1 Science Tutorial 2021 V1

SCIENCE TUTORIAL GETeducare.co.
za 2021 Version 1
TERM 1
Life Science
1. Basic Characteristics of Organisms
1.1 Living Things are Composed of Cells: These are the 8 characteristics of living organisms.
1. Nutrition
2. Respiration
3. Movement
4. Excretion
5. Growth
6. Reproduction
7. Sensitivity
8. Homeostasis
2. Cell Theory
2.1 In biology, cell theory is a scientific theory which describes the properties of cells. These cells are the
basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction.
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Who first recognized the cell as the universal unit of life?

The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first Cell Theory is credited to
the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s.
What are the three main parts of the cell theory?

Cell theory has 3 basic points:
- All living things are made of cells.
- The cell is the smallest living thing that can perform all the functions of life.
- All cells must come from pre-existing cells.
What does the cell theory tell us about?

The generally accepted portions of the modern Cell Theory are as follows: The cell is the fundamental unit
of structure and function in living things. All organisms are made up of one or more cells. Cells arise from
other cells through cellular division.
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3. Binomial Nomenclature
The scientific naming of species whereby each species receives a Latin or Latinized name of two parts, the
first indicating the genus and the second being the specific epithet. For example, Juglans regia is the English
walnut; Juglans nigra, the black walnut.
Binomial nomenclature (also called binominal nomenclature or binary nomenclature) is a formal system of
naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin
grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages.

Importance of Binomial Nomenclature
Before Linnaeus came along and simplified things, plants usually had many long descriptive Latin names,
making learning and memorizing them very difficult. The names were also changed based on the will of the
botanist describing the plant. There weren’t universal names for each plant, so people around the world
couldn’t be certain that they were talking about the same plants.
Once the plants had been given specific names, many benefits were seen.
1. Clarification – each plant had a unique name that was specific to that plant.
2. Universal – everyone used the same name to identify the specific plant.
3. Education – plant names were easier to remember and to learn.
4. Classification – plants were more easily categorized and the categories easier to understand.
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4. DNA
4.1 Deoxyribonucleic acid (i/diˈɒksiˌraɪboʊnjʊˌkliːɪk, -ˌkleɪɪk/;[1] DNA) is a molecule that carries most of the
genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living
organisms and many viruses.
What is DNA?
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly
every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called
nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called
mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the
double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide
because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
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5. Genes
5.1 A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes, which are made up of DNA, act as
instructions to make molecules called proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases
to more than 2 million bases.
How big is a gene?

Further, genes code for proteins, which might result in identifiable traits, but it is the gene (genotype), not
the trait (phenotype), which is inherited. Big genes are a class of genes whose nuclear transcript spans 500
kb (1 kb = 1,000 base pairs) or more of chromosomal DNA.
Who discovered the gene?
Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word "gene" ("gen" in Danish and German) in 1909 to
describe these fundamental physical and functional units of heredity. William Bateson in 1905 coined the
term genetics from the word gene.
How are characteristics determined by genes?

Every human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A trait is any gene-
determined characteristic and is often determined by more than one gene. Some traits are caused by
abnormal genes that are inherited or that are the result of a new mutation.
What is the structure of the gene?
Gene structure. Protein coding genes have a coding region flanked by untranslated regions and may be split
into exons and introns. There are two general types of gene in the human genome: non-coding RNA genes
and protein-coding genes.
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6. Gene Mutation
6.1 A gene mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene, such that the
sequence differs from what is found in most people. Mutations range in size; they can affect anywhere from
a single DNA building block (base pair) to a large segment of a chromosome that includes multiple genes.
How does a genetic mutation occur?
These changes can be caused by environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation from the sun, or can
occur if a mistake is made as DNA copies itself during cell division. Acquired mutations in somatic cells (cells
other than sperm and egg cells) cannot be passed on to the next generation.
What are the causes of mutations?
Acquired (or somatic) mutations occur at some time during a person's life and are present only in certain
cells, not in every cell in the body.
What is a mutation in DNA?
A mutation is a change in DNA, the hereditary material of life. An organism's DNA affects how it looks, how
it behaves, and its physiology. So a change in an organism's DNA can cause changes in all aspects of its life.
Mutations are essential to evolution; they are the raw material of genetic variation.
What are the types of genetic mutations?
Point Mutations, Frameshift mutations, Non-sense and Missense mutations
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7. Genetic vs. Environmental Traits

7.1 What is an environmental traits?
- Environmental traits are influenced by your environment (you can learn them or control them). - Inherited
traits are traits that you get from your parents that are influenced by your genes.
What is nature and nurture?
"Nature versus nurture" is a psychology term related to whether heredity or the environment most impacts
human psychological development (behavior, habits, intelligence, personality, sexuality, aggressive
tendencies, and so on).
What is a heritable trait in biology?
Heritability is the proportion of observed differences on a trait among individuals of population that is due to
genetic differences. Factors including genetics, environment and random chance can all contribute to the
variation between individuals in their observable characteristics (in their "phenotypes").

What is the difference between nature and nurture?
Nature refers to traits and characteristics that are inherited or genetic in origin, while nurture refers to traits
and qualities that are learned by organisms as they grow. The terms "nature" and "nurture" consist of many
different subcategories in the field of psychology.
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8. Organic Evolution
8.1 Organic evolution - (biology) the sequence of events involved in the evolutionary development of a
species or taxonomic group of organisms.
What is the meaning of evolution in biology?
Evolution is change in heritable traits of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary
processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organisation, including the levels of species,
individual organisms, and molecules.
What is the theory of evolution?
Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin and others,
stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited
variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.
The theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" in
1859, is the process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or
behavioral traits.
What is the evolution?
In biology, evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on
the process of natural selection. The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species? are related and
gradually change over time.
How a species can evolve?
They also may evolve varied characteristics for attracting mates. That is, different groups evolve in different
directions. Over time, these groups or populations may become so different that they can no longer breed
together – separate species are formed.
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9. Plant and Animal Cells

9.1 Structurally, plant and animal cells are very similar because they are both eukaryotic cells. They both
contain membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.
What is the difference between plant and animal cells?
The main structural differences between plant and animal cells are the additional structures found in plant
cells. These structures include: chloroplasts, the cell wall, and vacuoles. In animal cells, the mitochondria
produces the majority of the cells energy from food.
Do animal and plant cells have ribosomes?

All animals and plants are made of cells. Animal cells and plant cells have features in common, such as a
nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes. Plant cells also have a cell wall, and often
have chloroplasts and a permanent vacuole.
Do plant cells have a mitochondria?
Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria. Following this logic, if plant cells use ATP, and ATP is
made in the mitochondria, then plant cells must have mitochondria. Plants need to do something with all
that glucose they make!
Do animal cells have a nucleolus?
ribosomes. plant and animal cell: where proteins for the cell are produced. They are made in the nucleolus.
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10. Proteins
10.1 Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They do most of the
work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.
What is the main use of protein in the body?
Your body uses the protein you eat to make lots of specialized protein molecules that have specific jobs. For
instance, your body uses protein to make hemoglobin (say: hee-muh-glow-bin), the part of red blood cells
that carries oxygen to every part of your body. Other proteins are used to build cardiac muscle.
Where do you get protein from?
All foods made from meat, poultry, seafood, beans and peas, eggs, processed soy products, nuts, and seeds
are considered part of the Protein Foods Group. Beans and peas are also part of the Vegetable Group.
Who discovered the protein?
In the 1950's, Linus Pauling became known as the founder of molecular biology due to his discovery of the
spiral structure of proteins (Taton, 1964). Pauling's discoveries contributed to Watson and Crick's
breakthrough of the DNA double helix.
What is the function of proteins in the body?
Protein is essential to the structure of red blood cells, for the proper functioning of antibodies resisting
infection, for the regulation of enzymes and hormones, for growth, and for the repair of body tissue.
Protein sources: Amino acids are the building blocks of protein and are found in a variety of foods.
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11. Kingdom Animalia

11.1 The word 'animal' is derived from the Latin word animalis which means 'having breath'. The Kingdom
Animalia is characterized by eukaryotic and heterotrophic organisms.
Kingdom Animalia is one of four kingdoms in the Domain Eukarya. It is distinct from the other three
kingdoms, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista, in several ways.
The life cycle of organisms in Kingdom Animalia also separates them from organisms in the other three
kingdoms.
Characteristics of Life:
● Living things are organized.
● Living things are made up of cells.
● Living things metabolize.
● Living things maintain an internal environment.
● Living things grow.
● Living things respond.
● Living things reproduce.
● Living things evolve.
Kingdom Animalia Characteristics:

● All animals are multicellular, eukaryotic heterotrophs —they have multiple cells with mitochondria and
they rely on other organisms for their nourishment.
● Adult animals develop from embryos: small masses of unspecialized cells
● Simple animals can regenerate or grow back missing parts
● Most animals ingest their food and then digest it in some kind of internal cavity.
● Somewhere around 9 or 10 million species of animals inhabit the earth.
● About 800,000 species have been identified.
● Animal Phyla - Biologists recognize about 36 separate phyla within the Kingdom Animalia.
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12. Kingdom Fungi

12.1 A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes unicellular microorganisms
such as yeasts and molds, as well as multicellular fungi that produce familiar fruiting forms known as
mushrooms.
Fungi also cause a number of plant and animal diseases: in humans, ringworm, athlete's foot, and several
more serious diseases are caused by fungi. Because fungi are more chemically and genetically similar to
animals than other organisms, this makes fungal diseases very difficult to treat. Plant diseases caused by
fungi include rusts, smuts, and leaf, root, and stem rots, and may cause severe damage to crops. However, a
number of fungi, in particular the yeasts, are important "model organisms" for studying problems in genetics
and molecular biology.
Fungi are important organisms that belong to their own kingdom, completely separate from plants and
animals. A hugely diverse group of great economic importance, fungi remain vastly under-studied compared
to plants.
It is estimated that there may be anything from 700,000 to 5 million species of fungi in the world. Even using
the most widely cited estimate of 1.5 million, this makes fungi more than six times as diverse as flowering
plants. Yet only about 100,000 species have so far been described.
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13. Kingdom Plantae

13.1 There are different types of plant species, which are found on planet earth. They are sorted and
classified into a separate kingdom known as Kingdom plantae. This classification is based on their similarities
and differences.
The Kingdom plantae is also called as kingdom Metaphyta. The Kingdom plantae includes all types of
eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthetic plants found in this biosphere. Most of the organism in this
kingdom is autotrophs, which synthesis their own food with the help of solar energy. There are very few
species, which are both autotrophs and heterotrophs. The history of life on earth and the success of many
organisms literally depend on the success of plants.

Kingdom Plantae Definition:

The Kingdom plantae can be defined as multicellular, autotrophic eukaryotes, which conduct photosynthesis.
All member of this family comprises of true nucleus and advanced membrane bound organelles. They are
quite different from animals. The Kingdom Plantae contains about 300,000 different species of plants.
Among the five kingdoms, Kingdom plantae is a very important, as they are the source of food for all other
living creatures present on planet earth, which depends on plants to survive.
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14. Biological Classification Systems

14.1 Biological Classification of Organisms
Category Name Characteristics

Organisms that usually have rigid cell walls and usually possess
Kingdom Plantae
chlorophyll.
Subkingdom Embryophyta Plants forming embryos.
Phylum Tracheophyta Vascular plants.
Subphylum Pterophytina Generally large, conspicuous leaves, complex vascular system.
What is the classification of living things?

Classification of Living Things & Naming[edit] In science, the practice of classifying organisms is called
taxonomy (Taxis means arrangement and nomos means method). The modern taxonomic system was
developed by the Swedish botanist Carolus (Carl) Linneaeus (1707-1788).
What is the definition of taxonomy in biology?

Taxonomy (from Ancient Greek: τάξις taxis, "arrangement," and -νομία -nomia, "method") is the science of
defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those
groups.

What is the hierarchy of the classification system?
Biological classification, or scientific classification in biology, is a method of scientific taxonomy used to
group and categorize organisms hierarchically. Rank-based systems use a fixed number of levels in the
hierarchy, such as kingdom, family, genus or species.
Who first proposed a system for classifying organisms?
The first individual to propose an orderly system for classifying the variety of organisms found on our planet
was Linnaeus (1753). In his system of classification, the finest unit in the organization of life is the species.
Linnaeus suggested that every organism should be classified with a unique binomial name.
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TERM 2
2. Space Science Tutorials
2.1 Measures of Distance Used in Astronomy
AU (astronomical units) One AU is the distance that the average distance that the Earth orbits the Sun at.
The AUis most commonly used for the distances of objects with in our solar system. Pluto, the last planet in
the solar system is found at an average distance of 39.47 au from the Sun.
How do astronomers measure the distance to a star?

Astronomers can measure parallax by measuring the position of a nearby star very carefully with respect to
more distant stars behind it, then measuring those distances again six months later when the Earth is on the
opposite side of its orbit.
What is the unit used to measure distance?

Astronomers use many of the same units of measurement as other scientists. They often use meters for
length, kilograms for mass, and seconds for time. However, the distances and sizes in the universe can be so
big, that astronomers have invented more units to describe distance.
How do we measure the distance in space?

Most objects in space are so far away, that using a relatively small unit of distance, such as an astronomical
unit, is not practical. Instead, astronomers measure distances to objects which are outside our solar system
in light-years.
What is the unit used to measure the distance between stars?

Proxima Centauri is the nearest star to Earth (other than the Sun) and is 4.2 light-years away. This means
light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to travel to Earth. Parsecs: Many astronomers prefer to use
parsecs (abbreviated pc) to measure distance to stars.
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2.2 Moon and Sun on Ocean Tides

The sun and moon, the shape of a beach and larger coastline, the angle of a seabed leading up to land, and
the prevailing ocean currents and winds all affect the height of the tides.
We all know the moon is primarily responsible for the rising and falling of ocean tides. In most places, but
not everywhere, there are two high tides and two low tides a day. For any particular spot on Earth’s surface,
the height of the tides and their fluctuation in time depends not only on the moon, but also on the sun – and
also on the shape of the specific beach, the larger coastline, the angle of the seabed leading up to land, and
the prevailing ocean currents and winds.
The difference in height between high and low waters varies as the moon waxes and wanes from new to full
and back to new again. The larger tides are called spring tides (nothing to do with season of spring). The
smaller tides are called neap tides. Click the links below to learn more about the tides.

Around each new moon and full moon – when the sun, Earth, and moon are located more or less on a line in
space – the range between high and low tides is greatest. These are called spring tides. Image via
physicalgeography.net
Earth has two tidal bulges, one of the side of Earth nearest the moon (where the moon’s gravity pulls
hardest), and the other on the side of Earth farthest from the moon (where the moon’s gravity pulls least).
Tides are the sum of effects caused by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun, as well as the
gravitational force here on Earth.
The Moon's gravitational force is equivalent to only 17% of the Earth's gravity; while the Sun affects about
46% of a force over the Earth. As it is so much closer, the moon is constantly attracting waters of the Earth.
When the Moon is in line with one side of the Earth, it pulls on the water, causing a high tide. Because the
Earth rotates on its axis the moon completes one orbit in our sky every 25 hours. Thus, we see two tidal
peaks - as well as two tidal troughs - roughly every 12 hours.
Since the Moon moves around the Earth, it is not always in the same place at the same time each day. So,
each day, the times for high and low tides change by 50 minutes.
About once every 19 years, February has no full moon at all.
When the Moon, Earth and Sun are perfectly aligned, the sum of the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon
cause maximum tide, or extreme tides.
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2.3 Solar System

What solar system is the earth part of?

Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun, the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. It includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets,
asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium.
What makes up the solar system?

Our solar system is made up of a star - the Sun - eight planets, 146 moons, a bunch of comets, asteroids and
space rocks, ice and several dwarf planets, such as Pluto. The eight planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Mercury is closest to the Sun. Neptune is the farthest.
How old are all the planets in our solar system?

Earth was born out of the debris of a protoplanetary disc around a nascent Sun 4.54 billion years ago – a
serious chunk of time in anybody's book. Yet the Universe is 13.7 billion years old – the Solar System has
been around for just the last third of cosmic history.
What is the name of the nine planets?

The inner solar system contains Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These four planets are closest to the Sun.
The outer solar system contains Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. The inner planets are
separated from the outer planets by the Asteroid Belt.
The Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular
cloud. The vast majority of the system's mass is in the Sun, with most of the remaining mass contained in
Jupiter. The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are terrestrial planets, being
primarily composed of rock and metal. The four outer planets are giant planets, being substantially more
massive than the terrestrials. The two largest, Jupiter and Saturn, are gas giants, being composed mainly of
hydrogen and helium; the two outermost planets, Uranus and Neptune, are ice giants, being composed
mostly of substances with relatively high melting points compared with hydrogen and helium, called ices,
such as water, ammonia and methane. All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a nearly flat disc
called the ecliptic. wikipedia
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2.4 The Sun - Sun - Star

The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System and is by far the most important source of energy for life
on Earth. Wikipedia
Our Sun is a normal main-sequence G2 star, one of more than 100 billion stars in our galaxy.
The Sun Profile
Age: 4.6 Billion Years
Type: Yellow Dwarf (G2V)
Diameter: 1,392,684 km
Equatorial Circumference 4,370,005.6 km
Mass: 1.99 × 10^30 kg (333,060 Earths)
Surface Temperature: 5,500 °C

History of The Sun

The Sun is by far the largest object in the solar system. It contains more than 99.8% of the total mass of the
Solar System (Jupiter contains most of the rest).
It is often said that the Sun is an "ordinary" star. That's true in the sense that there are many others similar
to it. But there are many more smaller stars than larger ones; the Sun is in the top 10% by mass. The median
size of stars in our galaxy is probably less than half the mass of the Sun.
The Sun is personified in many mythologies: the Greeks called it Helios and the Romans called it Sol.
The Sun is, at present, about 70% hydrogen and 28% helium by mass everything else ("metals") amounts to
less than 2%. This changes slowly over time as the Sun converts hydrogen to helium in its core.
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2.5 Types of Stars

When you look at the night sky you can see many beautiful stars. If you are out in the country or camping in
the mountains or the desert away from the city lights, you may see thousands of them. You may even be
able to see part of the Milky Way. In a town or city, you can't see nearly as many stars because the city lights
create a glow in the sky masking many of them.
There are several different kinds of stars in the sky. Some are very big. A couple of stars have been found
that are 100 to 200 times larger than the sun. Some very old stars are smaller than the Earth. Scientists
study stars and place them in groups based on how they are alike and how they are different.
O – Blue
B – Blue/White
A – White
F - White/Yellow
G – Yellow
K – Orange
M - Red

How many different types of stars are there?

Star Classification.
The Sun is a as a G2V type star, a yellow dwarf and a main sequence star. Stars are classified by their spectra
(the elements that they absorb) and their temperature. There are seven main types of stars.
What is the Morgan Keenan spectral classification system?
The Yerkes spectral classification, also called the MKK system from the authors' initials, is a system of stellar
spectral classification introduced in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan, Philip C. Keenan, and Edith Kellman
from Yerkes Observatory.
What kind of a star is the sun?
Our sun is a dwarf star. Yellow dwarfs are small, main sequence stars. The Sun is a yellow dwarf. A red dwarf
is a small, cool, very faint, main sequence star whose surface temperature is under about 4,000 K. Red
dwarfs are the most common type of star.
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2.6 Milky Way

What is the Milky Way? Well, simply put, it is the name of the barred spiral galaxy in which our solar system
is located. The Earth orbits the Sun in the Solar System, and the Solar System is embedded within this vast
galaxy of stars. It is just one of hundreds of billions of galaxies in the Universe, and ours is called the Milky
Way because the disk of the galaxy appears to be spanning the night sky like a hazy band of glowing white
light.

Artist's conception of the Milky Way galaxy. Credit: Nick Risinger
1. It’s warped.
The disk is far from perfectly flat though, as can be seen in the picture below. In fact, it is warped in shape, a
fact which astronomers attribute to the our galaxy’s two neighbors –the Large and Small Magellanic clouds.
2. It has a halo, but you can’t directly see it.
Scientists believe that 90% of our galaxy’s mass consists of dark matter, which gives it a mysterious halo.
3. It has over 200 billion stars.
As galaxies go, the Milky Way is a middleweight.
4. It’s really dusty and gassy.
Though it may not look like it to the casual observer, the Milky Way is full of dust and gas.
5. It was made from other galaxies.
The Milky Way wasn’t always as it is today – a beautiful, warped spiral. It became its current size and shape
by eating up other galaxies, and is still doing so today.
6. Every picture you’ve seen of the Milky Way from above is either another galaxy or an artist’s
interpretation.
Currently, we can’t take a picture of the Milky Way from above. This is due to the fact that we are inside the
galactic disk, about 26,000 light years from the galactic center. It would be like trying to take a picture of
your own house from the inside. This means that any of the beautiful pictures you’ve ever seen of a spiral
galaxy that is supposedly the Milky Way is either a picture of another spiral galaxy, or the rendering of a
talented artist.
7. There is a black hole at the center.
Most larger galaxies have a supermassive black hole (SMBH) at the center, and the Milky Way is no exception.
8. It’s almost as old as the Universe itself.
The most recent estimates place the age of the Universe at about 13.7 billion years. Our Milky Way has been
around for about 13.6 billion of those years, give or take another 800 million.
9. It’s part of the Virgo Supercluster, a group of galaxies within 150 million light years.
As big as it is, the Milky Way is part of an even larger galactic structures. Our closest neighbors include the
Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, and the Andromeda Galaxy – the closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way.
10. It’s on the move.
The Milky Way, along with everything else in the Universe, is moving through space. The Earth moves
around the Sun, the Sun around the Milky Way, and the Milky Way as part of the Local Group, which is
moving relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation – the radiation left over from the Big
Bang.
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2.7 The Inner Planets of Our Solar System

The inner planets (in order of distance from the sun, closest to furthest) are Mercury, Venus, Earth and
Mars. After an asteroid belt comes the outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The interesting
thing is, in some other planetary systems discovered, the gas giants are actually quite close to the sun.

How are the compositions of the inner and outer planets different?
The outer planets are further away, larger and made up mostly of gas. The inner planets (in order of
distance from the sun, closest to furthest) are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. After an asteroid belt comes
the outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
What inner planet is the hottest?
Inner Planets. The four planets that are closest to the Sun are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
How the inner planets were formed?
Collisions among the objects eventually caused the number of proto planets to decrease as the size of the
accreted bodies grew. The terrestrial planets of the inner solar system (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are
relatively small and rocky compared to the other planets in the solar system.
Why the terrestrial planets are rocky?
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are called "rocky" or "terrestrial" planets. They are similar to Earth in
composition. Heat from the Sun evaporated lightweight elements like hydrogen and helium into
interplanetary space. Mostly rock and metal was left in this zone and clumped together to form the inner
rocky planets.
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2.8 The Outer Planets of Our Solar System

Astronomers have divided the eight planets of our solar system into the inner planets and the outer planets.
The 4 inner planets are the closest to the Sun, and the outer planets are the other four – Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune. The outer planets are also called the Jovian planets or gas giants.
What is the major difference in the composition of the inner planets and the outer planets?
The small inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are composed mostly of silicate rocks and metals;
the outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are much larger, consist mostly of gaseous hydrogen
and helium and ice, and have large systems of icy moons.
What are the two gas giants in our solar system?
There are four gas giants in the Solar System: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. However, astronomers
sometimes categorize Uranus and Neptune as "ice giants", in order to emphasize the differences in
composition between them and larger gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn.
Why are the gas giants in the outer solar system?
Gas giants are large planets that contain more than 10 times the mass of Earth, they are also known as the
Jovian or Outer Planets. Their compositions are mostly gases, such as hydrogen, and small amounts of rocky
material (mostly at their cores).
Which characteristic is common to the four outer planets in our solar system?
Astronomers have divided the eight planets of our solar system into the inner planets and the outer planets.
The 4 inner planets are the closest to the Sun, and the outer planets are the other four – Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune. The outer planets are also called the Jovian planets or gas giants.
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TERM 3
3. Earth Science
3.1 Climate and Weather
People often confuse climate and weather – the two really are quite different.
What is weather?
Weather describes the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time e.g. from day to day or week
to week, while climate describes average conditions over a longer period of time. Step outside and you
experience many facets of weather. Humidity, air temperature and pressure, wind speed and direction, cloud
cover and type, and the amount and form of precipitation are all atmospheric characteristics of the
momentary conditions we call weather.
What is climate?
It has been said that “climate is what you expect; weather is what you get”. In other words, you can expect
snow in Russia in January, but you may or may not get it on a particular day.
The climate of an area or country is known through the average weather over a long period of time. If an
area has more dry days throughout the year than wet days, it would be described as a dry climate; a place
which has more cold days than hot days would make it known to have a cold climate.
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3.2 Clouds
Basic Cloud Types
1. High Clouds:
Cirrus
Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments, mostly white patches or narrow bands. They may
have a fibrous (hair-like) and / or silky sheen appearance.
Cirrus clouds are always composed of ice crystals, and their transparent character depends upon the degree
of separation of the crystals.
As a rule when these clouds cross the sun's disk they hardly diminish its brightness. Before sunrise and after
sunset, cirrus is often colored bright yellow or red. These clouds are lit up long before other clouds and fade
out much later.

Cirrostratus
Transparent, whitish veil clouds with a fibrous (hair-like) or smooth appearance. A sheet of cirrostratus
which is very extensive, nearly always ends by covering the whole sky.
A milky veil of fog (or thin Stratus) is distinguished from a veil of Cirrostratus of a similar appearance by the
halo phenomena which the sun or the moon nearly always produces in a layer of cirrostratus.
Cirrocumulus
Thin, white patch, sheet, or layered of clouds without shading. They are composed of very small elements in
the form of more or less regularly arranged grains or ripples.
In general Cirrocumulus represents a degraded state of cirrus and cirrostratus both of which may change into
it and is an uncommon cloud. There will be a connection with cirrus or cirrostratus and will show some
characteristics of ice crystal clouds.
2. Mid Clouds:
Altostratus
Gray or bluish cloud sheets or layers of striated or fibrous clouds that totally or partially covers the sky. They
are thin enough to regularly reveal the sun as if seen through ground glass.
Altostratus clouds do not produce a halo phenomenon nor are the shadows of objects on the ground visible.
Sometime virga is seen hanging from Altostratus, and at times may even reach the ground causing very light
precipitation.
Altocumulus
White and / or gray patch, sheet or layered clouds, generally composed of laminae (plates), rounded masses
or rolls. They may be partly fibrous or diffuse.

When the edge or a thin semitransparent patch of altocumulus passes in front of the sun or moon a corona
appears. This colored ring has red on the outside and blue inside and occurs within a few degrees of the sun
or moon.
The most common mid cloud, more than one layer of Altocumulus often appears at different levels at the
same time. Many times Altocumulus will appear with other cloud types.
Nimbostratus
The continuous rain cloud. Resulting from thickening Altostratus, This is a dark gray cloud layer diffused by
falling rain or snow. It is thick enough throughout to blot out the sun. The cloud base lowers into the low
level of clouds as precipitation continues.
Also, low, ragged clouds frequently occur beneath this cloud which sometimes merges with its base.
3. Low Clouds:
Cumulus
Detached, generally dense clouds and with sharp outlines that develop vertically in the form of rising
mounds, domes or towers with bulging upper parts often resembling a cauliflower.
The sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white while their bases are relatively dark and horizontal.
Over land cumulus develops on days of clear skies, and is due diurnal convection; it appears in the morning,
grows, and then more or less dissolves again toward evening.

Stratus
A generally gray cloud layer with a uniform base which may, if thick enough, produce drizzle, ice prisms, or
snow grains. When the sun is visible through this cloud, its outline is clearly discernible.
Often when a layer of Stratus breaks up and dissipates blue sky is seen.
Cumulonimbus
The thunderstorm cloud, this is a heavy and dense cloud in the form of a mountain or huge tower. The upper
portion is usually smoothed, fibrous or striated and nearly always flattened in the shape of an anvil or vast
plume.
Under the base of this cloud which is often very dark, there are often low ragged clouds that may or may not
merge with the base. They produce precipitation, which sometimes is in the form of virga.
Cumulonimbus clouds also produce hail and tornadoes.
Stratocumulus
Gray or whitish patch, sheet, or layered clouds which almost always have dark tessellations (honeycomb
appearance), rounded masses or rolls. Except for virga they are non-fibrous and may or may not be merged.
They also have regularly arranged small elements with an apparent width of more than five degrees (three
fingers - at arm's length).
Department of Commerce
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Weather Service
JetStream - An Online School for Weather
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3.3 Earthquakes
An earthquake is the perceptible shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of
energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can be violent enough to toss people
around and destroy whole cities.
What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is a shaking of the ground caused by the sudden breaking and movement of large sections
(tectonic plates) of the earth's rocky outermost crust. The edges of the tectonic plates are marked by faults
(or fractures). Most earthquakes occur along the fault lines when the plates slide past each other or collide
against each other.
The shifting masses send out shock waves that may be powerful enough to:
● alter the surface of the Earth, thrusting up cliffs and opening great cracks in the ground and
● cause great damage ... collapse of buildings and other man-made structures, broken power and gas
lines (and the consequent fire), landslides, snow avalanches, tsunamis (giant sea waves) and volcanic
eruptions.
Fault or fault plane = the surface where when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another
Hypocenter = the location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts
Epicenter = the location on the surface of the earth directly above the hypocenter
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3.4 Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over time. Nothing
remains the same and habitats are constantly changing. There are two main types of succession, primary
and secondary.
What are the different stages of succession?
The stages of primary succession include pioneer plants (lichens and mosses), grassy stage, smaller shrubs,
and trees. Animals begin to return when there is food there for them to eat. When it is a fully functioning
ecosystem, it has reached the climax community stage.
What are the two major types of ecological succession?
There are two main types of succession, primary and secondary. Primary succession is the series of
community changes which occur on an entirely new habitat which has never been colonized before. For
example, a newly quarried rock face or sand dunes.
What is the definition of succession in biology?
Ecological succession is the observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological community
over time. The community begins with relatively few pioneering plants and animals and develops through
increasing complexity until it becomes stable or self-perpetuating as a climax community.
What are the four stages of primary succession?

Primary succession is broken into 4 stages: pioneer, early, mid, and late succession. In primary succession
the first organisms (lichens) to attach to the rock are called pioneer species. Mosses are generally included
as pioneer species because they require almost no soil to grow.
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3.5 Measuring Earthquakes

The Richter Scale. The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California
Institute of Technology as a mathematical device to compare the size of earthquakes. The magnitude of an
earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs.
How do you measure an earthquake?
A seismometer detects the vibrations caused by an earthquake. It plots these vibrations on a seismograph.
The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake is measured using the Richter scale. The Richter scale is
numbered 0-10.
Is the Richter scale still used today?
No, not quite. There are two ways in which scientists quantify the size of earthquakes: magnitude and
intensity. You have probably heard of the Richter scale which is still used for small earthquakes, but most
large earthquakes are now commonly reported using the moment magnitude scale.
What modern instruments are used to measure earthquakes?
Seismologists use two main devices to measure an earthquake: a seismograph and a seismoscope. The
seismograph is an instrument that measures seismic waves caused by an earthquake. The seismograph has
three main devices, the Richter Magnitude Scale, the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, and the Moment-
Magnitude Scale.
How can we use seismic waves to determine the epicenter of an earthquake?
The difference in arrival time between the two types of seismic wave can be used to calculate the distance
of the earthquake's epicenter from the seismometer, as the further away an earthquake is, the greater the
lag time between the detection of the S waves relative to the P waves.
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3.6 Plate Tectonics

A theory explaining the structure of the earth's crust and many associated phenomena as resulting from the
interaction of rigid lithospheric plates which move slowly over the underlying mantle.

Plates at our planet's surface move because of the intense heat in the Earth's core that causes molten rock in
the mantle layer to move. It moves in a pattern called a convection cell that forms when warm material rises,
cools, and eventually sink down.
From the deepest ocean trench to the tallest mountain, plate tectonics explains the features and movement
of Earth's surface in the present and the past.
Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates that glide over the mantle,
the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like a hard and rigid shell compared to Earth's mantle.
This strong outer layer is called the lithosphere.
Developed from the 1950s through the 1970s, plate tectonics is the modern version of continental drift, a
theory first proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912. Wegener didn't have an explanation for how
continents could move around the planet, but researchers do now. Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of
geology, said Nicholas van der Elst, a seismologist at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth
Observatory in Palisades, New York.
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3.7 Producers Consumers and Decomposers
Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers in the Forest Community. Producers are any kind of green plant.
Green plants make their food by taking sunlight and using the energy to make sugar. The plant uses this
sugar, also called glucose to make many things, such as wood, leaves, roots, and bark.
A: Producers: Photosynthesizing organisms
Producers are any kind of green plant. Green plants make their food by taking sunlight and using the energy
to make sugar. The plant uses this sugar, also called glucose to make many things, such as wood, leaves,
roots, and bark. Trees, such as they mighty Oak, and the grand American Beech, are examples of producers.
B. Consumers: any organism that can’t make its own food

Consumers have to feed on producers or other consumers to survive. Deer are herbivores, which means that
they only eat plants (Producers). Bears are another example of consumers. Black bears are omnivores and
scavengers, like skunks and raccoons, which means that they will eat just about anything. In a forest
community, Black Bears will eat blueberries, bugs, acorns, and many kinds of nuts.

C. Decomposers: Organism that primarily feeds on dead organisms or the waste from living organisms
Decomposers are the garbage men of the animal kingdom; they take all the dead animals and plants
(consumers and decomposers) and break them down into their nutrient components so that plants can use
them to make more food. Decomposers in the forest come in many different shapes and sizes. Shelf fungus
is a fungus that grows on the sides of trees. It grows into the tree and decomposes it slowly. Have you ever
been walking through the woods and come across a dead log that falls apart and is full of dirt? That is
because decomposers have been eating and digesting that log for several years, turning it into dirt that is
wonderful for plants.
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3.8 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources
The original organic material, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth
minerals and metal ores, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and groundwater in certain aquifers are all
considered non-renewable resources, though individual elements are almost always conserved.
What are the renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy?
Nonrenewable energy resources, like coal, nuclear, oil, and natural gas, are available in limited supplies. This
is usually due to the long time it takes for them to be replenished. Renewable esources are replenished
naturally and over relatively short periods of time.
Which one is non renewable energy?
Most non-renewable energy sources are fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Carbon is the main
element in fossil fuels. For this reason, the time period that fossil fuels formed (about 360-300 million years
ago) is called the Carboniferous Period.
Why oil is a non renewable resource?
As with other fossil fuels, oil is found in underground reservoirs. It is the end product of the decomposition
of organic materials that have been subjected to geologic heat and pressure over millions of years. Oil is
considered a non renewable resource because it cannot be replenished on a human time frame.
Is wind power a renewable or nonrenewable resource?

Nuclear power is also considered nonrenewable because of the toxic waste it creates. Renewable energy
can be produced using sources like the wind, sunlight, hydrogen, geothermal energy (heat from inside the
earth), biomass (energy from plants), flowing rivers, and even the power of the ocean!
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3.9 Tilt of Earth and Seasons
Why do theseason change?

The seasons are caused as the Earth, tilted on its axis, travels in a loop around the Sun each year. Summer
happens in the hemisphere tilted towards the Sun, and winter happens in the hemisphere tilted away from
the Sun.
What causes the change of the seasons?
Because of its elliptical orbit, the earth is closer to the sun during the northern hemisphere's winter.
However, distance from the sun does not affect the seasons. The tilt of the earth's axis causes the seasons
to change.
Why there are different seasons on Earth?
The tilt of the Earth's AXIS is the most important reason why seasons occur. We have hot summers and cold
winters because of the tilt of the Earth's axis. The tilt of the Earth means the Earth will lean towards the Sun
(Summer) or lean away from the Sun (Winter) 6 months later.
Why do the seasons happen?
The tilt of the Earth means the Earth will lean towards the Sun (Summer) or lean away from the Sun (Winter)
6 months later. In between these, Spring and Autumn will occur. The North pole always points the same
way as the Earth revolves around the Sun. The Earth's movement around the sun causes the seasons.
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3.10 Tornadoes
The intense spinning of a tornado is partly the result of the updrafts and downdrafts in the thunderstorm
(caused by the unstable air) interacting with the wind shear, resulting in a tilting of the wind shear to form an
upright tornado vortex.
Most tornadoes form from thunderstorms. You need warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and cool, dry
air from Canada. When these two air masses meet, they create instability in the atmosphere.
Facts About Tornadoes

1. A tornado is as a rotating, funnel-shaped cloud that extends from a thunderstorm to the ground with
whirling winds that can reach 300 mph.
2. Damage paths of tornadoes can be in excess of one mile wide and 50 miles long.
3. Tornadoes can accompany tropical storms and hurricanes once on land. Its super important to be
prepared for a tornado, so make sure you have a disaster plan for your pets too! Sign up for Save Our
Pets.
4. Rotating thunderstorms are the best predictors of tornado activity. They are well defined thunderstorms
on radar that may include hail, severe winds, lightning, or flash floods.
5. Tornadoes can occur when a warm front meets a cold front, forming a thunderstorm, which then can
spawn 1 or more “twisters."
6. Most twisters or cyclones travel from southwest to northeast and can move in the opposite direction for
short periods of time. A tornado can even backtrack if it is hit by winds from the eye of the
thunderstorm.
7. Funnel clouds usually last less than 10 minutes before dissipating, and many only last several seconds.
On rare occasion, cyclones can last for over an hour.
8. A tornado may appear nearly transparent until dust and debris are picked up or a cloud forms within the
funnel.
9. Twisters strike predominantly along Tornado Alley — a flat stretch of land from western Texas to North
Dakota. This region is a hotspot for tornadoes because the dry polar air from Canada meets the warm
moist tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico.
10. Tornadoes are most likely to occur between 3 pm and 9 pm, but can occur at any time.
11. In the southern states, peak tornado occurrence is March through May, while peak months in the
northernmost states are late June through August.
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3.11 Earth’s Structure

The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells, like an onion. These layers can be defined by
their chemical and their rheological properties. Earth has an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous
mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core.
What is the internal structure of the earth?
The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells, like an onion. These layers can be defined by
their chemical and their rheological properties. Earth has an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous
mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core.
What makes up the mantle of the Earth?
The mantle is made up of semi-molten rock called magma. In the upper parts of the mantle the rock is hard,
but lower down the rock is soft and beginning to melt. The crust is the outer layer of the earth. It is a thin
layer between 0-60 km thick.
How deep is the earth's crust?
The distance to the center of the Earth is 6,371 kilometers (3,958 mi), the crust is 35 kilometers (21 mi) thick,
the mantle is 2855km (1774 mi) thick — and get this: the deepest we have ever drilled is the Kola Super
deep Borehole, which is just 12km deep.
What is the different layers of the earth?

There are multiple layers of the Earth. The Earth layers are: the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the
inner core. Some of the layers are considered to parts of the lithosphere and others are part of the as the
atmosphere. Each layer has its own properties, make-up, and characteristics.
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3.12 Earth’s Atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is a thin layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. It composed of 78% nitrogen, 21%
oxygen, 0.9% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases.
How high is the Earth's atmosphere?
The Earth's atmosphere is about 300 miles (480 km) thick, but most of the atmosphere (about 80%) is within
10 miles (16 km) of the surface of the Earth. There is no exact place where the atmosphere ends; it just gets
thinner and thinner, until it merges with outer space.
How many layers of the atmosphere are there?
In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers.
Excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, and thermosphere.
How the Earth's atmosphere is heated?

Convection occurs naturally in the atmosphere on a warm, sunny day. As the earth's surface absorbs
sunlight, certain portions of the surface absorb more than other portions. The earth's surface and the air
near the surface heats unevenly.
Why is the Earth's atmosphere so important?
The atmosphere is an important part of what makes Earth livable. It blocks some of the Sun's dangerous
rays from reaching Earth. It traps heat, making Earth a comfortable temperature. And the oxygen within our
atmosphere is essential for life.
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4. Chemistry
4.1 Structure of Atoms
Atoms are the basic units of matter and the defining structure of elements. Atoms are made up of three
particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and neutrons are heavier than electrons and reside in
the center of the atom, which is called the nucleus.

Atoms are the foundation of chemistry. They are the basis for everything in the Universe. As you know,
matter is composed of atoms. Solids are made of densely packed atoms while gases have atoms that are
spread out. We're going to cover basics like atomic structure and bonding between atoms. As you learn
more, you can move to the reactions and biochemistry pages and see how atoms form compounds that help
the biological world survive.
How the atoms are arranged?
Atoms consist of electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons. Neutrons are neutral,
but protons and electrons are electrically charged. Protons have a relative charge of +1, while electrons have
a relative charge of -1. The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number.
The electron always has a "-", or negative, charge. The proton always has a "+", or positive, charge. If the
charge of an entire atom is "0", or neutral, there are equal numbers of positive and negative charges.
Neutral atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons. The third particle is the neutron. It has a
neutral charge, also known as a charge of zero.
Who discovered the atom and when?

The British physicist J. J. Thomson performed experiments studying cathode rays and discovered that they
were unique particles, later named electrons. Rutherford proved that the hydrogen nucleus is present in
other nuclei. In 1932, James Chadwick showed that there were uncharged particles in the radiation he was
using.
Where are the atoms found?
Electrons are the smallest of the three particles that make up atoms. Electrons are found in shells or orbitals
that surround the nucleus of an atom. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus. They group together
in the center of the atom.
What is the charge of the atom?
If the charge of an entire atom is "0", or neutral, there are equal numbers of positive and negative charges.
Neutral atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons. The third particle is the neutron. It has a
neutral charge, also known as a charge of zero.
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4.2 States of Matter
In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms that matter takes on. Four states of matter are
observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
How many different states of matter are there?
There are five known phases, or states, of matter: solids, liquids, gases, plasma and Bose-Einstein
condensates. The main difference in the structures of each state is in the densities of the particles. In a
solid, particles are packed tightly together so they are unable to move about very much.
Is matter a form of energy?

Matter is the “stuff” of the universe — the atoms, molecules and ions that make up all physical substances.
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Energy is the capacity to cause change. Energy cannot
be created or destroyed; it can only be conserved and converted from one form to another.
Which state of matter is highly compressible?
Compressibility is determined by the amount of space between particles in each state. Gases have the
greatest amount of space between particles, solids the least.
You should know about solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, and one state called the Bose-Einstein condensate
(BEC). Scientists have always known about solids, liquids, and gases. Plasma was a new idea when it was
identified by William Crookes in 1879.
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4.3 Non-polar Covalent Chemical Bonds
The greater the electro negativity difference, the more ionic the bond is. Bonds that are partly ionic are
called polar covalent bonds. Nonpolar covalent bonds, with equal sharing of the bond electrons, arise
when the electro negativities of the two atoms are equal.
The greater the electro negativity difference, the more ionic the bond is. Bonds that are partly ionic are
called polar covalent bonds. Nonpolar covalent bonds, with equal sharing of the bond electrons, arise when
the electro negativities of the two atoms are equal.
Is a hydrogen bond polar or nonpolar?
When comparing a polar and nonpolar molecule with similar molar masses, the polar molecule in general
has a higher boiling point, because the dipole–dipole interaction between polar molecules causes greater
attachment. The most common form of such an interaction is the hydrogen bond, which is also known as
the H-bond.
Why is methane is nonpolar?
The molecule methane has four Carbon-Hydrogen single covalent bonds. These covalent bonds are called
nonpolar covalent bonds because. The consequence of this equal sharing of electrons is that there is no
charge separation (dipole moment).
What is the difference between ionic and covalent bonds?
Ionic bonds result when electrons are transferred between atoms. Covalent bonds result when valence
electrons are shared between atoms. You should be able to identify whether an ionic or covalent bond is
being formed between atoms.
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4.4 Metallic Bonds
Metallic bonding is the force of attraction between valence electrons and the metal ions. It is the sharing of
many detached electrons between many positive ions, where the electrons act as a "glue" giving the
substance a definite structure.
How are the atoms in a piece of sodium metal held together?
Best Answer: The atoms in any metal are held together by a sea of electrons. In metals, valence electrons
are free to come and go, so a metal is really a lattice of positive ions mutually attracted to the free electrons
moving among them. That's called metallic bonding.
How strong is a metallic bond?
Metals form giant structures in which electrons in the outer shells of the metal atoms are free to move. The
metallic bond is the force of attraction between these free electrons and metal ions. Metallic bonds are
strong, so metals can maintain a regular structure and usually have high melting and boiling points.

The metallic bond is a unique type of chemical bond found in metal elements. In a sample of metal, the
valence electrons detach from the atoms and are free to move throughout the metal. This results in a sea of
electrons. The sea of electrons is negative and the metal atoms have become positive ions.
Why do transition metals have a high melting point?
Transition metals have high melting points due to strong metallic bonds. Number of unpaired electrons in
the outermost shell indicates the strength of the metallic bonds. Therefore, the more unpaired electrons are
present, the higher melting point will be.
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4.5 Bond Energy
In chemistry, bond energy (E) or bond enthalpy (H) is the measure of bond strength in a chemical bond.
IUPAC defines bond energy as the average value of the gas-phase bond dissociation energies (usually at a
temperature of 298 K) for all bonds of the same type within the same chemical species.
What is bond dissociation enthalpy?
As an example of bond dissociation enthalpy, to break up 1 mole of gaseous hydrogen chloride molecules
into separate gaseous hydrogen and chlorine atoms takes 432 kJ. The bond dissociation enthalpy for the H-
Cl bond is +432 kJ mol-1.
What is meant by the term average bond enthalpy?
In cases like this, the bond enthalpy quoted is an average value. In the methane case, you can work out how
much energy is needed to break a mole of methane gas into gaseous carbon and hydrogen atoms. That
comes to +1662 kJ and involves breaking 4 moles of C-H bonds.
Why is energy required to break a chemical bond?
When a chemical reaction occurs, molecular bonds are broken and other bonds are formed to make
different molecules. For example, the bonds of two water molecules are broken to form hydrogen and
oxygen. Bonds do not break and form spontaneously-an energy change is required.
What is bond length?
In molecular geometry, bond length or bond distance is the average distance between nuclei of two bonded
atoms in a molecule. It is a transferable property of a bond between atoms of fixed types, relatively
independent of the rest of the molecule.
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4.6 Ionic Bonds

Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a type of chemical bond
that generates two oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to become a positively
charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts those electrons to become a negatively charged anion.
Ionic bond: bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attached to another
atom, resulting in positive and negative ions which attract each other.
Covalent bond: bond in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms.
Other types of bonds include metallic bonds and hydrogen bonding.
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4.7 Chemical Reactions
A chemical change occurs as the result of a chemical reaction. During a chemical reaction the atoms within
a substance are rearranged into different combinations. For example, sugar undergoes a chemical change
when it is cooked to make caramel.
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to
another.
The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents.
Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products,
which usually have properties different from the reactants.
What are the different types of chemical reactions?
The 5 types of chemical reactions are: synthesis, decomposition, single and double replacement, and
combustion.
What are the four main types of chemical reactions?
Representation of four basic chemical reactions types: synthesis, decomposition, single replacement and
double replacement.
What are the two main types of chemical reactions?
There are two types of Chemical Reactions: Combination or Synthesis Reactions.
Two or more reactants unite to form a single product. Substitution or Single Replacement Reactions A
single free element replaces or is substituted for one of the elements in a compound.
What is an example of a chemical reaction?
One example of a chemical reaction is the rusting of a steel garbage can. That rusting happens because the
iron (Fe) in the metal combines with oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere. Chemical bonds are created and
destroyed to finally make iron oxide (Fe2O3).

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4.8 Nuclear and Chemical Reactions
How does a nuclear reaction differs from a chemical reaction?

Nuclear reactions involve a change in an atom's nucleus, usually producing a different element. Chemical
reactions, on the other hand, involve only a rearrangement of electrons and do not involve changes in the
nuclei.
What is meant by nuclear reaction?
In nuclear physics, a nuclear reaction is a process in which two nuclei or nuclear particles collide, to produce
different products than the initial particles. In principle a reaction can involve more than two particles
colliding, but such an event is exceptionally rare.
Why mass is not necessarily conserved in a nuclear reaction?

In a nuclear reaction, mass is not strictly conserved. Some of the mass is converted into energy, E = mc2.
The loss in mass that occurs when protons and neutrons combine to form a nucleus is called the mass defect.
This mass defect is converted into energy.
What is the belt of stability?
The Belt of Stability. The principal factor for determining whether a nucleus is stable is the neutron to
proton ratio.
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4.9 Molecules
A molecule is the smallest particle in a chemical element or compound that has the chemical properties of
that element or compound. Molecules are made up of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds.
These bonds form as a result of the sharing or exchange of electron s among atoms.
What is the difference between a molecule and a compound?
A molecule is formed when two or more atoms join together chemically. A compound is a molecule that
contains at least two different elements. All compounds are molecules but not all molecules are
compounds.
What is the difference between an element and a compound?
-element - a basic substance that can't be simplified (hydrogen, oxygen, gold, etc...) molecule - two or more
atoms that are chemically joined together (H2, O2, H2O, etc…)
-compound - a molecule that contains more than one element (H2O, C6H12O6, etc...)
What is an example of a molecule?
A formula tells what elements make up a molecule. For example, a molecule of water is made up of two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The formula for a molecule of water is H2O.
What is a molecule and how does it form?
Molecules are made up of atom s that are held together by chemical bonds. These bonds form as a result of
the sharing or exchange of electron s among atoms.
________________________________________________________________________________________
4.10 Basic Properties of Gas
There are several basic properties of gases which differentiate gases from liquids and solids:
● A gas has no definite shape or volume, it will expand to fill its container.
● A gas is easily compressible.
● Gases form homogeneous mixtures with each other (without exception)
What are the properties of a gas?

Gases have three characteristic properties: (1) they are easy to compress, (2) they expand to fill their
containers, and (3) they occupy far more space than the liquids or solids from which they form. An internal
combustion engine provides a good example of the ease with which gases can be compressed.
What is the gas?
A gas is a sample of matter that conforms to the shape of a container in which it is held and acquires a
uniform density inside the container, even in the presence of gravity and regardless of the amount of
substance in the container.
What are the measurable properties of a gas?

There are four intrinsic, measurable properties of a gas (or, for that matter, any substance): its pressure P ,
temperature T , volume (in the case of a gas, the container volume) V , and mass m , or mole number n.
Which properties of gases are different from those that are liquids?
Low densities: (density = mass ÷ volume) Compared with those of liquids and solids: one mole of liquid
water at 20˚C (298 K) and 1 atm pressure occupies a volume of 18.8 cm 3 , whereas the same quantity of
water vapor at the same temperature and pressure has a volume of 30200 cm 3 , more than 1000 times
greater.
________________________________________________________________________________________
4.11 Basics of Hydrocarbons
What are hydrocarbons made up of?
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are made of only hydrogen and carbon atoms. They are found in
many places, including crude oil and natural gas. Learn the different forms of these simple, yet varied,
organic compounds.
Which compound is in a hydrocarbon?
Compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons. Those that contain as many
hydrogen atoms as possible are said to be saturated. The saturated hydrocarbons are also known as
alkanes. The simplest alkane is methane: CH4.
What energy source is composed of hydrocarbon compounds?
Oil and gas are composed of hydrocarbons – compounds of hydrogen and carbon e.g.CH4 is methane the
main component of natural gas. Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources as their formation is
extremely slow, much slower that the rate at which they are being used.
Which is the simplest alkane compound?
The first four alkanes are methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10). The simplest
alkane is the gas methane, whose molecular formula is CH4. Methane exists as a tetrahedral shape, but it is
often represented by a flattened structure as are most organic compounds.

________________________________________________________________________________________
4.12 Basics of Organic Acids
An organic acid is an organic compound with acidic properties. The most common organic acids are the
carboxylic acids, whose acidity is associated with their carboxyl group –COOH. Sulfonic acids, containing the
group –SO2OH, are relatively stronger acids.
Why is a carboxylic acid acidic?
Using the definition of an acid as a "substance which donates protons (hydrogen ions) to other things", the
carboxylic acids are acidic because of the hydrogen in the -COOH group. In solution in water, a hydrogen ion
is transferred from the -COOH group to a water molecule.
Is hydrochloric acid an organic acid?
Simple organic acids like formic or acetic acids are used for oil and gas well stimulation treatments. These
organic acids are much less reactive with metals than are strong mineral acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl) or
mixtures of HCl and hydrofluoric acid (HF).
Are organic acids generally weak or strong?
In general, organic acids are weak acids and do not dissociate completely in water, whereas the strong
mineral acids do. Lower molecular mass organic acid such as formic and lactic acids are miscible in water,
but higher molecular mass organic acids, such as benzoic acid, are insoluble in molecular (neutral) form.
Why is phenol so acidic?
Phenol is a very weak acid and the position of equilibrium lies well to the left. Phenol can lose a hydrogen
ion because the phenoxide ion formed is stabilised to some extent. The negative charge on the oxygen atom
is delocalised around the ring. The more stable the ion is, the more likely it is to form.
________________________________________________________________________________________
4.13 Solutions
In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture,
a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.
What is a solution for kids?
A simple solution is basically two substances that are evenly mixed together. One of them is called the solute
and the other is the solvent. A solute is the substance to be dissolved (sugar). The solvent is the one doing
the dissolving (water).

What is a mixture and a solution?
A solution is a mixture of two or more substances in a single phase. At least two substances must be mixed
in order to have a solution. The substance in the smallest amount and the one that dissolves or disperses is
called the SOLUTE. The substance in the larger amount is called the SOLVENT.
What are the properties of the solution?
The physical properties of a solution are different from those of the pure solvent. Many differences in
physical properties are predictable if the solute in the pure state is nonvolatile - that is, if it has a very low
vapor pressure. Sugar, sodium chloride, and potassium nitrate are examples of nonvolatile solutes.
What is the solution of science?
A solution is a type of homogeneous mixture that is made up of two or more substances. A homogeneous
mixture is a type of mixture with a uniform composition. This means that the substances cannot be
distinguished easily from one another.
________________________________________________________________________________________
TERM 4
5. Physics Tutorials
5. Physics
Physics (from Ancient Greek: φυσική (ἐπιστήμη) phusikḗ (epistḗmē) "knowledge of nature", from φύσις
phúsis "nature") is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and
time, along with related concepts such as energy and force.
It Began with Physics. Physics encompasses the study of the universe from the largest galaxies to the
smallest subatomic particles. Moreover, it's the basis of many other sciences, including chemistry,
oceanography, seismology, and astronomy (and can be applied to biology or medical science).
5.1 Energy
In physics, energy is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or converted into
different forms. The "ability of a system to perform work" is a common description, but it is misleading
because energy is not necessarily available to do work.
Where does the energy come from?
Most of the energy we capture for use on Earth originates in the nuclear reactions powering our Sun. Coal,
oil, natural gas, biomass, and even the wind and hydropower we harness to generate electricity, originally
derive their energy content from the Sun.
What is the ultimate source of energy for wind?
The sun is the ultimate source of wind energy. As the sun heats the surface of the earth, the air above it
warms and rises upwards into the atmosphere. However, the sun's heat is uneven.
What kind of energy is a fossil fuel?
Most of the energy we use comes from fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas and petroleum. Uranium is
another nonrenewable source, but it is not a fossil fuel. Uranium is converted to a fuel and used in nuclear
power plants.
What is the production of energy?

Energy production refers to forms of primary energy--petroleum (crude oil, natural gas liquids, and oil from
nonconventional sources), natural gas, solid fuels (coal, lignite, and other derived fuels), and combustible
renewables and waste--and primary electricity, all converted into oil equivalents.
Sources of Renewable Energy
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.2 Heat, Energy, Work, and Thermal Energy

What is energy?
Look around you. Is anything moving?
Can you hear, see or feel anything? Sure... this is because something is making something happen, and most
probably, there is some power at work. This power or ability to make things happen is what we can call
energy. It makes things happen. It makes change possible.
Thermal (heat energy)

Matter is made up of particles or molecules. These molecules move (or vibrate) constantly. A rise in the
temperature of matter makes the particles vibrate faster. Thermal energy is what we call energy that comes
from the temperature of matter. The hotter the substance, the more its molecules vibrate, and therefore the
higher its thermal energy.
For example, a cup of hot tea has thermal energy in the form of kinetic energy from its vibrating particles.
When you pour some milk into your hot tea, some of this energy is transferred from the hot tea to the
particles in the cold milk. What happens next? The cup of tea is cooler because it lost thermal energy to the
milk. The amount of thermal energy in an object is measured in Joules (J)
We cannot discuss thermal energy without touching on Temperature. Heat and Temperature do not mean
the same thing.
Temperature
The temperature of an object is to do with how hot or cold it is, measured in degrees Celsius (°C).
Temperature can also be measured in a Fahrenheit scale, named after the German physicist called Daniel
Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 – 1736). It is denoted by the symbol 'F'.
In Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32 °F, and boils at 212 °F. In Celsius scale, water freezes at 0°C and boil
at 100°C.
A thermometer is an instrument used to measure the temperature of an object.
Mechanical Energy/work energy
Mechanical energy is often confused with Kinetic and Potential Energy. We will try to make it very easy to
understand and know the difference. Before that, we need to understand the word ‘Work’.
‘Work’ is done when a force acts on an object to cause it to move, change shape, displace, or do something
physical. For, example, if I push a door open for my pet dog to walk in, work is done on the door (by causing it
to open). But what kind of force caused the door to open? Here is where Mechanical Energy comes in.
Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energy in an object that is used to do work. In other
words, it is energy in an object due to its motion or position, or both. In the 'open door' example above, I
possess potential chemical energy (energy stored in me), and by lifting my hands to push the door, my action
also had kinetic energy (energy in the motion of my hands).
By pushing the door, my potential and kinetic energy was transferred into mechanical energy, which caused
work to be done (door opened). Here, the door gained mechanical energy, which caused the door to be
displaced temporarily. Note that for work to be done, an object has to supply a force for another object to
be displaced.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.3 Potential and Kinetic Energy

Electrical/potential energy
Matter is made up of atoms. In these atoms, there are some even small stuff called electrons that are
constantly moving. The movement of these electrons depends on how much energy it has. This means every
object has potential energy, even though some have more than others.
Humans can force these moving electrons along a path from one place to the other. There are special
mediums (materials) called conductors that carry this energy. Some materials cannot carry energy in this
form, and they are called insulators. We generate electrical energy whey we succeed in causing these
electrons to move from one atom to the other, with the use of magnetic forces.
Kinetic Energy
All moving things have kinetic energy. It is energy possessed by an object due to its motion or movement.
These include very large things, like planets, and very small ones, like atoms. The heavier a thing is, and the
faster it moves, the more kinetic energy it has.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.4 Forces Push Pull
What is the definition of force?

In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. In other
words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a
state of rest), i.e., to accelerate.
Why is force referred to as a vector quantity?

A force is a vector quantity. As learned in an earlier unit, a vector quantity is a quantity that has both
magnitude and direction. To fully describe the force acting upon an object, you must describe both the
magnitude (size or numerical value) and the direction.
How force is related to motion?
Newton's first law of motion states: A body in motion tends to remain in motion, a body at rest tend to
remain at rest unless acted on by an outside force. So, if an object is moving - its inertia (mass) will tend to
keep it in motion, and if something is at rest, its inertia will tend to keep it at rest.
What does the letter N mean in physics?

The names of units are not capitalized, even if the symbol for it is: newton (N). If we capitalize it (“Newton”),
then we are talking about the man, not the unit. 8. The only SI units that have a symbol consisting of more
than one letter are pascals (Pa) and webers (Wb).
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.5 Heat vs. Temperature

Heat is the total energy of molecular motion in a substance while temperature is a measure of the average
energy of molecular motion in a substance. Heat energy depends on the speed of the particles, the number
of particles (the size or mass), and the type of particles in an object.
What is meant by temperature and heat?

Heat and temperature are related to each other, but are different concepts. Heat is the total energy of
molecular motion in a substance while temperature is a measure of the average energy of molecular motion
in a substance.
What is the difference between temperature and heat?
The hotter an object is, the faster the motion of the molecules inside it. Thus, the heat of an object is the
total energy of all the molecular motion inside that object. Temperature, on the other hand, is a measure of
the average heat or thermal energy of the molecules in a substance.
What is the relationship between temperature and thermal energy?
If the material is fluid, convection currents aid the transfer of thermal energy (convection). When thermal
energy is transferred it is called heat. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of atoms and
molecules in a material.

Why heat is considered as a form of energy?

Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one object to another or even created at the expense
of the loss of other forms of energy. To review, temperature is a measure of the ability of a substance, or
more generally of any physical system, to transfer heat energy to another physical system.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.6 Magnetic Field Part I

A magnetic field is the magnetic effect of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any
given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or strength); as such it is a vector field.
What is the magnetic field intensity?
Magnetic field strength is one of two ways that the intensity of a magnetic field can be expressed.
Technically, a distinction is made between magnetic field strength H, measured in amperes per meter (A/m),
and magnetic flux density B, measured in Newton-meters per ampere (Nm/A), also called teslas (T).
Who discovered magnetic field of electric current?
First, in 1819, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic field
encircling it. Then in 1820, André-Marie Ampère showed that parallel wires having currents in the same
direction attract one another.
What is the cause of a magnetic field?
The Coriolis force, resulting from the Earth's spin, also causes swirling whirlpools. This flow of liquid iron
generates electric currents, which in turn produce magnetic fields. Charged metals passing through
these fields go on to create electric currents of their own, and so the cycle continues.
What is B and H in magnetic field?
Magnetic Field Strength H. H and M will have the same units, amperes/meter. To further
distinguish B from H, B is sometimes called the magnetic flux density or the magnetic induction. The quantity
M in these relationships is called the magnetization of the material.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.7 Magnetic Field Part II

________________________________________________________________________________________
5.8 Mass, Weight, Volume, Density and Specific Gravity

The Specific Gravity of liquids and solids is defined as a dimensionless unit which is the ratio of density of a
material to the density of water at a given temperature, where density is defined as the material's mass per
unit volume and is measured in kg/m3.
What is the difference between the density of a solution and its specific gravity?
Density is the mass per unit volume of the given substance. This is an absolute value. Specific gravity is the
same dimension with respect to that of a reference material. It is the ratio of the density of the given
material to the same of the reference material- which is generally water.
What is the meaning of specific density?
Relative density, or specific gravity, is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to
the density of a given reference material. Specific gravity usually means relative density with respect to
water. The term "relative density" is often preferred in modern scientific usage.
The formula for specific gravity, given that the reference substance is water, is the density of the object
divided by the density of the water.
What is the formula for specific gravity?

In physics, a substance's specific gravity is the ratio of that substance's density to the density of water at
4 degrees Celsius. Because the density of water at 4 degrees Celsius is 1,000 kg/m3, that ratio is easy to find.
What is the difference between volume and density?
VOLUME AND DENSITY DEFINED. Volume, then, is measured in terms of length, and can be defined as the
amount of three-dimensional space an object occupies. Volume is usually expressed in cubic units of length
—for example, the milliliter (mL), also known as the cubic centimeter (cc), is equal to 6.10237.
Density measures the amount of matter present in an object. Meanwhile, volume is concerned with the
amount of space that an object occupies.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.9 Pulley
How does a pulley work?
One wheel. If you have a single wheel and a rope, a pulley helps you reverse the direction of your lifting
force. So, as in the picture below, you pull the rope down to lift the weight up. If you want to lift something
that weighs 100kg, you have to pull down with a force equivalent to 100kg, which is 1000N (newtons).

A pulley is a wheel with a groove along its edge, that holds a rope or cable. Usually, two or more pulleys are
used together. When pulleys are used together in this way, they reduce the amount of force needed to lift a
load. A crane uses pulleys to help it lift heavy loads.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.10 Lever
What is a lever in science?

A lever (/ˈliːvər/ or US /ˈlɛvər/) is a machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or
fulcrum. A lever is a rigid body capable of rotating on a point on itself. It is one of the six simple machines
identified by Renaissance scientists.
Where is the fulcrum located in a first class lever?
This allows the identification of three classes of levers by the relative locations of the fulcrum, the resistance
and the effort: Class 1: Fulcrum in the middle: the effort is applied on one side of the fulcrum and the
resistance (or load) on the other side, for example, a seesaw, a crowbar or a pair of scissors.
What are the three classes of levers?
There are three different types of lever. Common examples of each type are the crowbar, the wheelbarrow
and the pair of tweezers. All levers are one of three types, usually called classes. The class of a lever depends
on the relative position of the load, effort and fulcrum:
What is the first class lever?
In a first class lever system, the fulcrum or pivot point is located on the lever between the effort force and
load or resistance being moved.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.11 Mechanical Advantage

The term mechanical advantage is used to describe how effectively a simple machine works. Mechanical
advantage is defined as the resistance force moved divided by the effort force used. In the lever example
above, for example, a person pushing with a force of 30 lb (13.5 kg) was able to move an object that weighed
180 lb (81 kg). So the mechanical advantage of the lever in that example was 180 lb divided by 30 lb, or 6.
The mechanical advantage described here is really the theoretical mechanical advantage of a machine. In
actual practice, the mechanical advantage is always less than what a person might calculate. The main reason
for this difference is resistance. When a person does work with a machine, there is always some resistance to
that work. For example, you can calculate the theoretical mechanical advantage of a screw (a kind of simple
machine) that is being forced into a piece of wood by a screwdriver. The actual mechanical advantage is
much less than what is calculated because friction must be overcome in driving the screw into the wood.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.12 Simple Machines

Simple Machines: Making Work Easier
A simple machine is a mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force. In general, they
can be defined as the simplest mechanisms that use mechanical advantage (also called leverage) to multiply
force.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.13 Sound

In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical wave of pressure and
displacement, through a medium such as air or water. In physiology and psychology, sound is the reception
of such waves and their perception by the brain.
What is the nature of the sound?
Sound is one kind of longitudinal wave, in which the particles oscillate to and fro in the same direction of
wave propagation. Sound waves cannot be transmitted through vacuum. The transmission of sound requires
at least a medium, which can be solid, liquid, or gas.
Is a sound wave transverse or longitudinal?
Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called
compression waves. It requires a medium to propagate. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as
both longitudinal waves and transverse waves.
What is the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves?
Transverse waves are always characterized by particle motion being perpendicular to wave motion.
A longitudinal wave is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the direction
that the wave moves.
How does the sound propagate?
Sound Propagation. Sound propagates through air as a longitudinal wave. The speed of sound is determined
by the properties of the air, and not by the frequency or amplitude of the sound. Sound waves, as well as
most other types of waves, can be described in terms of the following basic wave phenomena.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.14 Speed and Velocity

Speed, being a scalar quantity, is the rate at which an object covers distance. The average speed is the
distance (a scalar quantity) per time ratio. Speed is ignorant of direction. On the other hand, velocity is a
vector quantity; it is direction-aware.
How do you calculate the velocity of an object?
Understand the difference between calculating speed and velocity. Speed is solved when you divide distance
by time. The speed is simply a measure of the movement over time, rather than a direction. Velocity is
figured when you take the displacement of an object, with its direction divided by a change in time.
How do you measure velocity?
Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude and direction are needed to define it. The scalar
absolute value (magnitude) of velocity is called "speed", being a coherent derived unit whose quantity
is measured in the SI (metric) system as meters per second (m/s) or as the SI base unit of (m⋅s−1).
How do you calculate average speed in physics?
To compute her average speed, we simply divide the distance of travel by the time of travel. That was easy!
Lisa Carr averaged a speed of 55 miles per hour. She may not have been traveling at a constant speed of 55
mi/hr.
What is the difference between acceleration and velocity?
Both velocity and acceleration have to do with rates of change. Velocity is the rate of change of distance
with respect to time. For example if you travel with a velocity of 10 meters per second you will travel 100
meters in 10 seconds, 200 meters in 20 seconds, etc.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.15 Velocity and Acceleration

Speed, being a scalar quantity, is the rate at which an object covers distance. The average speed is the
distance (a scalar quantity) per time ratio. Speed is ignorant of direction. On the other hand, velocity is a
vector quantity; it is direction-aware.
Is speed and acceleration the same thing?
When velocity is changing, the word acceleration is used. Acceleration is also a vector. You speed up if
the acceleration and velocity point in the same direction. You slow down (also referred to as decelerating) if
the acceleration and velocity point in opposite directions.
How are speed and velocity and acceleration related?
Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes. Acceleration can result from a change in speed (increase
or decrease), a change in direction (back, forth, up, down left, right), or changes in both.
Like velocity, acceleration is a vector.
How do you calculate the velocity of an object?
Understand the difference between calculating speed and velocity. Speed is solved when you divide distance
by time. The speed is simply a measure of the movement over time, rather than a direction. Velocity is
figured when you take the displacement of an object, with its direction divided by a change in time.
How do you find the acceleration of an object?
Use the formula to find acceleration. First write down your equation and all of the given variables.
The equation is a = Δv / Δt = (vf - vi)/(tf - ti). Subtract the initial velocity from the final velocity, then divide the
result by the time interval.

5.16 Electric Force
Calculating Electric Force Using Coulomb's Law. The strength of the electric force between any two charged
objects depends on the amount of charge that each object contains and on the distance between the two
charges.
What is Coulomb's law?
Coulomb's law, or Coulomb's inverse-square law, is a law of physics describing the electrostatic interaction
between electrically charged particles. The law was first published in 1785 by French physicist Charles
Augustin de Coulomb and was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism.
What is the electrostatic?

Electrostatics (also known as static electricity) is the branch of physics that deals with apparently stationary
electric charges. Electrostatics involves the buildup of charge on the surface of objects due to contact with
other surfaces.
What is meant by electrostatic charge?
An object is positively charged (+) if it is deficient in electrons with respect to its
surroundings. Electrostatic fields bear some similarity to magnetic fields. Objects attract if their charges are
of opposite polarity (+/-);objects repel if their charges are of the same polarity (+/+ or -/-).
What do you mean by electrostatic force?
electrostatic [electrostatic: An electrostatic force is generated by differences in electric charge (ie positive
and negative) between two particles. It can also refer to electricity at rest.] electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic
particles, with a negative charge and a negligible mass relative to protons and neutrons.]

________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Test Strategy
6.1 Understanding Charts and Tables
When taking the GED Science test, expect to encounter several graphs, which are great for summarizing data,
highlighting relationships, and tracing patterns in data. To read a graph, follow these steps:
1. Read all text on the graph, include the title, axis labels, legend, and footnotes.
2. Check the units and scale for each axis.
3. Locate the data specified in the question and answer choices.
________________________________________________________________________________________
6.2 Identifying Units and Trends in a Chart

Extract data from tables. On the test, you’re likely to encounter at least one table that displays facts and
figures in columns and rows. Like graphs, many tables have a title or heading that describes the information
presented in the table.
________________________________________________________________________________________
6.3 Basic Problem and Disagreement

Identify a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a fact or an event, based on a limited
amount of evidence that serves as a starting point for further investigation. For example, you may
hypothesize that consuming sugar increases body fat more than does eating fatty foods. This would be the
starting point for an experiment in which one group ate a standard diet, another ate a diet high in sugar, and
a third ate a high-fat diet. On the test, be prepared to identify a hypothesis.
CONFLICTING VIEWPOINTS
On every Science test, you’ll find one Conflicting Viewpoints passage, in which two scientists propose
different theories about a particular scientific phenomenon. Often, the two theories are just differing
interpretations of the same data. Other times, each scientist offers his own data to support his own opinion.
In either case, it’s essential that you know more or less what theory each scientist is proposing and that you
pay careful attention to how and where their theories differ.
It’s important to remember that your job is not to figure out which scientist is right and which is wrong.
Instead, you’ll be tested on whether you understand each scientist’s position and the thinking behind it.
That’s what the questions will hinge on.
Don’t waste time trying to figure out which scientist is “right.” Just understand their different viewpoints.
The key to better scores on the Science Test Conflicting Viewpoints passages is to hunt down each author’s
point of view. As you read each passage, look closely for keywords that help you identify the author’s
opinions.
● What does the author like?
● What does he criticize?
● What adjectives and adverbs does he use to describe the various scientific topics?
He may feel positively about one thing, and negatively about another.
Feel free to use smiley faces or positive and negative symbols on your Science practice questions to help
summarize the author’s point of view.

● Don’t feel like you have to take extensive, detailed notes.
________________________________________________________________________________________
6.4 Identifying Variables

Tell the difference between independent and dependent variables. When researchers design and conduct
experiments, they commonly try to determine how a change in one condition affects another condition. For
example, they may test different concentrations of carbon dioxide on plant growth. The independent
variable is the variable or condition that the researchers change — in this example, the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the air. The dependent variable is whatever changes as a result of the change in the
independent variable — in this example, the growth rate of the plants.
________________________________________________________________________________________
6.5 Science Process Skills

Apply the scientific method to identify possible sources of errors in scientific studies. Researchers are
expected to follow the scientific method — a step-by-step process for conducting experiments and other
scientific investigations in a way that ensures accurate and repeatable results. Here’s a condensed version of
the scientific method:
1. Observe and ask questions.
2. Formulate a hypothesis.
3. Gather data.
4. Analyze the data.
5. Draw conclusions or not.
________________________________________________________________________________________
6.6 Terminology for Tables and Graphs

Describe a data set statistically. This involves identifying patterns or characteristics of the data using special
terminology, including the following:
● Frequency and relative frequency: The number of individuals in a group or the number of times a value
occurs in a data set.
● Mean (average): The total of all values divided by the number of values.
● Median: The middle value in the set when the values are arranged sequentially. Half of the numbers in a
data set lie below the median and half lie above the median.
● Mode: The value that appears most often in the set. In the series 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6, the number 4 is
the mode because it appears three times, while the other numbers appear only twice.
● Range: The difference between the highest and the lowest value in a data set.
________________________________________________________________________________________
6.7 Identification of Experimental Problem and Design
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Who first recognized the cell as the universal unit of life?

What are the three main parts of the cell theory?

What does the cell theory tell us about?

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How big is a gene?

Who discovered the gene?

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7. Genetic vs. Environmental Traits

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9. Plant and Animal Cells

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11. Kingdom Animalia

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Kingdom Animalia Characteristics:

12. Kingdom Fungi

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13. Kingdom Plantae

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Kingdom Plantae Definition:

14. Biological Classification Systems

Category Name Characteristics

What is the classification of living things?

What is the definition of taxonomy in biology?

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How do astronomers measure the distance to a star?

What is the unit used to measure distance?

How do we measure the distance in space?

What is the unit used to measure the distance between stars?

2.2 Moon and Sun on Ocean Tides

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2.3 Solar System

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What makes up the solar system?

How old are all the planets in our solar system?

What is the name of the nine planets?

2.4 The Sun - Sun - Star

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History of The Sun

2.5 Types of Stars

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How many different types of stars are there?

2.6 Milky Way

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2.7 The Inner Planets of Our Solar System

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2.8 The Outer Planets of Our Solar System

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3.4 Ecological Succession

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3.5 Measuring Earthquakes

3.6 Plate Tectonics

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B. Consumers: any organism that can’t make its own food

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3.8 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources

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