Direct Angle Control and Energy-Shaping Techniques For Grid-Connected Converters

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS 1
Direct angle control and energy-shaping techniques

for grid-connected converters
Catalin Arghir and Florian Dörfler
Abstract—In this paper, a framework for designing three- With the growing complexity of the power system at large
phase grid-connected converter control strategies is investigated. [7], the cascaded control structure gives rise to poorly under-
The crucial aspect is augmenting an integrator for the DC-link stood interactions, causing phase-locked-loop (PLL) instabili-
voltage measurement, and assigning it to the (virtual) angle
of the instantaneous modulation vector. Exact model-matching ties and oscillations of various kinds [8]. Towards the goal of
with the synchronous machine is thus realized, with equivalent improving overall system stability, numerical models of virtual
inertia and damping rendered by the DC-side circuit elements. synchronous machines (VSMs) of various degrees of fidelity
The implementation does not require inner tracking loops and [9]–[11], are further implemented to emulate inertia and damp-
naturally provides frequency support. By further exploiting ing features. These emulation controllers assign set-points to
the flexibility of the inverter, additional features such as a
synchronizing torque, a voltage controller and a power set- the existing inner loops, so that the VSC currents and voltages
point tracking mechanism are designed via two energy-shaping behave well, asymptotically. In an increasingly underdamped
techniques. One energy function is used to implement a grid- converter landscape, impedance-based techniques [12], [13]
feeding control scheme, akin to a phase-locked-loop design, while became a popular tool for studying the effects of the PLL.
the other is used to implement a grid-forming control scheme, Despite these efforts, recent comparative studies [4], [14] show
which recovers active-power droop. The results are first formally
derived, and then evaluated experimentally on a front-to-front post-fault shortcomings of conventional aproaches.
experimental setup. In the mean time, control-theoretic advances brought more
and more physical elements in the feedback designs [15],
Index Terms—grid-forming, grid-following, converter control,
angle synchronization, electronic synchronous machine [16], allowing modelling, control and stability analysis to be
performed systematically. These methods, focused on stabi-
lization of (networked) electro-mechanical systems, can pro-
I. I NTRODUCTION vide insightful solutions for many complex problems arising
in power conversion, and allow (robust) regulation without
UST as AC-side frequency is an indicator for power
J imbalance in machine-dominated grids, the DC-bus mea-
surement can replace that signal in converter-dominated grids.
requiring inner loops, while providing guarantees on the
quantities of interest. In this aim, we combine two fundamental
control approaches: that of passivity-based control [15], cen-
This paper pursues a control-theoretic approach, based on tered on energy minimization; and that of output regulation
which three-phase voltage sourced converters (VSCs) can [17], involving steady-state reconstruction.
support the operation of future power systems. In this manuscript, we start from the paradigm first reported
In three-phase networks, energy typically flows through in [18], [19], and propose a rigorous, time-domain treatment
several conversion stages, such as a magnetic air-gaps or of the factors leading to the exact synchronous machine (SM)
switching devices, circulates in passive circuits and is bound equivalence. We show to what extent the machine parameters
to satisfy certain requirements. Most energy conversion as- are matched, via a coordinate transformation between the
pects [1], such as the modulation of power from one to SM and the VSC model dynamics. In our independent and
two dimensions (i.e. from DC to AC) and the stabilization parallel study [20], [21], we highlight the similarity between
of the required harmonic motion, are addressed by VSCs the mutual flux linkage of the SM and the the modulation
operating in grid-forming or grid-following mode [2]. The vector of the inverter. Here, we shall further identify the
typical VSC controllers employ inner loops which perform reactive component of the air-gap torque, constituting the
high-gain regulation of the quantities of interest from the input inherent SM synchronization mechanism, and construct an
source to the point of power injection [3]. The power balance is alternative for the PLL. In this way, we provide an energy-
achieved after employing multiple time-scales in the feedback based framework for studying the stability of grid-forming
path, which settle at the appropriate steady-state. However, the and grid-following behavior. Moreover, we show how active-
large number of states of the inner loops makes the analysis of power droop naturally emerges as a synchronizing torque. The
multiple converters difficult [4], motivating the study of more implementation developed here has already been positively
direct control approaches such as [5], [6]. tested in [14] to survive extended overloads.
In contrast to similar studies [22], [23], our work illustrates
Manuscript submitted on March 12, 2019. This work was supported by the two important ways in which large-signal synchronization can
ETH Zürich funds and the SNF Assistant Professor Energy Grant #160573. occur. An outcome of our design is a direct angle control
C. Arghir and F. Dörfler are with the Automatic Control
Laboratory, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland. Emails: scheme, similar in complexity to direct power control [24],
carghir@control.ee.ethz.ch, dorfler@ethz.ch. [25], which omits inner current loops and offers fast control
of active and reactive power. In our case the power set-point idc ix
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<latexit sha1_base64="(null)">(null)</latexit>
is achieved by appropriately controlling the converter angle,

while still allowing a current controller to work in parallel is
Ls
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rather than in cascade. This distinctive feature is the result

of replacing reference tracking by a less restrictive nonlinear Cdc
<latexit sha1_base64="wP9S4fMTQUCoG22UH5RFd3yKySQ=">AAAB7XicbZDLSgMxFIbPeK31VnXpJlgEV2VGBF0Wu3FZwV6gHUomk2ljcxmSjFCGvoMbF4q49X3c+Tam7Sy09YfAx3/OIef8UcqZsb7/7a2tb2xubZd2yrt7+weHlaPjtlGZJrRFFFe6G2FDOZO0ZZnltJtqikXEaScaN2b1zhPVhin5YCcpDQUeSpYwgq2z2o1BHpPpoFL1a/5caBWCAqpQqDmofPVjRTJBpSUcG9ML/NSGOdaWEU6n5X5maIrJGA9pz6HEgpown287RefOiVGitHvSorn7eyLHwpiJiFynwHZklmsz879aL7PJTZgzmWaWSrL4KMk4sgrNTkcx05RYPnGAiWZuV0RGWGNiXUBlF0KwfPIqtC9rgeP7q2r9toijBKdwBhcQwDXU4Q6a0AICj/AMr/DmKe/Fe/c+Fq1rXjFzAn/kff4AiYqPFw==</latexit>
control design, related to geometric path following [16]. Fi-

nally, this work provides a control design method, a theoretical
stability certification and an experimental validation. m↵
The rest of this paper is organised as follows: notation
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is introduced, then, in Section II the structural equivalence Fig. 1. The inverter depicted with its DC-link capacitor and switched inductor.
✓
is presented. Section III presents a solution to the single- is Ls
<latexit sha1_base64="PDgW1eqvO3mnpg92KyoMJvlifgk=">AAAB7XicbVDLSgNBEOz1GeMr6tHLYBA8hV0V9Bj04jGCeUCyhNnJbDJmdmaZ6RVCyD948aCIV//Hm3/jJNmDJhY0FFXddHdFqRQWff/bW1ldW9/YLGwVt3d29/ZLB4cNqzPDeJ1pqU0ropZLoXgdBUreSg2nSSR5MxreTv3mEzdWaPWAo5SHCe0rEQtG0UmNDg440m6p7Ff8GcgyCXJShhy1bumr09MsS7hCJqm17cBPMRxTg4JJPil2MstTyoa0z9uOKppwG45n107IqVN6JNbGlUIyU39PjGli7SiJXGdCcWAXvan4n9fOML4Ox0KlGXLF5oviTBLUZPo66QnDGcqRI5QZ4W4lbEANZegCKroQgsWXl0njvBJcVPz7y3L1Jo+jAMdwAmcQwBVU4Q5qUAcGj/AMr/Dmae/Fe/c+5q0rXj5zBH/gff4ApKGPKg==</latexit>
⌧m
machine-infinite-bus problem, while Section IV presents a ˜

<latexit sha1_base64="Ae8E7YzPjJN8/Zf42esk/zwwl08=">AAAB8HicbZBNS8NAEIYn9avWr6pHL4tF8FQSEfRY9OKxgm2VNpTNZtMu3WzC7kQoof4JLx4U8erP8ea/cdvmoK0vLDy8M8POvEEqhUHX/XZKK6tr6xvlzcrW9s7uXnX/oG2STDPeYolM9H1ADZdC8RYKlPw+1ZzGgeSdYHQ9rXceuTYiUXc4Trkf04ESkWAUrfXQQyFDnj9N+tWaW3dnIsvgFVCDQs1+9asXJiyLuUImqTFdz03Rz6lGwSSfVHqZ4SllIzrgXYuKxtz4+WzhCTmxTkiiRNunkMzc3xM5jY0Zx4HtjCkOzWJtav5X62YYXfq5UGmGXLH5R1EmCSZkej0JheYM5dgCZVrYXQkbUk0Z2owqNgRv8eRlaJ/VPcu357XGVRFHGY7gGE7BgwtowA00oQUMYniGV3hztPPivDsf89aSU8wcwh85nz9MfZC4</latexit>
grid-forming design. Before concluding, Section V provides A. The VSC model ˜

⌧e
experimental results from a small-scale micro-grid. Considering the idc and the AC-grid ˜ current
DC-supply
⇤
ir
M inputs, we model the VSC in αβ-frame
voltage v g as external <latexit sha1_base64="crANvVgGivIiDMWlFPoP+QRYTmE=">AAAB6HicbZBNS8NAEIYn9avWr6pHL4tF8FQSEfRY9OJFaMF+QBvKZjtp1242YXcjlNBf4MWDIl79Sd78N27bHLT1hYWHd2bYmTdIBNfGdb+dwtr6xuZWcbu0s7u3f1A+PGrpOFUMmywWseoEVKPgEpuGG4GdRCGNAoHtYHw7q7efUGkeywczSdCP6FDykDNqrNW475crbtWdi6yCl0MFctX75a/eIGZphNIwQbXuem5i/Iwqw5nAaamXakwoG9Mhdi1KGqH2s/miU3JmnQEJY2WfNGTu/p7IaKT1JApsZ0TNSC/XZuZ/tW5qwms/4zJJDUq2+ChMBTExmV1NBlwhM2JigTLF7a6EjaiizNhsSjYEb/nkVWhdVD3LjctK7SaPowgncArn4MEV1OAO6tAEBgjP8ApvzqPz4rw7H4vWgpPPHMMfOZ8/pQ+M0Q==</latexit>
<latexit
A. Preliminaries and notation

dudc
We consider a three-phase, two-level active bridge driven by = −Gdc udc + idc + m> αβ is (4a) Cdc
dt
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) with complementary duty- dis
cycle ratios given as da (t), db (t) and dc (t), each taking Ls = −Rs is + v g − mαβ udc , (4b)
dt
values from 0 to 1 during a switching cycle. By denoting where Gdc is a parallel conductance which models losses in
the column vector dabc = [da , db , dc ], we shall only focus the DC-link, while Rs models the losses in series with the
on the continuous-time average-switch behavior and disregard switching inductor. We consider the main nonlinearity to be
the switching-frequency harmonics. Furthermore, by adopting the power-preserving structure depicted in Fig. 2, where the
Space Vector Modulation (SVM) terminology, we define the average-switch current drawn from the DC-link is denoted by
instantaneous modulation vector as ix , while the AC-side average-switch voltage is denoted by ex .
As we shall see, these quantities are related to the SM air-gap
mabc (t) = dabc (t) − [ 21 , 12 , 12 ] . (1)
torque and, respectively, the electromotive force (EMF).
We write this modulation vector in machine orientation, via
its polar representation relative to the stationary frame as ix
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is
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  ix = m> is
− sin(θ(t)) ↵
2π
, udc ex
mabc (t) = m(t) − sin θ(t)− 3  ,
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<latexit
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ex = m↵ udc
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(2)
2π
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− sin θ(t)+ 3
m↵
1
where m(t) ∈ [0, and θ(t) ∈ [−π, π) are the instantaneous
2] Fig. 2. The core element of an inverter: the DC-AC energy transformation
SVM magnitude and angle. We consider the power-invariant mechanism, satisfying power balance udc ix + e>
x is = 0, and modulated by
αβ-transformation
" and omit# the zero sequence. Accordingly, the two dimensional signal mαβ .
q 1 −1 −1
mαβ (t) = 3 2 √2 √2 mabc (t) becomes
3 3
0 2 − 2
h i B. The SM model
− sin θ(t)
mαβ (t) = µ(t) cos θ(t)
, (3) Consider a non-salient rotor, single-pole pair, DC-excited
p SM without damper windings [26], written in αβ-frame as
where µ(t) = 3/2m(t) denotes the modulation magnitude dθ
in this αβ-frame. Furthermore, we write the identity
h matrix asi =ω (5a)
φ − sin φ
dt
I = [ 10 01 ] and the rotation matrix as Rφ = cos sin φ cos φ . dω
M = −Dω − τe + τm (5b)
Given a two dimensionalp vector x = [ xx12 ], we define its dt
magnitude as kxk = x1 + x22 . We shall also make use of the
2 dλr
∂ = −Rr ir + ur (5c)
operator ∂x = ∇ when x is a scalar, and
partialdifferential dt
∂ ∂ ∂ dλs
∂x = ∂x1 ∂x2 as a row vector when x is a two-dimensional = −Rs is + v g . (5d)
column vector. dt
Here M and D are the rotor moment of inertia and damping
coefficient, θ is the rotor angle, and ω its angular velocity. We
II. T HE INVERTER - MACHINE EQUIVALENCE
assume that the rotor is driven by the mechanical torque τm
To study the fundamental energy modulation mechanism of and has its terminals connected to a grid voltage v g , as does
inverters and electrical machines alike, we adopt a stationary the inverter. We further denote τe as the air-gap torque, λr as
frame and identify the structural equivalence between the two. the rotor flux linkage (scalar), ir its current and ur the voltage
applied to the rotor terminals. Moreover, λs denotes the stator 2, the modulation signal of power converters cannot be used
flux linkage (vector) and is its current. The losses in the rotor to inject or extract energy, so we restrict ourselves to the ideal
and stator are represented respectively by Rr and Rs . SM with constant excitation current, whose losses in the rotor
We consider the electromagnetic energy stored in the SM are compensated by input ur , and hence are eliminated. For
λ > −1 λ the same reason we are unable to synthesize an asynchronous
sα Ls 0 Lm cos θ sα
We = 12 λsβ 0 Ls Lm sin θ λsβ , (6) machine or damper windings.
λr Lm cos θ Lm sin θ Lr λr
where Ls and Lr are the stator and rotor self-inductances, C. The electronic synchronous machine
respectively, and Lm is the mutual inductance of the machine.
Accordingly, the electrical quantities are related as We start by defining ω0 as the nominal angular velocity,
− sin θ > corresponding to the grid frequency, and u∗dc as the nominal
τe = ∂W
∂θ = −Lm ir cos θ
e
is (7a) DC-link voltage, related to the grid voltage level. Consider
∂We
cos θ > system (4), for which we use the modulation (3) to identify a
ir = ∂λr ⇔ λr = Lr ir + Lm sin θ is (7b)
cos θ similar energy-conversion structure as in the SM
> ∂We
is = ∂λs ⇔ λs = Ls is + Lm sin θ ir (7c) sin θ >
ix = −µ −cos is (11a)
Using Faraday’s law, we define the rotor and stator elec- − sin θ θ
d ex = µ cos θ udc . (11b)
tromotive forces as er = dt (λr − Lr ir ) and, respectively,
d
es = dt (λs − Ls is ), which we expand below This key analogy prompts us to augment (4) with an integrator
sin θ θ for the DC-link voltage in the same way that, in the mechanical
es = Lm ir −cos θ
ω + Lm didtr cos
sin θ . (8)
domain, the rotor angle integrates the angular velocity (5a),
Suppose now that the rotor current is regulated to a constant dθ
i∗r via a control such as ur = Rr i∗r + er . As a consequence, = ηudc . (12)
dt
when ir = i∗r , equation (5c) becomes Lr didtr = 0, so it can be
set aside. Furthermore, (7a) and (8) take the form of air-gap By choosing the scaling factor η = ω0 /u∗dc , we define the
torque and EMF of a permanent magnet SM (pmSM) equivalent angular velocity of the inverter as ω = ηudc . Here,
sin θ > η converts units of voltage into units of angular velocity but
τe = −Lm i∗r −cos θ
is (9a) also units of torque into units of current. This coordinate

∗ − sin θ
es = Lm ir cos θ ω . (9b) transformation allows us to select the constant modulation
magnitude µ = ηLm i∗r in (3) and complete the exact model-
In this way, we can reduce the SM model (5) as below matching design by identifying ix /η = τe and ex = es with
dθ the pmSM air-gap torque and EMF (9), respectively.
=ω (10a) We are now able to rewrite, via ω = ηudc , the closed-loop
dt
dω sin θ > system (12), (4), (3), referred to as the electronic SM (eSM)
M = −Dω + τm + Lm i∗r −cos θ
is (10b)
dt dθ
dis sin θ =ω (13a)
Ls = −Rs is + v g − Lm i∗r −cos θ
ω, (10c) dt
dt Cdc dω Gdc idc µ − sin θ >
idc ix =− 2 ω+ + is (13b)
and highlight the energy transformation property, this time η cos θ
η 2 dt η η
is Ls
modulated by the scalar quantity i∗r , as illustrated in Fig. 3. dis µ − sin θ
Ls = −Rs is + v g − ω.
In a conventional PLL design, as well as in some simplified

(13c)
dt η cos θ
SM modelsC [4], the electrical torque term (9a) takes the
dc
particular form of sin(θ−θg ), where θg is the angle of the grid
<latexit sha1_base64="wP9S4fMTQUCoG22UH5RFd3yKySQ=">AAAB7XicbZDLSgMxFIbPeK31VnXpJlgEV2VGBF0Wu3FZwV6gHUomk2ljcxmSjFCGvoMbF4q49X3c+Tam7Sy09YfAx3/OIef8UcqZsb7/7a2tb2xubZd2yrt7+weHlaPjtlGZJrRFFFe6G2FDOZO0ZZnltJtqikXEaScaN2b1zhPVhin5YCcpDQUeSpYwgq2z2o1BHpPpoFL1a/5caBWCAqpQqDmofPVjRTJBpSUcG9ML/NSGOdaWEU6n5X5maIrJGA9pz6HEgpown287RefOiVGitHvSorn7eyLHwpiJiFynwHZklmsz879aL7PJTZgzmWaWSrL4KMk4sgrNTkcx05RYPnGAiWZuV0RGWGNiXUBlF0KwfPIqtC9rgeP7q2r9toijBKdwBhcQwDXU4Q6a0AICj/AMr/DmKe/Fe/c+Fq1rXjFzAn/kff4AiYqPFw==</latexit>
By comparing (13) to (10), we further identify the equivalent

voltage. This is what we later call the synchronizing torque, mechanical torque idc /η = τm , rotor moment of inertia
however, upon closer inspection, the term appears more subtly, Cdc /η 2 = M and rotor damping coefficient Gdc /η 2 = D.
motivating our study in themremainder
↵ of this paper. <latexit sha1_base64="ZNVNDx+EOnf9A58TVrjndnzvQRU=">AAACBXicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEtdDBbBVUlE0GXRjcsK9gFNCDeTSTt08mBmIpSQjRt/xY0LRdz6D+78GydtFtp6YJjDOfdy7z1+yplUlvVt1FZW19Y36puNre2d3T1z/6Ank0wQ2iUJT8TAB0k5i2lXMcXpIBUUIp/Tvj+5Kf3+AxWSJfG9mqbUjWAUs5ARUFryzGPHT3ggp5H+8qjwcgd4OgbHpwoKz2xaLWsGvEzsijRRhY5nfjlBQrKIxopwkHJoW6lycxCKEU6LhpNJmgKZwIgONY0hotLNZ1cU+FQrAQ4ToV+s8Ez93ZFDJMtFdWUEaiwXvVL8zxtmKrxycxanmaIxmQ8KM45VgstIcMAEJYpPNQEimN4VkzEIIEoH19Ah2IsnL5PeecvW/O6i2b6u4qijI3SCzpCNLlEb3aIO6iKCHtEzekVvxpPxYrwbH/PSmlH1HKI/MD5/ANt9mWw=</latexit>
Consequently, the inertia introduced by this model-matching
control corresponds to instantaneous physical energy stored
✓ in the DC-link. Moreover, the magnetisation factor appears as
is Ls
µ/η = Lm i∗r , while the stator self-inductance Ls of the SM is
<latexit sha1_base64="PDgW1eqvO3mnpg92KyoMJvlifgk=">AAAB7XicbVDLSgNBEOz1GeMr6tHLYBA8hV0V9Bj04jGCeUCyhNnJbDJmdmaZ6RVCyD948aCIV//Hm3/jJNmDJhY0FFXddHdFqRQWff/bW1ldW9/YLGwVt3d29/ZLB4cNqzPDeJ1pqU0ropZLoXgdBUreSg2nSSR5MxreTv3mEzdWaPWAo5SHCe0rEQtG0UmNDg440m6p7Ff8GcgyCXJShhy1bumr09MsS7hCJqm17cBPMRxTg4JJPil2MstTyoa0z9uOKppwG45n107IqVN6JNbGlUIyU39PjGli7SiJXGdCcWAXvan4n9fOML4Ox0KlGXLF5oviTBLUZPo66QnDGcqRI5QZ4W4lbEANZegCKroQgsWXl0njvBJcVPz7y3L1Jo+jAMdwAmcQwBVU4Q5qUAcGj/AMr/Dmae/Fe/c+5q0rXj5zBH/gff4ApKGPKg==</latexit>
⌧m
˜
identified with the switching-side inductance of the inverter.

˜
⌧e As a general guideline, to achieve a particular EMF voltage

˜ amplitude e0 , the rotor excitation can be chosen as i∗r =
i⇤r
M
<latexit sha1_base64="crANvVgGivIiDMWlFPoP+QRYTmE=">AAAB6HicbZBNS8NAEIYn9avWr6pHL4tF8FQSEfRY9OJFaMF+QBvKZjtp1242YXcjlNBf4MWDIl79Sd78N27bHLT1hYWHd2bYmTdIBNfGdb+dwtr6xuZWcbu0s7u3f1A+PGrpOFUMmywWseoEVKPgEpuGG4GdRCGNAoHtYHw7q7efUGkeywczSdCP6FDykDNqrNW475crbtWdi6yCl0MFctX75a/eIGZphNIwQbXuem5i/Iwqw5nAaamXakwoG9Mhdi1KGqH2s/miU3JmnQEJY2WfNGTu/p7IaKT1JApsZ0TNSC/XZuZ/tW5qwms/4zJJDUq2+ChMBTExmV1NBlwhM2JigTLF7a6EjaiizNhsSjYEb/nkVWhdVD3LjctK7SaPowgncArn4MEV1OAO6tAEBgjP8ApvzqPz4rw7H4vWgpPPHMMfOZ8/pQ+M0Q==</latexit>
<latexit
e0 /(ω0 Lm ), from which we can determine µ = e0 /u∗dc . As

Fig. 3. The pmSM energy-transformation mechanism, satisfying power we shall see in a later section, the value of µ can be adjusted
balance ωτe +e> ∗
s is = 0, and modulated by the one dimensional signal ir in real-time to achieve additional objectives for the eSM.
The matching control presented next is designed to syn-

thesize all elements of the reduced SM model (10) using D. Grid-support capacity
corresponding elements of the inverter model (4), upon aug- Compared to rotating machinery, the power-electronics
menting an integrator in the closed loop. As illustrated in Fig. sourced DC current idc has a much faster actuation bandwidth
than the valve of a turbine governor. This DC input can imple- idc
ix
is
ment, for instance, a standard proportional-integral-derivative
(PID) control of the form udc ex vg
∗
Z t
dudc
˜
idc = −Kp (udc −udc ) − Ki udc (τ )−u∗dc dτ − Kd , ⌘ m↵ d✓

n✓
0 dt  <latexit sha1_base64="ZNVNDx+EOnf9A58TVrjndnzvQRU=">AAACBXicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEtdDBbBVUlE0GXRjcsK9gFNCDeTSTt08mBmIpSQjRt/xY0LRdz6D+78GydtFtp6YJjDOfdy7z1+yplUlvVt1FZW19Y36puNre2d3T1z/6Ank0wQ2iUJT8TAB0k5i2lXMcXpIBUUIp/Tvj+5Kf3+AxWSJfG9mqbUjWAUs5ARUFryzGPHT3ggp5H+8qjwcgd4OgbHpwoKz2xaLWsGvEzsijRRhY5nfjlBQrKIxopwkHJoW6lycxCKEU6LhpNJmgKZwIgONY0hotLNZ1cU+FQrAQ4ToV+s8Ez93ZFDJMtFdWUEaiwXvVL8zxtmKrxycxanmaIxmQ8KM45VgstIcMAEJYpPNQEimN4VkzEIIEoH19Ah2IsnL5PeecvW/O6i2b6u4qijI3SCzpCNLlEb3aIO6iKCHtEzekVvxpPxYrwbH/PSmlH1HKI/MD5/ANt9mWw=</latexit>
d
=! v =v
o ✓
1 ✓ µ sin ✓
<latexit sha1_base64="+2a+YdAkK5gXAKPWKNIZ/6djIOk=">AAAB7XicbZBNSwMxEIZn61etX1WPXoJF8FR2RdBj0YvHCvYD2qVk07SNzSZLMiuUpf/BiwdFvPp/vPlvTNs9aOsLgYd3ZsjMGyVSWPT9b6+wtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PmlanhvEG01KbdkQtl0LxBgqUvJ0YTuNI8lY0vp3VW0/cWKHVA04SHsZ0qMRAMIrOanZxxJH2yhW/6s9FViHIoQK56r3yV7evWRpzhUxSazuBn2CYUYOCST4tdVPLE8rGdMg7DhWNuQ2z+bZTcuacPhlo455CMnd/T2Q0tnYSR64zpjiyy7WZ+V+tk+LgOsyESlLkii0+GqSSoCaz00lfGM5QThxQZoTblbARNZShC6jkQgiWT16F5kU1cHx/Wand5HEU4QRO4RwCuIIa3EEdGsDgEZ7hFd487b14797HorXg5TPH8Efe5w+j+Y8o</latexit>
<latexit
where the gains Kp and Kd add extra damping and inertia to s cos ✓ <latexit sha1_base64="Ao6aEljLQlTBTc1
sha1_base64="Ao6aEljLQlTBTc19PP+N0QGyvXI=">AAACI3icbVBNSwMxEM36bf2qevQSLIIXZVcExVPRi0cFq0KzlGx22gaz2SWZFcvS/+LFv+LFg1K8ePC/mH4o2vog8PLeDDPzokxJi77/4U1Nz8zOzS8slpaWV1bXyusb1zbNjYCaSFVqbiNuQUkNNZSo4DYzwJNIwU10d9b3b+7BWJnqK+xkECa8pWVTCo5OapRPKEtyFkFL6iJKOBr50N1jVmqGbUBOGaNMpPb7Bzr+KWuUK/6+PwCdJMGIVMgIF41yj8WpyBPQKBS3th74GYYFNyiFgm6J5RYyLu54C+qOap6ADYvBjV2645SYNlPjnkY6UH93FDyxtpNErtLt17bjXl/8z6vn2DwOC6mzHEGL4aBmriimtB8YjaUBgarjCBdGul2paHPDBbpYSy6EYPzkSXJ9sB84fnlYqZ6O4lggW2Sb7JKAHJEqOScXpEYEeSTP5JW8eU/ei9fz3oelU96oZ5P8gff5Bbq/pY8=</latexit>
the terms Gdc and, respectively, Cdc in (13). In the following

sections, we will replace the integral term seen here, by an F g 5 Equ va en c cu o he eSM 13 connec ed o a s g d
explicit computation of the steady-state bias.
idc ix is ig
A The eSM synchron z ng orque
E. Frequency behavior of the eSM
Observe
udc ha when he DC-bus ex s firm yvregu f
a ed
Gf name y
The eSM enables the coupling between AC frequency and when udc = u∗dc he sw ch ng-node vo age ex becomes
its DC-link voltage, allowing the inverter to function without s nuso da of cons an amp ude µu∗dc and frequency  ηu∗dc
⌘ m↵ d✓ n ✓
a conventional phase-locked loop (PLL) and in both stiff and wh ch for✓ a seady-s a e so u on o ex =s ! mus= be equa o
1 s n✓ d o ✓
weak grids, as depicted in Fig. 4. Broadly speaking, in a stiff ω0 In sh s caseµ he✓ nduc or curren (4b) a a ns a s nuso da
cos
grid the internal eSM frequency adapts to an external fre- so u on as t → ∞ Thus we say ha he s ff ang e dynam cs
quency by slightly changing its DC-link voltage. Alternatively, are dom nan 1 mean ng hey nduce a s eady-s a e response
if the grid does not impose a certain frequency, the DC-link wh ch we represen as he ang e-dependen n erna mode
maintains its nominal value, and the eSM forms the system s n θ
frequency. Thus, adopting the grid-following or grid-forming îs = Z−1s v g − µu∗dc −cos θ
(14)
classifications, the eSM can function in either mode. Rs −ω0 Ls
where Zs = ω0 Ls Rs s pnverse s Z−1 s = kZs k
−2 >
Zs
and s ma r x norm kZs k = Rs2 + ω02 L2s S m ar y we
d✓g Zg ig = Zg 1 v g
= !0
<latexit sha1_base64="tqNha1FT7hLPskhekVC8KujsO7k=">AAAB83icbVDLSsNAFL2pr1pfVZduBovgqiQi6LLoxmUF+8CmlMn0ph06mYSZiVBCf8ONC0Xc+jPu/BsnbRbaemDgcM693DMnSATXxnW/ndLa+sbmVnm7srO7t39QPTxq6zhVDFssFrHqBlSj4BJbhhuB3UQhjQKBnWBym/udJ1Sax/LBTBPsR3QkecgZNVby/YiacRBmj7PBaFCtuXV3DrJKvILUoEBzUP3yhzFLI5SGCap1z3MT08+oMpwJnFX8VGNC2YSOsGeppBHqfjbPPCNnVhmSMFb2SUPm6u+NjEZaT6PATuYZ9bKXi/95vdSE1/2MyyQ1KNniUJgKYmKSF0CGXCEzYmoJZYrbrISNqaLM2JoqtgRv+curpH1R9yy/v6w1boo6ynACp3AOHlxBA+6gCS1gkMAzvMKbkzovzrvzsRgtOcXOMfyB8/kDTmiR2A==</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="IDVH4DhXUdvYvQgdmYQBDFLQYow=">AAACI3icbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vUZdugkVx0zIjgiIIRTcuK9gHtuOQyWTa0MyDJFMoYf7Fjb/ixoVS3LjwX8y0XdTWCyGHc8/lnnu8hFEhLevbKKysrq1vFDdLW9s7u3vm/kFTxCnHpIFjFvO2hwRhNCINSSUj7YQTFHqMtLzBXd5vDQkXNI4e5SghToh6EQ0oRlJTrnnd9WLmi1GoP0UzV/UyeHoDK90Qyb4XqKfM7T2rip3N64YTnWuWrao1KbgM7Bkog1nVXXPc9WOchiSSmCEhOraVSEchLilmJCt1U0EShAeoRzoaRigkwlGTGzN4ohkfBjHXL5Jwws5PKBSK3J5W5tbFYi8n/+t1UhlcOYpGSSpJhKeLgpRBGcM8MOhTTrBkIw0Q5lR7hbiPOMJSx1rSIdiLJy+D5nnV1vjholy7ncVRBEfgGJwBG1yCGrgHddAAGLyAN/ABPo1X490YG19TacGYzRyCP2X8/AIWQKXK</latexit>
cons der an n erna -mode re a on for îx = −m> αβ îs as

dt 
sin ✓g 0 Rs µudc
∗
vg v g = v0 vf vg vf Zg ig îx = µv µv0 ω0 Ls
v0 −cos(θ−θg ) + kZs k2 s n(θ−θg ) (15)
˜ cos ✓g
˜ kZ k2
| s
<latexit sha1_base64="R45UDm5sKT8ocvzuxfzxai33Img=">AAAB+XicbVDLSgMxFL1TX7W+Rl26CRbBVZkRQZdFNy4r2Ae0w5DJZNrQTDIkmUIZ+iduXCji1j9x59+YtrPQ1gMhh3PuJScnyjjTxvO+ncrG5tb2TnW3trd/cHjkHp90tMwVoW0iuVS9CGvKmaBtwwynvUxRnEacdqPx/dzvTqjSTIonM81okOKhYAkj2FgpdN1BJHmsp6m9isksHIZu3Wt4C6B14pekDiVaofs1iCXJUyoM4Vjrvu9lJiiwMoxwOqsNck0zTMZ4SPuWCpxSHRSL5DN0YZUYJVLZIwxaqL83CpzqeTg7mWIz0qveXPzP6+cmuQ0KJrLcUEGWDyU5R0aieQ0oZooSw6eWYKKYzYrICCtMjC2rZkvwV7+8TjpXDd/yx+t6866sowpncA6X4MMNNOEBWtAGAhN4hld4cwrnxXl3PpajFafcOYU/cD5/AEqtlBI=</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="cbxkt1CbIA0aD47MDfVeWF/iG5I=">AAAB+XicbVDLSgMxFL1TX7W+Rl26CRbBVZkRQZdFNy4r2Ae0w5DJZNrQTDIkmUIZ+iduXCji1j9x59+YtrPQ1gMhh3PuJScnyjjTxvO+ncrG5tb2TnW3trd/cHjkHp90tMwVoW0iuVS9CGvKmaBtwwynvUxRnEacdqPx/dzvTqjSTIonM81okOKhYAkj2FgpdN1BJHmsp6m9isksTEK37jW8BdA68UtShxKt0P0axJLkKRWGcKx13/cyExRYGUY4ndUGuaYZJmM8pH1LBU6pDopF8hm6sEqMEqnsEQYt1N8bBU71PJydTLEZ6VVvLv7n9XOT3AYFE1luqCDLh5KcIyPRvAYUM0WJ4VNLMFHMZkVkhBUmxpZVsyX4q19eJ52rhm/543W9eVfWUYUzOIdL8OEGmvAALWgDgQk8wyu8OYXz4rw7H8vRilPunMIfOJ8/SSmUEQ==</latexit>
{z } | {z }
<latexit sha1_base64="x/4RPq4PouU6ZeD4oDt3WjFzgMc=">AAAB+3icbVDLSsNAFL3xWesr1qWbYBFclUQEXRbduKxgH9CGMJlM2qGTmTAzEUvIr7hxoYhbf8Sdf+OkzUJbDwxzOOde5swJU0aVdt1va219Y3Nru7ZT393bPzi0jxo9JTKJSRcLJuQgRIowyklXU83IIJUEJSEj/XB6W/r9RyIVFfxBz1LiJ2jMaUwx0kYK7MYoFCxSs8RcOS2CfFwEdtNtuXM4q8SrSBMqdAL7axQJnCWEa8yQUkPPTbWfI6kpZqSojzJFUoSnaEyGhnKUEOXn8+yFc2aUyImFNIdrZ67+3shRosp4ZjJBeqKWvVL8zxtmOr72c8rTTBOOFw/FGXO0cMoinIhKgjWbGYKwpCargydIIqxNXXVTgrf85VXSu2h5ht9fNts3VR01OIFTOAcPrqANd9CBLmB4gmd4hTersF6sd+tjMbpmVTvH8AfW5w8HF5UR</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="tqNha1FT7hLPskhekVC8KujsO7k=">AAAB83icbVDLSsNAFL2pr1pfVZduBovgqiQi6LLoxmUF+8CmlMn0ph06mYSZiVBCf8ONC0Xc+jPu/BsnbRbaemDgcM693DMnSATXxnW/ndLa+sbmVnm7srO7t39QPTxq6zhVDFssFrHqBlSj4BJbhhuB3UQhjQKBnWBym/udJ1Sax/LBTBPsR3QkecgZNVby/YiacRBmj7PBaFCtuXV3DrJKvILUoEBzUP3yhzFLI5SGCap1z3MT08+oMpwJnFX8VGNC2YSOsGeppBHqfjbPPCNnVhmSMFb2SUPm6u+NjEZaT6PATuYZ9bKXi/95vdSE1/2MyyQ1KNniUJgKYmKSF0CGXCEzYmoJZYrbrISNqaLM2JoqtgRv+curpH1R9yy/v6w1boo6ynACp3AOHlxBA+6gCS1gkMAzvMKbkzovzrvzsRgtOcXOMfyB8/kDTmiR2A==</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="P3ZNQkOhkxQHPC7/UsHE9cOinb4=">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</latexit>
(a) (b)
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<latexit
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The re evance of h s formu a on s ha prov des a gu de-

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(i) sti↵ grid

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(ii) weak grid
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ne for ang e synchron za on By us ng idc o compensa e

Fig. 4. The two types of AC-busses considered: (i) a stiff voltage source so e y for he erm (a) correspond ng o he ac ve par of îx
and (ii) a local AC-capacitor charged by a distant source and its Norton
equivalent. he c osed oop wou d ony fea ure he reac ve par (b) wh ch
we ca he nheren synchron z ng orque of he eSM
In the following sections, we make these ideas precise and Th s n erna -mode framework nd ca es he use of a syn-
study the large-signal behavior. We first treat the stiff and chron za on po en a unc on an c pa ng he energy s ored
>
weak grid cases separately, discussing two ways in which n he nduc or S = 12 îs Ls îs as seen n F g 6 and be ow
synchronization naturally emerges. Finally, we combine the
S = 12 kZLssk2 µ2 u∗2 ∗ 2
dc − 2µudc v0 cos(θ−θg ) + v0 (16)
two in a scenario where the frequency is not driven by an
external source. In essence we a m o dr ve he ang e d fference θ − θg o a
va ue wh ch m n m ses he energy func on S Wh e n h s
III. S YNCHRONIZATION TO A STIFF GRID case he m n m zer represen s zero ang e-d fference we w
a er prov de a way o ach eve a more genera opera ng po n
Our goal now is to determine the current injection idc which,
in conjunction with the matching modulation mαβ , achieves
three basic control objectives: (i) DC-bus regulation, (ii) angle
synchronization and (iii) internal stability. Although there are
situations in which the DC-source is not an available control
input, but rather a disturbance, our framework is general S W
enough to provide an informative solution.
Consider the inverter connected to a stiff AC-voltage bus
given by a sinusoidal signal of constant amplitude v0 and ✓d⇤
constant frequency ω0 , as in Fig. 5. The power flow is directly
reflected in the relationship between the internal voltage vector ✓dq ✓dq
ex and the grid voltage v g , seen at the terminals of the eSM.
F g 6 P o o he synch on za on po en a S as a unc on o θdq = θ − θg
To control the angle difference between these two vectors, we
construct an energy function whose minimization is performed
by the inherent eSM synchronizing torque. ack ng any o m o d ss pa on hav ng he s owes decay a e
B. Error-coordinates analysis
d✓dq
Although not required in the implementation, for the pur- =!
˜
dt
pose of analysis we consider the dq-transformation θdq = θ − d˜!
θg and idq = R> M = K1 !
˜ K2 sin ✓dq
θg is . In these coordinates, the internal model dt
becomes a function of θdq . By defining îdq (θdq ) = R>θg îs and
✓dq
S(θdq ) = 12 îdq (θdq )> Ls îdq (θdq ) , (17) <latexit sha1_base64="ddj36MmgpEwr0ovqlJTMk6pQcH0=">AAAB8nicbZBNS8NAEIYn9avWr6pHL4tF8FQSEfRY9OKxgv2ANpTNZtMu3WTj7kQooT/DiwdFvPprvPlv3LY5aOsLCw/vzLAzb5BKYdB1v53S2vrG5lZ5u7Kzu7d/UD08ahuVacZbTEmluwE1XIqEt1Cg5N1UcxoHkneC8e2s3nni2giVPOAk5X5Mh4mIBKNorV4fRxzpIA8fp4Nqza27c5FV8AqoQaHmoPrVDxXLYp4gk9SYnuem6OdUo2CSTyv9zPCUsjEd8p7FhMbc+Pl85Sk5s05IIqXtS5DM3d8TOY2NmcSB7YwpjsxybWb+V+tlGF37uUjSDHnCFh9FmSSoyOx+EgrNGcqJBcq0sLsSNqKaMrQpVWwI3vLJq9C+qHuW7y9rjZsijjKcwCmcgwdX0IA7aEILGCh4hld4c9B5cd6dj0VrySlmjuGPnM8ft/+Rhg==</latexit>
M
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<latexit
we are now able to formalise the control specifications in terms

of driving the error system to zero as t → ∞: K2 sin ✓dq = rS
<latexit sha1_base64="IMfDDA9TUej9FtL+9oR4UZ70eSU=">AAACD3icbVA9SwNBEN3z2/gVtbRZDIpVuFNBGyFoI9gomg/IHcfcZmMW9/bO3TkhHPkHNv4VGwtFbG3t/DfuJSn8ejDweG+GmXlRKoVB1/10Jianpmdm5+ZLC4tLyyvl1bWGSTLNeJ0lMtGtCAyXQvE6CpS8lWoOcSR5M7o5KfzmHddGJOoK+ykPYrhWoisYoJXC8vZZuOsboXzscYQw79wO6BH1FUQS/Biwx0Dml4OwXHGr7hD0L/HGpELGOA/LH34nYVnMFTIJxrQ9N8UgB42CST4o+ZnhKbAbuOZtSxXE3AT58J8B3bJKh3YTbUshHarfJ3KIjenHke0sTjS/vUL8z2tn2D0McqHSDLlio0XdTFJMaBEO7QjNGcq+JcC0sLdS1gMNDG2EJRuC9/vlv6SxW/X2qu7FfqV2PI5jjmyQTbJDPHJAauSUnJM6YeSePJJn8uI8OE/Oq/M2ap1wxjPr5Aec9y/7DZyh</latexit>
(i) DC-bus regulation: udc → u∗dc ;

∗ ∗ Fig. 7. The eSM system (13) in feedback with (18), when idq = îdq ,
(ii) angle synchronization: θdq → θdq where ∇S(θdq ) = 0; shown in error coordinates where ω̃ = η ũdc , M = Cdc /η 2 and K1 =
(iii) internal stability: idq → îdq (θdq ). (Cdc + Kp )/η 2 relating to the pendulum moment of inertia and damping.
Undergoing the energy-based design procedure shown in

the Appendix, we arrive at a control structure which, in To further account for inductor current transients, an energy-
conjunction with the eSM (13), achieves the above threefold based stability analysis is pursued in the Appendix, by con-
idc = − Kp (udc −u∗dc ) + Gdc u∗dc + îx (θdq ) −η∇S(θdq ) . (18) sidering ĩdq = idq − îdq (θdq ), and the energy function
| {z } | {z }| {z } >
P-control steady-state bias synchronization H(θdq , ũdc , ĩdc ) = 21 Cdc ũ2dc + S(θdq ) + 21 ĩdq Ls ĩdq . (22)
The task of producing this current is carried out by the
This extends the asymptotic stability proof of the damped
upstream converter, typically a boost or an active rectifier.
pendulum to the eSM with inductor dynamics, thus guaran-
The proposed controller achieves the third objective indirectly:
teeing the control objectives. The analysis suggests that, in
by stabilizing the DC-voltage and the angle difference, the
order to prevent full revolutions of the angle, sufficient (active)
appropriate steady-state response is consequently induced.
damping must be present on the DC-link.
We will now look into the physical interpretation of our
design. Notice that, the steady-state bias together with the
synchronization term represent a feed-forward injection of the C. Extension to multiple circuit elements
AC-side losses anticipated by the internal model Consider the case of an inverter with an LCL-filter, i.e. con-
> sisting of a switching-side inductor Ls , a shunt capacitor Cf
îx (θdq ) − η∇S(θdq ) = îs Rs îs , (19) and a grid-side inductor Lg . The extension of this methodology
performing a cancelation of the term (a). Moreover, (19) can is done by including the dynamics of the filter elements and
be computed in stationary frame via (14). Upon implementing their associated internal model relations îs , v̂ f and îg . The
(18), what remains in the closed loop is a transient term îx −ix , synchronization potential (17) then becomes
which vanishes to zero as the the internal model is approached, > >
and the synchronizing torque SLCL (θdq ) = 21 îs Ls îs − 12 v̂ > 1
f Cf v̂ f + 2 îg Lg îg . (23)
η∇S(θdq ) = µv0 ω0 Ls
sin θdq , (20) This typically yields a similar gradient as in Fig. 6, but with
kZs k2
the minimum shifted slightly away from zero. We refer to
corresponding to the term (b), the reactive part of îx . [27] for the multi-machine generalization to networks with
To focus on the angle behavior, we neglect the inductor inductive edges and capacitive nodes.
current transients, i.e. we assume idq = îdq , hence also ix =
îx . Consider subsystem (13a),(13b) together with input (18) D. Direct angle control
dθdq There are scenarios in which the upstream converter can-
= ηũdc (21a)
dt not provide any further degree of freedom other than DC-
dũdc bus regulation. We consider an alternative, first-order angle
Cdc = −(Gdc +Kp )ũdc − η∇S(θdq ) , (21b)
dt synchronization mechanism, having the same equilibrium in
where ũdc = udc − u∗dc . In this way, the eSM can be seen as closed-loop as (21). This is achieved by moving the term ∇S
analogous to a damped pendulum where the tangential com- from (18) to (12) so that it acts on the eSM angle directly
ponent of gravity (corresponding to the gradient term) drives dθ
the mass to a rest position having zero angle with respect to = ηudc − κ∇S (24a)
dt
the downward vertical axis (corresponding to the grid voltage idc = −Kp ũdc + Gdc u∗dc + îx , (24b)
vector here). This analogy, illustrated in Fig. 7, is also known
as the swing equations, and is valid here mainly due to input where κ plays the role of a PLL gain. An important advantage
(18). Alternatively, we view it as a second-order gradient is that the effective gain κ is implemented purely in software
descent. Among the configurations where ∇S(θdq ) = 0, the and is decoupled from the damping injection Kp , subject to the
point of interest is the stable equilibrium θdq = 0. control bandwidth limitations of the upstream converter. In this
case, the entire expression (24b) can be replaced by a conven- IV. R EGULATION OF A WEAK GRID
tional design such as PID control, enforcing only udc → u∗dc . Consider the scenario in which a stiff voltage source is
The other objectives are subsequently achieved by (24a), given absent and the inverter is required to regulate the AC voltage of
a well regulated DC-bus. Finally, exact matching no longer a (local) weak bus to a given amplitude vf∗ . To include in our
occurs and the eSM resembles an induction machine. analysis the AC-bus dynamics, we augment (4) with a three-
phase capacitor to ground, to which we attach a (resistive)
E. PQ set-point tracking impedance and a sinusoidal current source modelling the
For simplicity of exposition we consider the L-filter case presence of another converter, or a weak grid, as shown in
here. The proposed control structure (18) so far achieves Fig. 8; see also the equivalent circuit in Fig. 4. We have
zero angle difference between ex and v g . This is due to the dθ
construction of the function S, having its minimum at θdq = 0. = ηudc (30a)
dt
Building on top of that, we can design µ and modify the dudc
potential energy S to allow an arbitrary operating point. Let Cdc = −Gdc udc + idc + m>
αβ is (30b)
idc ix
dt is
us first define the instantaneous active and reactive power as
dis
> Ls = −Rs is + v f − mαβ udc (30c)
Pg = −i> P̂g (θdq ) = −îs v g udc dt ex vg
s vg
˜
dv f
0 1 (25)
> 0 1 Cf = −Gf v f − is − ig ,
Qg = −i>
s −1 0 v g Q̂g (θdq ) = −îs −1 0 vg . dt 
(30d)
⌘ m↵ d✓g sin ✓g
 = !0 , v g = v 0
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Assuming we are given a set-point (Pg∗ , Q∗g ), we aim to find

where C1f ✓is the AC-filter

sin ✓ the <latexit sha1_base64="+2a+YdAkK5gXAKPWKNIZ/6djIOk=">AAAB7XicbZBNSwMxEIZn61etX1WPXoJF8FR2RdBj0YvHCvYD2qVk07SNzSZLMiuUpf/BiwdFvPp/vPlvTNs9aOsLgYd3ZsjMGyVSWPT9b6+wtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PmlanhvEG01KbdkQtl0LxBgqUvJ0YTuNI8lY0vp3VW0/cWKHVA04SHsZ0qMRAMIrOanZxxJH2yhW/6s9FViHIoQK56r3yV7evWRpzhUxSazuBn2CYUYOCST4tdVPLE8rGdMg7DhWNuQ2z+bZTcuacPhlo455CMnd/T2Q0tnYSR64zpjiyy7WZ+V+tk+LgOsyESlLkii0+GqSSoCaz00lfGM5QThxQZoTblbARNZShC6jkQgiWT16F5kU1cHx/Wand5HEU4QRO4RwCuIIa3EEdGsDgEZ7hFd487b14797HorXg5TPH8Efe5w+j+Y8o</latexit>
<latexit
capacitance,
dt Gf represents cos ✓g
µ
the corresponding µ∗ and θdq ∗

which further achieves power combineds resistive
coslosses
✓ and loads associated to the AC-bus, <latexit sha1_base64="(null)">(null)</latexit>
<latexit
<latexit sha1_base64="Ao6aEljLQlTBTc19PP+N0QGyvXI=">AAACI3icbVBNSwMxEM36bf2qevQSLIIXZVcExVPRi0cFq0KzlGx22gaz2SWZFcvS/+LFv+LFg1K8ePC/mH4o2vog8PLeDDPzokxJi77/4U1Nz8zOzS8slpaWV1bXyusb1zbNjYCaSFVqbiNuQUkNNZSo4DYzwJNIwU10d9b3b+7BWJnqK+xkECa8pWVTCo5OapRPKEtyFkFL6iJKOBr50N1jVmqGbUBOGaNMpPb7Bzr+KWuUK/6+PwCdJMGIVMgIF41yj8WpyBPQKBS3th74GYYFNyiFgm6J5RYyLu54C+qOap6ADYvBjV2645SYNlPjnkY6UH93FDyxtpNErtLt17bjXl/8z6vn2DwOC6mzHEGL4aBmriimtB8YjaUBgarjCBdGul2paHPDBbpYSy6EYPzkSXJ9sB84fnlYqZ6O4lggW2Sb7JKAHJEqOScXpEYEeSTP5JW8eU/ei9fz3oelU96oZ5P8gff5Bbq/pY8=</latexit>
tracking as t → ∞. The overall control objectives become: while the load current ig represents a measurable vector of
(i) DC-bus regulation: udc → u∗dc ; constant magnitude i0 , rotating at constant velocity ω0 .
∗ ∗
(ii) PQ tracking: θdq → θdq where (P̂g , Q̂g )(θdq ) = (Pg∗ , Q∗g );
2 idc ix is ig
(iii) internal stability : idq → îdq (θdq ). <latexit sha1_base64="lk8dXNIP50XQwNj0NX5nZFAXWFA=">AAAB7XicbZDLSgMxFIbP1Futt6pLN8EiuCozIuiy6MZlBXuBdiiZTKaNzWVIMkIZ+g5uXCji1vdx59uYtrPQ1h8CH/85h5zzRylnxvr+t1daW9/Y3CpvV3Z29/YPqodHbaMyTWiLKK50N8KGciZpyzLLaTfVFIuI0040vp3VO09UG6bkg52kNBR4KFnCCLbOarNBHpPpoFrz6/5caBWCAmpQqDmofvVjRTJBpSUcG9ML/NSGOdaWEU6nlX5maIrJGA9pz6HEgpown287RWfOiVGitHvSorn7eyLHwpiJiFynwHZklmsz879aL7PJdZgzmWaWSrL4KMk4sgrNTkcx05RYPnGAiWZuV0RGWGNiXUAVF0KwfPIqtC/qgeP7y1rjpoijDCdwCucQwBU04A6a0AICj/AMr/DmKe/Fe/c+Fq0lr5g5hj/yPn8Aw+CPPQ==</latexit>
Notice that, when all three objectives are satisfied, the udc
∗ ex vf Gf
inductor current takes the value idq = îdq (θdq ) which produces
<latexit sha1_base64="PSXkqWFJPYSwO1c+C1HP8Wbksos=">AAAB6nicbZBNS8NAEIYn9avWr6pHL4tF8FQSEeqx6EGPFe0HtKFstpt26WYTdidCCf0JXjwo4tVf5M1/47bNQVtfWHh4Z4adeYNECoOu++0U1tY3NreK26Wd3b39g/LhUcvEqWa8yWIZ605ADZdC8SYKlLyTaE6jQPJ2ML6Z1dtPXBsRq0ecJNyP6FCJUDCK1nq47Yf9csWtunORVfByqECuRr/81RvELI24QiapMV3PTdDPqEbBJJ+WeqnhCWVjOuRdi4pG3PjZfNUpObPOgISxtk8hmbu/JzIaGTOJAtsZURyZ5drM/K/WTTG88jOhkhS5YouPwlQSjMnsbjIQmjOUEwuUaWF3JWxENWVo0ynZELzlk1ehdVH1LN9fVurXeRxFOIFTOAcPalCHO2hAExgM4Rle4c2Rzovz7nwsWgtOPnMMf+R8/gARYI2k</latexit>
∗ ∗
the desired power injection. If we define is = Rθg îdq (θdq ) we ⌘ 
m↵ d✓g sin ✓g
are able to compute it, using the grid measurement v g , as 
<latexit sha1_base64="pS+PZ/UV6ooP4GI+75b54U/Pe1c=">AAAB63icbZBNSwMxEIZn61etX1WPXoJF8FR2RdBj0YvHCrYW2qVk02wbmmSXZFYoS/+CFw+KePUPefPfmLZ70NYXAg/vzJCZN0qlsOj7315pbX1jc6u8XdnZ3ds/qB4etW2SGcZbLJGJ6UTUcik0b6FAyTup4VRFkj9G49tZ/fGJGysS/YCTlIeKDrWIBaM4s3ocab9a8+v+XGQVggJqUKjZr371BgnLFNfIJLW2G/gphjk1KJjk00ovszylbEyHvOtQU8VtmM93nZIz5wxInBj3NJK5+3sip8raiYpcp6I4ssu1mflfrZthfB3mQqcZcs0WH8WZJJiQ2eFkIAxnKCcOKDPC7UrYiBrK0MVTcSEEyyevQvuiHji+v6w1boo4ynACp3AOAVxBA+6gCS1gMIJneIU3T3kv3rv3sWgtecXMMfyR9/kDCOSOOA==</latexit>
= !0 , i g = i0
h P ∗ Q∗ i 1 ✓ µ sin ✓ <latexit sha1_base64="+2a+YdAkK5gXAKPWKNIZ/6djIOk=">AAAB7XicbZBNSwMxEIZn61etX1WPXoJF8FR2RdBj0YvHCvYD2qVk07SNzSZLMiuUpf/BiwdFvPp/vPlvTNs9aOsLgYd3ZsjMGyVSWPT9b6+wtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PmlanhvEG01KbdkQtl0LxBgqUvJ0YTuNI8lY0vp3VW0/cWKHVA04SHsZ0qMRAMIrOanZxxJH2yhW/6s9FViHIoQK56r3yV7evWRpzhUxSazuBn2CYUYOCST4tdVPLE8rGdMg7DhWNuQ2z+bZTcuacPhlo455CMnd/T2Q0tnYSR64zpjiyy7WZ+V+tk+LgOsyESlLkii0+GqSSoCaz00lfGM5QThxQZoTblbARNZShC6jkQgiWT16F5kU1cHx/Wand5HEU4QRO4RwCuIIa3EEdGsDgEZ7hFd487b14797HorXg5TPH8Efe5w+j+Y8o</latexit>

<latexit
dt cos ✓g
s cos ✓
i∗s = kv1g k −Qg ∗ P ∗g v g , (26) <latexit sha1_base64="(null)">(null)</latexit>
<latexit
<latexit sha1_base64="Ao6aEljLQlTBTc19PP+N0QGyvXI=">AAACI3icbVBNSwMxEM36bf2qevQSLIIXZVcExVPRi0cFq0KzlGx22gaz2SWZFcvS/+LFv+LFg1K8ePC/mH4o2vog8PLeDDPzokxJi77/4U1Nz8zOzS8slpaWV1bXyusb1zbNjYCaSFVqbiNuQUkNNZSo4DYzwJNIwU10d9b3b+7BWJnqK+xkECa8pWVTCo5OapRPKEtyFkFL6iJKOBr50N1jVmqGbUBOGaNMpPb7Bzr+KWuUK/6+PwCdJMGIVMgIF41yj8WpyBPQKBS3th74GYYFNyiFgm6J5RYyLu54C+qOap6ADYvBjV2645SYNlPjnkY6UH93FDyxtpNErtLt17bjXl/8z6vn2DwOC6mzHEGL4aBmriimtB8YjaUBgarjCBdGul2paHPDBbpYSy6EYPzkSXJ9sB84fnlYqZ6O4lggW2Sb7JKAHJEqOScXpEYEeSTP5JW8eU/ei9fz3oelU96oZ5P8gff5Bbq/pY8=</latexit>
g g
from which we extract the features of the modulation vector Fig. 8. Equivalent circuit of the eSM connected to a weak grid.
µ∗ = 1
u∗ kv g − Zs i∗s k (27a)
− sin θ∗ dc

cos θ ∗
= 1
µ∗ u∗ v g − Zs i∗s . (27b) A. Voltage control
dc
Finally, we modify the synchronizing torque to include the As before, the internal model can be computed in αβ-frame
∗
angle shift θdq = θ∗ −θg by replacing S(θdq ) with S(θdq −θdq
∗
) sin θ
and use µ = µ∗ in the original control structure (3), (18) îs = −(Yf−1 + Zs )−1 µu∗dc −cos θ
+ Y −1
f i g (31a)

idc = −Kp ũdc + Gdc u∗dc + îx − η∇S(θdq −θdq
∗
), (28) v̂ f = (Zs Yf + I)−1 µu∗dc −cossin θ
θ
− Zs ig , (31b)
h i
which can be computed in stationary frame via the relation G −ω C
where Yf = ω0 Cf f G0f f includes the grid admittance.

v0 ω0 Ls − sin θ > 0 1
− sin θ∗
To regulate the voltage magnitude kv f k to the set-point vf∗ ,
∗
∗
∇S(θdq −θdq ) = µηkZ sk
2 cos θ −1 0 cos θ ∗
. (29)
| {z } we solve for the modulation magnitude µ in (31b)
sin(θ−θ ∗ ) sh
h
− sin θ > Z i
i
− sin θ >
i 2
Since the DC-link voltage, the angle difference and the induc- cos θ s g
cos θ
Zs ig kZs ig k2 −kZs Yf +Ik2 vf∗2
µ̂f = u∗ + u∗ − u∗2
tor current stabilize in the same manner as before we have dc dc dc
that all three objectives are attained simultaneously, without by taking either one of the two solutions of a quadratic
requiring the assumption of time-scale separation and without equation. Similarly to (27a), this expression requires the eSM
tracking i∗s directly. The stability analysis in the Appendix angle θ as well as the grid measurement ig as feedback.
∗
pertains when replacing S(θdq ) with S(θdq − θdq ) in the In this manner, we have decoupled AC-voltage control from
Hamiltonian energy function (22). angle behavior, thus enabling the grid-forming operation. The
Finally, by employing the first-order control structure (24) DC-regulation requirement still needs to be carried out by idc ,
for the PQ-tracking case, we obtain a direct angle control as in (24b) or via a PID design. Since the angle difference
method, comparable to PWM-based direct power controllers. is left unregulated, the load current is able to extract an
2 the objective of tracking an internal model parametrized by θ , rather
dq
unbounded amount of active power. In the next subsection
than an exogenous signal, can also be seen as path following we shall see how to control this power delivery.
B. PV grid forming are related to the internal-model of the DC-side current by

In this scenario, we aim to regulate the angle difference îx = 1
(P̂loss (θdq ) + P̂f (θdq )) . (38)
u∗
dc
between the modulation vector and the load current, namely
θdq = θ − θg . We can extend the grid-forming approach to the This, together with (35), allows us to reinterpret (36) as
case when a power set-point Pf∗ is given in addition to vf∗ .
idc = −Kp ũdc + u1∗ Gdc u∗2 ∗
dc + P̂loss (θdq ) + Pf , (39)
The control objectives become: | {z } dc | {z }
P-control active-power injection
(i) DC-bus regulation: udc → u∗dc ;
∗ ∗
(ii) active power tracking: θdq → θdq , where P̂f (θdq ) = Pf∗ ; which, as together with (19), suggests that, in order for large-
(iii) path following: is → îs and v f → v̂ f , where kv̂ f k = vf∗ . signal synchronization to occur, the appropriate amount of
active power must be injected from the dc-side.
Consider again the weak grid case of Fig. 8. In the aim of The advantage of this formulation is that, in case of an
constructing another type of energy function, we define the overload, a saturation of idc acts as a curtailment in the
active and reactive power delivered to the load ig as effective set-point Pf∗ , corresponding to a reduction in angle
difference, while still allowing the grid forming operation.
Pf = i >
g vf P̂f (θdq ) = i>
g v̂ f
0 1 0 1 (32) Remark 1 (Enabling droop control) As in Section III-D, the
Qf = i>g −1 0 v f Q̂f (θdq ) = i>
g −1 0 v̂ f .
synchronizing torque can drive the eSM angle directly
∗ ∗
Suppose that there exists θdq such that P̂f (θdq ) = Pf∗ . By dθ
using the internal model relation (31b) in (32), we find that = ηudc − κ P̂f (θdq ) − Pf∗ , (40)
dt | {z }
∗ ∗ κ0 ∇W
P̂f (θdq ) − P̂f (θdq ) = ∇Q̂f (θdq ) − ∇Q̂f (θdq ). (33)
where κ0 = κω0 according to (35) and κ is a PLL gain. This
This identity allows us to deduce a suitable synchronization resembles standard droop-control, the difference being that the
energy function, via the Bregman divergence [28] of Q̂f AC-side frequency is replaced by the DC-bus measurement.
4
As a final remark, both the stiff grid scenario in Section
3
III, and the one presented here, are compatible with either
2
energy functions, S or W, upon appropriate modifications of
W
<latexit sha1_base64="VhN1wWNhwk0ZpvUXUCLBpch7jHs=">AAAB8nicbVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tJNsAiuSiKCLotuXFawD0hDmUwn7dDJTJi5EUroZ7hxoYhbv8adf+OkzUJbDwwczrmXOfdEqeAGPe/bWVvf2NzaruxUd/f2Dw5rR8cdozJNWZsqoXQvIoYJLlkbOQrWSzUjSSRYN5rcFX73iWnDlXzEacrChIwkjzklaKWgnxAcUyLy7mxQq3sNbw53lfglqUOJ1qD21R8qmiVMIhXEmMD3UgxzopFTwWbVfmZYSuiEjFhgqSQJM2E+jzxzz60ydGOl7ZPoztXfGzlJjJkmkZ0sIpplrxD/84IM45sw5zLNkEm6+CjOhIvKLe53h1wzimJqCaGa26wuHRNNKNqWqrYEf/nkVdK5bPiWP1zVm7dlHRU4hTO4AB+uoQn30II2UFDwDK/w5qDz4rw7H4vRNafcOYE/cD5/AJG+kW0=</latexit>
<latexit
1 the modulation factor µ, having presented only two of the four
0 cases possible.
-1
-2
⇤
V. A T WO - CONVERTER M ICRO - GRID
✓dq
-3
So far we have seen two distinct behaviors, both offering the
<latexit sha1_base64="6UwI9tScppP0FGv98UUMJxljpFY=">AAAB9HicdVDLSgNBEJz1GeMr6tHLYBDEw7KbGBJvQS8eI5gHJGuYnZ0kQ2YfmekNhCXf4cWDIl79GG/+jbPJCipa0FBUddPd5UaCK7CsD2NldW19YzO3ld/e2d3bLxwctlQYS8qaNBSh7LhEMcED1gQOgnUiyYjvCtZ2x9ep354yqXgY3MEsYo5PhgEfcEpAS04PRgxIP/Em8/vzfqFomZdWqVYtYcu0FkhJpVyxK9jOlCLK0OgX3nteSGOfBUAFUaprWxE4CZHAqWDzfC9WLCJ0TIasq2lAfKacZHH0HJ9qxcODUOoKAC/U7xMJ8ZWa+a7u9AmM1G8vFf/yujEMak7CgygGFtDlokEsMIQ4TQB7XDIKYqYJoZLrWzEdEUko6JzyOoSvT/H/pFUy7bJp3V4U61dZHDl0jE7QGbJRFdXRDWqgJqJogh7QE3o2psaj8WK8LltXjGzmCP2A8fYJHsSSUw==</latexit>
-2 0 2 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
✓dq
<latexit sha1_base64="ddj36MmgpEwr0ovqlJTMk6pQcH0=">AAAB8nicbZBNS8NAEIYn9avWr6pHL4tF8FQSEfRY9OKxgv2ANpTNZtMu3WTj7kQooT/DiwdFvPprvPlv3LY5aOsLCw/vzLAzb5BKYdB1v53S2vrG5lZ5u7Kzu7d/UD08ahuVacZbTEmluwE1XIqEt1Cg5N1UcxoHkneC8e2s3nni2giVPOAk5X5Mh4mIBKNorV4fRxzpIA8fp4Nqza27c5FV8AqoQaHmoPrVDxXLYp4gk9SYnuem6OdUo2CSTyv9zPCUsjEd8p7FhMbc+Pl85Sk5s05IIqXtS5DM3d8TOY2NmcSB7YwpjsxybWb+V+tlGF37uUjSDHnCFh9FmSSoyOx+EgrNGcqJBcq0sLsSNqKaMrQpVWwI3vLJq9C+qHuW7y9rjZsijjKcwCmcgwdX0IA7aEILGCh4hld4c9B5cd6dj0VrySlmjuGPnM8ft/+Rhg==</latexit>
✓dq
<latexit sha1_base64="ddj36MmgpEwr0ovqlJTMk6pQcH0=">AAAB8nicbZBNS8NAEIYn9avWr6pHL4tF8FQSEfRY9OKxgv2ANpTNZtMu3WTj7kQooT/DiwdFvPprvPlv3LY5aOsLCw/vzLAzb5BKYdB1v53S2vrG5lZ5u7Kzu7d/UD08ahuVacZbTEmluwE1XIqEt1Cg5N1UcxoHkneC8e2s3nni2giVPOAk5X5Mh4mIBKNorV4fRxzpIA8fp4Nqza27c5FV8AqoQaHmoPrVDxXLYp4gk9SYnuem6OdUo2CSTyv9zPCUsjEd8p7FhMbc+Pl85Sk5s05IIqXtS5DM3d8TOY2NmcSB7YwpjsxybWb+V+tlGF37uUjSDHnCFh9FmSSoyOx+EgrNGcqJBcq0sLsSNqKaMrQpVWwI3vLJq9C+qHuW7y9rjZsijjKcwCmcgwdX0IA7aEILGCh4hld4c9B5cd6dj0VrySlmjuGPnM8ft/+Rhg==</latexit>
frequency support of a SM. In Section III-E, a grid-following

∗ = −1. mechanism tracks a PQ set-point by assigning the modulation
Fig. 9. The synchronization potential W(θdq ) with the set-point θdq
magnitude µ and its internal angle relative to a stiff bus. Then,
in Section IV-B, a grid-forming mechanism regulates the AC-
∗ ∗ ∗

W(θdq ) = 1
Q̂f (θdq ) − Q̂f (θdq ) − ∇Q̂f (θdq )(θdq −θdq ) , bus voltage via the modulation factor µ and, independently, the
ω0
active power injection by regulating its internal angle relative
seen in Fig. 9, which conveniently yields the gradient term to a sinusoidal disturbance. To validate experimentally the two
∗
systems, we set them up front-to-front, as seen in Fig. 10.
∇W(θdq ) = ω10 ∇Q̂f (θdq ) − ∇Q̂f (θdq ) . (34)
Although both units feature an LC output filter, when shorted
By using (33), we recover conventional, active-power droop together, i.e. when the relays are closed, the two capacitors
as the synchronizing torque form a single AC-bus to be regulated by the grid-forming unit
(index 1), while the grid-feeding unit (index 2) injects active
1
u∗ (P̂f (θdq ) − Pf∗ ) = η∇W(θdq ) , (35) and reactive power and helps supply the load.
dc
and reuse the control structure (18), with W instead of S,

A. Path-following control augmentation
idc = − Kp ũdc + Gdc u∗dc + îx −η∇W(θdq ) . (36) Consider the PQ-tracking scenario implemented in Unit 2.
| {z } | {z }| {z }
P-control steady-state bias synchronization Due to model uncertainty in formulas such as (14) or (31), the
internal model representation can become inaccurate, resulting
The behavior is such that active-power droop drives θdq to
∗ in a miss-aligned steady-state operation. One way to correct
the operating point where P̂f (θdq ) = Pf∗ . Finally, since (36)
this, is to actively pursue the path-following objective. In
can be used in conjunction with µ = µ̂f in (3), we conclude
this aim, the modulation vector can be augmented with a
that the set-point (Pf∗ , vf∗ ) is achieved asymptotically as t →
proportional-resonant controller enforcing is → îs ,
∞. Apart from the simple implementation, from an energy sin θ
conservation perspective, the steady-state AC-losses mαβ = µ∗ −cos θ
+ Ks (is − îs ) + Kres Rθ xdq
> dxdq (41)
P̂loss (θdq ) = 12 îs Rs îs + 12 v̂ >
f Gf v̂ f , (37) = −K0 xdq + R> θ (is − îs ) .
dt
Re ay 1 Pg⇤ = Pf⇤ Relay 2

Q⇤g
u⇤d idc1
<latexit sha1_base64="rwdcpH6vdqhrwDsABR5hCaMSbPY=">AAAB73icbZBNS8NAEIYn9avWr6pHL4tF8FQSEfRY9OKxgv2ANoTNZtou3Wzi7kYooX/CiwdFvPp3vPlv3LY5aOsLCw/vzLAzb5gKro3rfjultfWNza3ydmVnd2//oHp41NZJphi2WCIS1Q2pRsEltgw3ArupQhqHAjvh+HZW7zyh0jyRD2aSoh/ToeQDzqixVpcHecQCbxpUa27dnYusgldADQo1g+pXP0pYFqM0TFCte56bGj+nynAmcFrpZxpTysZ0iD2Lksao/Xy+75ScWScig0TZJw2Zu78nchprPYlD2xlTM9LLtZn5X62XmcG1n3OZZgYlW3w0yAQxCZkdTyKukBkxsUCZ4nZXwkZUUWZsRBUbgrd88iq0L+qe5fvLWuOmiKMMJ3AK5+DBFTTgDprQAgYCnuEV3pxH58V5dz4WrSWnmDmGP3I+fwDtEI/h</latexit>
ix1
<latexit sha1_base64="WCbHWWhX1Jl/D1fEcZrOcww3oRY=">AAAB7nicbZBNS8NAEIYn9avWr6pHL4tF8FQSEfRY9OKxgv2ANoTNdtIu3WzC7kYsoT/CiwdFvPp7vPlv3LY5aOsLCw/vzLAzb5gKro3rfjultfWNza3ydmVnd2//oHp41NZJphi2WCIS1Q2pRsEltgw3ArupQhqHAjvh+HZW7zyi0jyRD2aSoh/ToeQRZ9RYq8OD/CnwpkG15tbducgqeAXUoFAzqH71BwnLYpSGCap1z3NT4+dUGc4ETiv9TGNK2ZgOsWdR0hi1n8/XnZIz6wxIlCj7pCFz9/dETmOtJ3FoO2NqRnq5NjP/q/UyE137OZdpZlCyxUdRJohJyOx2MuAKmRETC5QpbnclbEQVZcYmVLEheMsnr0L7ou5Zvr+sNW6KOMpwAqdwDh5cQQPuoAktYDCGZ3iFNyd1Xpx352PRWnKKmWP4I+fzB03Qj4g=</latexit>
i s1 Z s1 Z s2 i s2 ix2
<latexit sha1_base64="DmNbJy+CApLq8xNvAqr+AxAe+90=">AAAB7nicbZBNS8NAEIYnftb6VfXoZbEInkpSBD0WvXisYD+gDWGz3bRLN5uwOxFL6I/w4kERr/4eb/4bt20O2vrCwsM7M+zMG6ZSGHTdb2dtfWNza7u0U97d2z84rBwdt02SacZbLJGJ7obUcCkUb6FAybup5jQOJe+E49tZvfPItRGJesBJyv2YDpWIBKNorY4I8qegPg0qVbfmzkVWwSugCoWaQeWrP0hYFnOFTFJjep6bop9TjYJJPi33M8NTysZ0yHsWFY258fP5ulNybp0BiRJtn0Iyd39P5DQ2ZhKHtjOmODLLtZn5X62XYXTt50KlGXLFFh9FmSSYkNntZCA0ZygnFijTwu5K2IhqytAmVLYheMsnr0K7XvMs319WGzdFHCU4hTO4AA+uoAF30IQWMBjDM7zCm5M6L86787FoXXOKmRP4I+fzB09Vj4k=</latexit>
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Direct Angle Control and Energy-Shaping Techniques For Grid-Connected Converters

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Direct Angle Control and Energy-Shaping Techniques For Grid-Connected Converters

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS 1

Direct angle control and energy-shaping techniques

is achieved by appropriately controlling the converter angle,

rather than in cascade. This distinctive feature is the result

control design, related to geometric path following [16]. Fi-

machine-infinite-bus problem, while Section IV presents a ˜

grid-forming design. Before concluding, Section V provides A. The VSC model ˜

A. Preliminaries and notation

In a conventional PLL design, as well as in some simplified

By comparing (13) to (10), we further identify the equivalent

identified with the switching-side inductance of the inverter.

⌧e As a general guideline, to achieve a particular EMF voltage

e0 /(ω0 Lm ), from which we can determine µ = e0 /u∗dc . As

The matching control presented next is designed to syn-

the terms Gdc and, respectively, Cdc in (13). In the following

cons der an n erna -mode re a on for îx = −m> αβ îs as

The re evance of h s formu a on s ha prov des a gu de-

(i) sti↵ grid

ne for ang e synchron za on By us ng idc o compensa e

becomes a function of θdq . By defining îdq (θdq ) = R>θg îs and

we are now able to formalise the control specifications in terms

(i) DC-bus regulation: udc → u∗dc ;

Undergoing the energy-based design procedure shown in

Assuming we are given a set-point (Pg∗ , Q∗g ), we aim to find

where C1f ✓is the AC-filter

the corresponding µ∗ and θdq ∗

B. PV grid forming are related to the internal-model of the DC-side current by

frequency support of a SM. In Section III-E, a grid-following

and reuse the control structure (18), with W instead of S,

Re ay 1 Pg⇤ = Pf⇤ Relay 2

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