, there is no induced
e.m.f. in the coil. Let us take
this no-e.m.f. or vertical
position of the coil as the
starting position.
 The angle of rotation or time
will be measured from this
position.
Position 2
 After the progress of 45°
clockwise, the loop comes to
position 2. Now, one
component of the motion is
downward.
 By considering the downward
component of the motion, if we
apply fleming’s right-hand rule,
we will get a current flowing
from A to B in the conductor
AB.
Position 2
 Similarly on the other side, one
component of the motion of
conductor CD is upward at the
same moment.
 According to Fleming’s right-
hand rule, the direction of
current in the conductor CD
will be from C to D.
 As a result, there will be a loop
current.
Position 2
 At that moment, the
commutator segment connected
to conductor AB comes in
contact with the right-hand
brush.
 The commutator segment
connected to conductor CD
comes in contact left-hand
brush.
 Hence, the circuit gets
completed through the resistive
load and provides the path for
circulating the loop current.
Position 3
 Now at position 3, the motion
of conductor AB is entirely
downward and that of CD is
entirely upward.
 So after applying the same
Fleming’s right-hand rule, we
can see that the direction of
current in conductor AB is
from A to B and the direction
of current in the conductor CD
is from C to D.
Position 3
 At that position, the direction
of motion of the conductors is
exactly perpendicular to the
direction of the flux, hence, the
rate of flux cutting by the
conductor is maximum here.
 As a result, the induced current
in the loop is also maximum
here.
Position 4
 After this position 3, the loop
gradually progresses to the
vertical position again, after
further rotation of 90°.
 Hence, the current in the loop
gradually decreases to zero
from its maximum value.
Position 5
 After that, due to continuous
rotation, the conductor CD
comes in front of S pole and
conductor AB comes in front of
the N pole of the magnet.
 Due to the same phenomenon
as in the previous half of the
rotation, the current will
gradually increase in the
conductor to its maximum
value when the loop comes to
the horizontal position from its
vertical position.
Position 5
 But in that case, according to
Fleming’s right-hand rule, the
direction of current in the
conductor CD is from D to C
and in the conductor AB from
B to A.
Position 5
 Although during this half of the
rotation, conductor CD is in
contact with the right side
brush and conductor AB is in
contact with the left side brush.
 So, the direction of the current
through the brush to the load
will be the same as it was in the
previous half of the rotation.
Therefore, the current obtained
from a simple generator is
alternating in nature.
In the first half revolution current flows along (ABMLCD) i.e. the brush
No. 1 in contact with segment ‘a’ acts as the positive end of the supply
and ‘b’ as the negative end.
In the next half revolution, the direction of the induced current in the
coil has reversed. But at the same time, the positions of segments ‘a’ and
‘b’ have also reversed with the result that brush No. 1 comes in touch
with the segment which is positive i.e. segment ‘b’ in this case. Hence,
current in the load resistance again flows from M to L.
The waveform of the
current through the
external circuit is as shown
in figure.
This current is
unidirectional but not
continuous like pure direct
current.
It should be noted that the position of brushes is so arranged that the
change over of segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ from one brush to the other takes
place when the plane of the rotating coil is at right angles to the plane of
the lines of flux. It is so because in that position, the induced e.m.f. in the
coil is zero.
Another important point worth remembering is that even now the
current induced in the coil sides is alternating as before. It is only due to
the rectifying action of the commutator that it becomes unidirectional in
the external circuit. Hence, it should be clearly understood that even in
the armature of a d.c. generator, the induced voltage is alternating.
Circuit model of DC Machines
Let us consider the schematic

diagram of armature winding in a dc
machine with four parallel paths.
Each of the parallel paths is
symmetrical and will induce equal
emfs of Ea (say) and let each path
have resistance of R.
68
Following Thevenin’s theorem, the

equivalent circuit of such an armature
can be represented using a single
voltage source of value Ea in series
with a single resistance of value R  R 4 .
a
The emf source is intentionally

drawn circular to give the feeling of
armature and two brushes are drawn on
it in diametrically opposite locations.
69
The field winding also needs to be

included in the circuit model of a dc
machine.
The field winding is shown by a coil
with some resistance Rf .
The field coil is oriented at 90° to the
brush axis according to the actual
arrangement in a dc machine.
Often the armature resistance Ra is
not drawn as an external series
resistance, but is normally included
inside the circular armature.
70
Armature circuit equations:
Generating mode
71
Generating mode
In a dc generator mechanical
energy is converted into
electrical energy.
The electrical energy
developed is supplied to the
external electrical load
connected between the generator
terminals.
 The induced emf Ea is
available at the generator output
terminals when it is under no
load.
72
Generating mode
When some load is connected
to the generator output terminals,
an armature current Ia starts
flowing out.
The induced emf and the
armature current are in the same
direction.
The terminal voltage Vt now
becomes lower than the induced
emf Ea due to voltage drop in the
armature resistance Ra .
In addition, there is a constant
voltage drop of 1 V per brush.
73
Generating mode
Therefore, for the armature
circuit of a dc generator, terminal
voltage is given by
Vt  Ea  I a Ra (1)
[Neglecting Brush voltage drop]
Multiplying equation (1) by Ia ,

the power balance equation in a
generator is obtained,
Vt I a  Ea I a  I a2 Ra (2)
74
Generating mode
Vt I a  Ea I a  I Ra
2
a
Vt I a  Electrical power output of the generator

Ea I a  Electromagnetic power developed inside the armature
I a2 Ra  Ohmic loss in the armature winding resistance
75
Generating mode
Psh is the shaft power input to the
generator, i.e., it is the
mechanical power input from the
prime mover.
If the speed of rotor rotation of
the generator is m , then shaft
torque is given by
Tsh 
Psh
m  2n
m
The direction of shaft torque is same as that of speed of rotor
rotation.
76
Generating mode
It is seen from this figure that
for a generator, electromagnetic
torque Te is opposite to the rotor
rotation, i.e. Te opposes the
prime-mover torque Tsh.
This is essential for the
conversion of energy from
mechanical to electrical.
This torque Te may, therefore,
be called counter-torque in a dc
generator.
77
Example1: A 6-pole dc machine has 300 conductors and each conductor is
capable of carrying 80 A without excessive temperature rise. The flux per
pole is 0.015 Wb and the machine is driven at 1800 rpm. Compute the total
current, emf,, power developed in the armature and electromagnetic torque,
if the armature conductors are: (a) wave connected and (b) lap connected.
Given, P6 Z  300 I z  80 A
N  1800 rpm   0.015 Wb
For wave connected winding,

Number of parallel paths, a2
I a  a  I z  2  80 A  160 A
PN Z 6  1800  0.015  300
Ea   V  405 V
60a 60  2
Power developed  Ea I a  405  160 W  64800 W
EI 405  160  60
Torque developed Te  a a  Nm  343.77 Nm
m 2    1800
78
Example1: A 6-pole dc machine has 300 conductors and each conductor is
capable of carrying 80 A without excessive temperature rise. The flux per
pole is 0.015 Wb and the machine is driven at 1800 rpm. Compute the total
current, emf,, power developed in the armature and electromagnetic torque,
if the armature conductors are: (a) wave connected and (b) lap connected.
Given, P6 Z  300 I z  80 A
N  1800 rpm   0.015 Wb
For lap connected winding,

Number of parallel paths, aP
I a  a  I z  6  80 A  480 A
PN Z 6  1800  0.015  300
Ea   V  135 V
60a 60  6
Power developed  Ea I a  135  480 W  64800 W
EI 135  480  60
Torque developed Te  a a  Nm  343.77 Nm
m 2    1800
79
Motoring mode
80
Motoring mode
In a dc motor electrical energy
is converted into mechanical
energy.
This mechanical energy is then
utilized to drive some mechanical
load connected to the shaft of he
motor.
 In the motoring mode, a dc
supply Vt is given to the
terminals of the machine.
This drives the armature current
Ia inwards from the terminals
towards the machine armature.
81
Motoring mode
Electrical energy thus flows
from external supply towards the
armature of the machine.
Induced emf in the armature
(called back emf) Eb is in
opposite direction to that of the
armature current.
This back emf balances the
remaining voltage available
inside the armature after the
supply voltage has dropped due
to armature resistance and also
due to brush contact drop.
82
Motoring mode
Therefore, for the armature
circuit of a dc motor, terminal
voltage is given by
Vt  Eb  I a Ra (1)
[Neglecting Brush voltage drop]
Multiplying equation (1) by Ia ,

the power balance equation in a
motor is obtained,
Vt I a  Eb I a  I a2 Ra (2)
83
Motoring mode
Vt I a  Eb I a  I Ra
2
a
Vt I a  Electrical power input to the motor

Eb I a  Electromagnetic power developed inside the armature
I a2 Ra  Ohmic loss in the armature winding resistance
84
Motoring mode
Psh is the shaft power output from
the motor, i.e., it is the
mechanical power output from
the prime mover.
If the speed of rotor rotation of
the motor is m , then shaft
torque is given by
Tsh 
Psh
m  2n
m
The direction of shaft torque is opposite to that of speed of rotor

rotation.
85
Mathematical formulations for
differently excited dc Machines
86
Series excitation
Generator Motor
I a  I se  I L I a  I se  I L
Vt  Ea  I a Ra  Vb  I a Rse Eb  Vt  I a Ra  Vb  I a Rse
87
Shunt excitation
Generator Motor
Vt Vt
I sh  I a  I sh  I L I sh 
Rsh I L  I sh  I a
Rsh
Vt  Ea  I a Ra  Vb Eb  Vt  I a Ra  Vb
88
Example2: The armature of a four pole D.C. generator has 600 conductors.
The armature is driven at 1500 r.p.m. Calculate the useful flux per pole
required to generate an e.m.f. of 220 volts.
Given, P4 Z  600
N  1500 rpm Ea  220 V
For wave connected winding,
Number of parallel paths, a2
PN Z 60aEa
60aE 60  2  220
Ea    Wb  7.33 mWb
60a PNZ 4  1500  600
For lap connected winding,

Number of parallel paths, aP
60aEa 60  4  220
  Wb  14.66 mWb
PNZ 4  1500  600
89
Example3: A 4 pole lap-connected dc generator has no-load generated e.m.f. of
500 V when driven at 1200 rpm. Calculate the flux per pole if the armature has
120 slots with 6 conductors per slot. In case each conductor has a resistance of
0.01 ohm, find the resistance of the armature winding.
Given:
N = 1200 rpm, P = 4, Ea = 500 V
No. of slots = 120
No. of conductors per slot = 6
Total no. of conductors, Z = 120 X 6 = 720
No. of parallel path, a = P = 4
PN Z
Now, Ea 
60a
PN Z
Ea 
60a
60aEa
Or,  
PNZ
60  4  500
 Wb
4  1200  720
 0.034 Wb
Resistance of each conductor = 0.01 ohm

No. of parallel path, a = P = 4
Total no. of conductors, Z = 720
No. of conductors in each path = 720/4 = 180
Resistance of each path, R = 180 X 0.01 ohm = 1.8 ohm
Resistance of the armature winding,
1.8
Ra  ohm  0.45 ohm
4
Example4: A separately excited dc generator when running at 1200 rpm
supplies a load of 200 A at 150 V to a circuit of constant resistance. What
will be the current when the speed is dropped to 1000 rpm if the field current
is unaltered? Given is the armature resistance of 0.5 ohm and total drop at
brushes = 2 V.
Given, N1  1200 rpm I L1  I a1  200 A Ra  0.5 

Vt  150 V N 2  1000 rpm Vb  2 V
Now,
Ea1  Vt  I a1 Ra  Vb  150  200  0.5  2  V  252 V
Ea  K a m
Ea1 N1 N2
  Ea 2  Ea1  1000  252 V  210 V
Ea 2 N 2 N1 1200
Therefore,
Ea 2  Vt  Vb 210  150  2
Ia2   A  116 A
Ra 0.5
93
Torque-speed characteristic
Shunt motor:
The speed-torque characteristic is also called the mechanical
characteristic and under steady state conditions, it can be
obtained as follows.
Vt  I a Ra
m  (1)
Ka
  Te
But eT K I Or , I a  (2)
Ka
a a
Substituting the value of Ia, in equation (1)

1  Te Ra  Vt Te Te
m  Vt    K   Ra K 2 2  m 0  Ra K 22 (3)
Ka  Ka  a a a
Vt
where, m 0  is the no-load speed.
Ka 94
Te
Or , I a  (2)
Shunt motor: Ka
Te
m  m 0  Ra 2 2 (3)
Ka 
It is seen from equation (3)

that with increase of Te the
speed drops.
Now, from equation (2) it can
be observed that for larger Te,
larger Ia is required and this has
the effect of reducing the air
gap flux Φ, due to saturation
and armature reaction.
95
Shunt motor:
Te
m  m 0  Ra (3)
K a2 2
Since with increase of Te, Φ is
reduced, Te/ Φ2 increases at a
faster rate and the speed drops
more rapidly with the increase of
torque in a shunt motor as shown
in the figure.
If effect of armature reaction is
neglected, then [KaΦ]2 in equation
(3) remains constant.
As a result, the speed drop with
Te is slow as shown in the figure.
96
Series motor:
For series motor the performance equations are,
Eb 
PnZ
 K a m Eb  Vt  I a  Ra  Rse 
a
Ka 
PZ Vt  I a  Ra  Rse 
m  (1)
2a K a
Te
But Te  K a I a  K a CI 2
Or , I a  (2)
a
KaC
97
Series motor:
Substituting the value of Φ = CIa, in equation (1)
Vt I a  Ra  Rse 
m   (3)
Ka Ka
Or , m 
Vt

 Ra  Rse 
K a CI a K aC
m 
Vt

 Ra  Rse 
(4)
K a CTe K aC
98
Series motor:
m 
Vt  Ra  Rse 
 (4)
K aCTe K aC
Thus with negligible saturation

and armature reaction, the
speed-torque characteristic is a
hyperbola, as shown by solid
curve in the figure.
99
Series motor:
With saturation and armature
reaction included, large torques
require large currents and these
large currents tend to make air gap
flux Φ constant. This has the effect
of making Te approximately
proportional to Ia (i.e. Te = KaΦIa)
and in view of this, equation (3)
becomes,
Vt Te  Ra  Rse 
m   (3)
Ka  Ka
2
100
Series motor:
Vt T R  R 
m   e a 2 se (3)
Ka  Ka
Thus, above a certain value of Te
when air-gap flux Φ remains
approximately constant due to
armature reaction and saturation;
speed-torque characteristic
approaches a straight line as
illustrated by dotted curve. It is seen
from this figure that for a series
motor, the speed drop at increased
load torques is almost negligible.
101
Syllabus
DC machine:
Construction
102
Syllabus
DC machine:
Construction
103
Speed control
104
Terms related to speed control of dc
motor
Base Speed: It is defined as the speed at which a motor runs at
.
rated armature voltage and rated field current. Base speed is

equal to the rated speed or nameplate speed of the motor.
Speed regulation: If the speed-change from no load to full

load is Δωm then speed regulation is defined as the ratio of Δωm
to rated speed (or base speed) ωm.
m
Therefore, percent speed regulation   100%
m
105
Speed control of dc Shunt Motors
.
The term ‘speed control’ stands for

intentional speed variation, carried out
manually or automatically. Natural
speed change due to load, is not
included in the term ‘speed control’.
D.C. motors are most suitable for

wide range speed control and are,
therefore, indispensable for many
adjustable speed drives.
Vt  I a Ra
The speed of a d.c. shunt motor is given by, m  (1)
Ka
where, armature constant Ka 
PZ
2a
and Φ is the field flux per pole.
106
Vt  I a Ra
.
m  (1)
Ka
It follows from equation (1) that for a

d.c. shunt motor, there are basically
three methods of speed control and
these are :
(i) Variation of the armature terminal
voltage,
(ii) Variation of resistance in the
armature circuit, and
(iii) Variation of the field flux.
107
. Speed control by varying the armature terminal voltage:
In this method of speed control the voltage applied to the
armature terminals is varied while keeping the field flux
unchanged.
This requires a variable voltage source separate from the
source supplying the field windings.
This type of speed control is most effective and most
economical when the motor is driving a constant torque load
keeping the armature current constant.
In order to quantize the dependence of speed on supply voltage,
the following two equations are considered,
Vt  I a Ra
m  (1) Te  K a I a (2)
Ka
108
Vt  I a Ra
m  (1) Te  K a I a (2)
Ka
Combining equations (1) and (2),

Vt Te
m   Ra 2 2 (3)
Ka Ka 
109
Vt Te
m   Ra 2 2 (3)
Ka Ka 
Comparing equation (3) with
the standard equation of
straight line y = mx+c, the
speed versus torque
characteristics of a dc shunt
motor for different values of
supply voltage at the armature
terminals is shown in the
figure.
Constant load torque is denoted by the vertical TL line as shown
in the figure. 110
Stable operating points are
obtained where the vertical
line representing constant
load torque intersects the
sloping lines representing
speed-torque characteristics
of the dc shunt motor at
different supply voltages.
As seen, the operating speed drops with reduction in supply
voltage.
In this method, thus, the speed control is achieved in the
downward direction from the base speed as the voltage applied to
the armature is reduced from its rated value. 111
Since the speed control is done
with rated current Ia and with
constant flux Φ, a constant torque
(∞ Φ Ia) is obtained upto the base
speed.
The power P = Torque x speed,
however, increases with speed.
Thus, with armature voltage
control method constant torque
and a variable power drive is
achieved.
Q. Why speeds above the base speed is not possible using supply voltage
control of a DC shunt motor?
112
.
Speed control by varying the resistance in series with the armature circuit:
In this method of speed control, a variable
resistance RC (known as the controller
resistance) is connected in series with the
armature as shown in the schematic
diagram.
When RC is not present, then the armature
current Ia1, can be expressed as,
Vt  Eb V  K a m1
I a1   t
Ra Ra
113
.
When RC is inserted in the armature circuit
and if it is assumed that there is no change
in speed for the time being, then
Vt  K a m1 Ra
Ia2   I a1
Ra  RC Ra  RC
114
.
In shunt motor, field flux Φ remains

unchanged, therefore, with the reduction
of armature current to Ia2, electromagnetic
torque Te, decreases from KaΦIa1 to
KaΦIa2.
Since Te has become less than constant
load torque, the speed decreases, back
e.m.f. also decreases.
115
.
As a result of it, armature current Ia

increases till it becomes equal to its initial
value Ial, so that the initial electromagnetic
torque KaΦIa1 is developed again.
116
.
Now, speed of a dc shunt motor is given
by,
Vt  I a1Ra Eb1
m1  
Ka Ka
When new steady state condition is
reached, with RC in the armature circuit,
then,
Vt  I a1  Ra  RC  Eb 2
m 2  
Ka Ka
117
.
m 2 n2 Eb 2
  
m1 n1 Eb1
Vt  I a1  Ra  RC 
 (1)
Vt  I a1 Ra
Equation (1) shows that ωm2 is

less than ωml.
118
.
Speed control by varying the field flux:
This method of speed control, also
called field-weakening method or field-
current control method, gives speeds
above the base speed only.
The field flux and hence the speed of a
shunt motor, can be controlled easily by
varying the field regulating resistance, Rg.
Under steady running conditions, if
field circuit resistance is increased, the
field current If and the field flux Φ are
reduced.
119
.
Since the rotor speed cannot change Eb  K a m (1)
suddenly due to its inertia, a decrease
in field flux causes a reduction of I a  Vt  Eb (2)
counter emf, Eb. Ra
As a result of it, more current flows Te  K a I a (3)
through the armature.
The percentage increase in Ia is much
more than the percentage decrease in
the field flux.
120
.
In view of this, the electromagnetic Eb  K a m (1)
torque is increased and this being more
than the load torque, the motor gets I a  Vt  Eb (2)
accelerated. Ra
With this, the counter e.m.f. rises and Te  K a I a (3)
Ia starts decreasing till electromagnetic
torque becomes equal to the constant Te  TL (4)
load torque.
121
.
If armature current is Ia1, for flux Φ1,
and Ia2 when the flux is changed to Φ2
then for a constant load torque,
Te ( TL )
I a1  (5)
K a 1
Vt  I a1Ra
m1  (6)
K a 1
Te ( TL )
Ia2  (7)
Ka2
Vt  I a 2 Ra
m 2  (8)
Ka2
122
Example5: A 250 V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.6 ohm and a
field resistance of 250 ohm. When driving at 650 rpm, a constant torque
load, the armature takes 20A. If it is required to raise the speed from 650
rpm, to 850 rpm, what resistance must be inserted in the shunt field circuit
assuming linear magnetization characteristics?
Given, Vt  250V ; ra  0.6; rf  250;
N1  650rpm; I a1  20 A; N 2  850rpm;
At 650 rpm, Te11I a1
At 850rpm, Te 2 2 I a 2
Te1 1I a1 1  20
 1 
Te 2 2Ia2 2 Ia2
 I a 2  20
1
 20k 1
2
where k 
2
123
Given, Vt  250V ; ra  0.6; rf  250;
N1  650rpm; I a1  20 A; N 2  850rpm;
At 650 rpm, Eb1  Vt  I a1ra   250  20  0.6 V  238V
At 850rpm, Eb 2  Vt  I a 2 ra   250  20k  0.6    250  12k 
Eb1 N11
Now, 
Eb 2 N 2 2
238 650  1 13
   k
250  12k 850   2 17
Or, k 2  20.83k  25.94  0
124
Given, Vt  250V ; ra  0.6; rf  250;
N1  650rpm; I a1  20 A; N 2  850rpm;
Solving, k  19.49, 1.35
Higher value of 19.49 is not feasible.
1
k  1.35
2
Since magnetization curve is linear,
1 I f 1
  1.35
2 I f 2
125
Given, Vt  250V ; ra  0.6; rf  250;
N1  650rpm; I a1  20 A; N 2  850rpm;
Vt 250
But, I f 1   A  1A
rf 250
1
 If2  A  0.74 A
1.35
Vt 250
New shunt-field circuit resistance, rf 1     337.84
I f 2 0.74
External resistance that must be inserted in shunt-field circuit
  337.84  250    87.84
126
Speed control of dc Series Motors
. The speed of a d.c. series motor is given by,
Vt  I a  Ra  Rse 
m  (1)
Ka
where, armature constant K a  PZ
2a
and Φ is the field flux per pole.
127
.
Vt  I a  Ra  Rse 
m  (1)
Ka
It follows from equation (1) that for

a d.c. series motor, there are
basically three methods of speed
control and these are :
(i) Variation of the armature
terminal voltage,
(ii) Variation of resistance in the
armature circuit, and
(iii) Variation of the field flux.
128
Series-parallel connection:
The series-parallel
combination method is
applied in drives where two
identical series motors each
rated half the required load
capacity is used.
129
.
In this method of speed control, a

variable resistance RC (known as the
controller resistance) is connected in
series with the armature as shown in
the schematic diagram.
Before the introduction of resistor
RC,
Vt  Eb1  I a1  Ra  Rse 
 K a m1  I a1  Ra  Rse 
130
.
If saturation is neglected, then field

flux is proportional to the armature
current. Let Φ=CIa so that Φ1=CIa1.
 Vt   K a Cm1   Ra  Rse   I a1
  K m1   Ra  Rse   I a1
where, K  K a C
Vt  I a1  Ra  Rse 
 m1  (1)
KI a1
131
.
After the resistor RC is inserted in

series with the armature circuit,
Vt   K a C m 2   Ra  Rse  RC   I a 2
For constant load torque,

K a 1 I a1  K a 2 I a 2
Or , K aCI a21  K aCI a22
Or , I a1  I a 2
132
.
After the resistor RC is inserted in

series with the armature circuit,
 Vt   K a Cm 2   Ra  Rse  RC   I a1
Vt  I a1  Ra  Rse  RC 
and m 2 
KI a1
(2)
From Equations (1) and (2),

m 2 n2 E
  b2
m1 n1 Eb1
Vt  I a1  Ra  Rse  RC 

Vt  I a1  Ra  Rse 
(3)
Equation (3) shows that ωm2 is less than ωml.

133
.
The field flux and, therefore, the speed of a series motor can
be varied
(a) by placing a resistor, called a diverter, in parallel with the
series field winding
(b) by tapping the series field winding and
(c) by changing the field coil connections from series to
parallel.
134
.
Diverter field control:
When the diverter resistance is
varied, the current in the series
field winding is changed and
there is, therefore, a
corresponding change in field
flux and the speed.
135
.
Tappped-field control:
When the field winding is
tapped, the number of series
field turns is changed and,
therefore, the series field
m.m.f. and the speed are
changed.
136
.
Series-parallel field control:
In this method, the series field
winding is divided into two
equal halves.
When these two halves are in
series, then for an armature current
of Ia, total field m.m.f. Fs is,
 Ns Ns 
Fs  I a     Ia Ns
 2 2 
Counter emf,
Ebs  Vt  I a  Ra  Rse 
137
.
When the two halves of field
winding are connected in parallel,
then for the same Ia, each parallel
path shares Ia/2 and total field
m.m.f. Fp is
 I a  N s  Ia Ns
Fp      2 
 2  2  2
Counter emf,
 Rse 
Ebp  Vt  I a  Ra  
 4 
138
.
For no magnetic saturation,
 Ia Ns 
n2  
Ebp
  
2
Ebs n1  I a N s 
Ebp
Or, n2  2n1 
Ebs
139
Example6: A dc series motor, connected to a 440 V supply, runs at 600 rev
per min when taking a current of 50 A. Calculate the value of a resistor
which, when inserted in series with the motor, will reduce the speed to 400
rev per min, the gross torque being 70% of its previous value. Series
resistance of motor including armature and field is 0.2 Ω. Assume the flux to
be proportional to the field current. The brush voltage drop as well as
armature reaction are negligible.
Given, Vt  440V ; ra  0.2; I a1  50 A; N1  600rpm;
N 2  400rpm; Te 2  0.7Te1
At 600 rpm, Eb1  Vt  I a1ra   440  50  0.2 V  430V
For series motor, I se I a
 I  Ia2 
2
Te 2
  0.7  2 a 2  
Te1 1I a1 I
 a1 
 I a 2  0.7 I a1  0.7  50A  41.83A
140
N 2  400rpm; Te 2  0.7Te1
At 400 rpm, Eb 2  Vt  I a 2  ra  Rc 
 440  41.83   0.2  Rc   431.63  41.83Rc
For linear magnetization characteristic,
2 Ia2
  0.84
1 I a1
141
N 2  400rpm; Te 2  0.7Te1
Therefore,
Eb 2 N 2 2

Eb1 N11
431.63  41.83Rc 400

   0.84
430 600
 Rc  4.56
142
Losses in dc machines
143
For d.c. machines, the various losses are:
1. No-load Rotational loss:
This loss is made up of two losses, namely
(a) the iron loss at working flux and speed and
(b) the mechanical loss, i.e. friction and windage losses at the
operating speed.
Let the no-load rotational loss be represented by W0.
144
For d.c. machines, the various losses are:
2. I2R (Copper loss) loss:
This loss is made up of two losses, namely
(a) Armature circuit loss Ia2Ra, where Ra includes the resistances
of brush contacts, armature winding.
(b) Field ohmic loss VfIf. This loss also includes the field-
rheostat loss. In series machines, field ohmic loss forms a part of
the armature circuit loss.
145
Efficiency of dc machines
In general, the efficiency is given by
Output Losses
 1
Input Input
Losses I a2 Ra  V f I f  W0
For a generator, g  1  1
Vt I L  Losses Vt I L  I a2 Ra  V f I f  W0
I a2 Ra  V f I f  W0
For a motor, m  1 
Vt I L
146
Example7: On no-load, a shunt motor takes 5 A at 250 V, the resistances of
the field and armature circuits are 250 Ω and 0.1 Ω respectively. Calculate
the output power and efficiency of the motor when the total supply current is
81 A at the same supply voltage (State any assumptions made).
Given, Vt  250 V ra  0.1 Ω I L 0  5A rf  250 

I L1  81 A
Vt 250
Field current, I f   A 1 A
rf 250
At no load,
Armature current, I a 0  I L 0  I f   5  1 A  4 A
Back emf, Eb 0  Vt  I a 0ra   250  4  0.1V  249.6 V
No load rotational loss, W  E I  I 2 r
  249.6  4  4  0.1 W
0 b0 a0 a0 a
2
 996.8 W
147

I L1  81 A
Vt 250
rf 250
At full load,
Armature current, I a1  I L1  I f   81  1 A  80 A
Cu-loss, P  I a21ra  Vt I f   802  0.1  250  1 W  890 W
PLoss  PCu  W0   996.8  890  W
Cu
Total losses,
 1886.8 W
148

I L1  81 A
Vt 250
rf 250
At full load,
Input power, Pin  Vt I L1  250  81 W  20250 W
Output power, P0  Pin  PLoss   20250  1886.8  W
 18363.2 W
P0 18363.2
Efficiency,    100%  90.68%
Pin 20250 149
Thank You
150

DC Machine Notes - 16.02.2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

DC Machine Notes - 16.02.2023

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

DC Machine Notes - 16.02.2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DC machine

a2 For wave winding

There are, in general, two methods of exciting the field windings

(a) Separate excitation and

DC machines may have one or more field windings and their

In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is supplied

In shunt machines, the field coil is connected in parallel with the

A compound excitation involves both the series excited winding and

Equation 3 is the power balance equation.

Let us consider the schematic

Following Thevenin’s theorem, the

The emf source is intentionally

The field winding also needs to be

Multiplying equation (1) by Ia ,

Vt I a  Electrical power output of the generator

For wave connected winding,

For lap connected winding,

Multiplying equation (1) by Ia ,

Vt I a  Electrical power input to the motor

The direction of shaft torque is opposite to that of speed of rotor

For lap connected winding,

Resistance of each conductor = 0.01 ohm

Given, N1  1200 rpm I L1  I a1  200 A Ra  0.5 

Substituting the value of Ia, in equation (1)

It is seen from equation (3)

Thus with negligible saturation

rated armature voltage and rated field current. Base speed is

Speed regulation: If the speed-change from no load to full

The term ‘speed control’ stands for

D.C. motors are most suitable for

It follows from equation (1) that for a

Combining equations (1) and (2),

In shunt motor, field flux Φ remains

As a result of it, armature current Ia

Equation (1) shows that ωm2 is

and Φ is the field flux per pole.

It follows from equation (1) that for

In this method of speed control, a

If saturation is neglected, then field

After the resistor RC is inserted in

For constant load torque,

After the resistor RC is inserted in

From Equations (1) and (2),

Equation (3) shows that ωm2 is less than ωml.

431.63  41.83Rc 400

Given, Vt  250 V ra  0.1 Ω I L 0  5A rf  250 

Given, Vt  250 V ra  0.1 Ω I L 0  5A rf  250 

Given, Vt  250 V ra  0.1 Ω I L 0  5A rf  250 

You might also like