International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

Deformation behaviour, short crack growth and fatigue lives

under multiaxial nonproportional loading
J. Hoffmeyer a, R. Döring b, T. Seeger c, M. Vormwald c,*
a
Volkswagen AG, 38436 Wolfsburg, Germany
b
IAMT mbH, Morgenbergstrasse 19, 08525 Plauen, Germany
c
Darmstadt University of Technology, Fachgebiet Werkstoffmechanik, TU Darmstadt, Petersenstrasse 12, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany
Received 21 March 2005; accepted 23 May 2005
Available online 15 December 2005

Abstract
Experimental results of a research project on short crack growth under multiaxial nonproportional loading are presented. Fatigue lives, crack
growth curves and the deformation behaviour of hollow tube specimens and notched specimens were investigated under combined tension and
torsion loading. The results served as basis for the development of a cyclic plasticity model [Döring R, Hoffmeyer J, Vormwald M, Seeger T. A
plasticity model for calculating stress–strain sequences under multiaxial nonproportional cyclic loading. In: Comput Mater Sci. 28(3–4);2003:
587–96; Döring R, Hoffmeyer J, Seeger T, Vormwald M. Constitutive modelling of nonproportional hardening, cyclic hardening and ratchetting.
In: Proceedings of the seventh international conference on biaxial/multiaxial fatigue and fracture, DVM, Berlin; 2004. p. 291–6; Hoffmeyer J.
Anrisslebensdauervorhersage bei mehrachsiger Beanspruchung auf Basis des Kurzrisskonzepts. PhD-Thesis, TU Darmstadt; 2004.] and a short
crack model [Hoffmeyer J. Anrisslebensdauervorhersage bei mehrachsiger Beanspruchung auf Basis des Kurzrisskonzepts. PhD-Thesis, TU
Darmstadt; 2004; Döring R, Hoffmeyer J, Seeger T, Vormwald M. Fatigue lifetime prediction based on a short crack growth model for multiaxial
nonproportional loading. In: Proceedings of the seventh international conference on biaxial and multiaxial fatigue and fracture, DVM, Berlin;
2004. p. 253–8].
Stress–strain paths including nonproportional hardening and experimental fatigue lives of the unnotched specimens under different loading
cases are discussed and compared with calculations. Load-time-sequences were in-phase, 458 and 908 out-of-phase loading with constant and
variable amplitudes, torsion without and with superimposed static normal stress, and strain paths like box, butterfly, diamond and cross path. For
the notched specimens fatigue lives under 08 and 908 out-of-phase loading are compared with calculations based on finite element results and the
short crack model. During some tests the initiation, growth and orientation of short cracks was studied using the plastic replica technique.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Multiaxial loading; Experiments; Short cracks; Cyclic deformation; Replica technique

1. Introduction
For metallic materials the number of cycles to initiate a
fatigue crack (surface crack) of technical size of about 2cZ
0.5 mm is determined by the growth of short cracks. Therefore,
the fatigue process can be successfully modelled based on
fracture mechanics. A significant improvement of lifetime
predictions for uniaxial [5] and multiaxial proportional [6]
variable amplitude loading has been achieved applying such
concepts. On the other hand, for multiaxial nonproportional
loading more than 100 hypotheses for lifetime prediction have
been published, but usually the accuracy is not high. A survey
of the state of the art can be found in [7]. Based on these facts,
the stage of short fatigue crack growth under nonproportional
multiaxial loading was experimentally investigated and
modelled in a recently finished major research project. The
project consisted of the four parts:
† experiments (stress–strain behaviour, fatigue lives, short
crack growth curves, crack angles, crack closure),
† plasticity model,
† short crack model,
† application to notched specimens.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: C49 6151 163645; fax: C49 6151 163038. The models are described in [1–4]. Here, selected
E-mail address: vormwald@wm.tu-darmstadt.de (M. Vormwald). experimental results are discussed and compared with
0142-1123/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. calculations of the stress–strain behaviour and of fatigue
doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2005.05.014 lives.
 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520
Nomenclature
a crack depth
a0 start crack depth
af end crack depth
b fatigue strength exponent
c crack length
c fatigue ductility exponent
f3 frequency of the normal strain time sequence
fg frequency of the shear strain time sequence
m exponent in crack growth equation
n number of load cycles
n0 cyclic hardening exponent
t exponent of J-Integral interaction equation
l0 gage length of extensometer
A5 elongation after fraction
C Tanaka-Tensor
E Young’s modulus
K0 cyclic hardening coefficient
Kt,tens. notch factor, tension
Kt,tors. notch factor, torsion
Rm ultimate tensile stress
Rp0,2 offset yield strength (0.2% plastic strain)
UII,eff ratio of effective to nominal shear strain (and/or
stress) range
YI geometry factor for stress intensity factor calcu-
lation, Mode I
2. Experimental procedure and program
Combined tension and torsion was applied on unnotched
thin-walled hollow tubes, Fig. 1, of three materials, the micro
alloyed fine grained structural steel S460N (FeE460),
aluminium Al5083 (AlMg4.5Mn) and 347 stainless steel
(X6CrNiNb18-10) with the static and cyclic properties
according to Table 1. The steel specimens were rolled after
drilling but before turning the outer surface. The drill-hole of
the aluminium specimens was shot peened. By residual stresses
the occurrence of cracks on the internal surface was
particularly reduced under low strain amplitudes.
The majority of the tests have been performed by a servo-
hydraulic loading device under strain control at room
temperature. A process computer supplied the signals for
controlling the sequences of strains. pThe
ffiffiffi ratio of shear to
normal strain amplitudes was ga =3a Z 3. Choosing this ratio
results in nearly identical damage of normal and shear strain
under proportional loading. The strains were measured by a
biaxial extensometer with a gage length l0 of 12.5 mm. It was
pressed into small pits on the specimen surface by elastic tapes.
The maximum frequency of the strain controlled tests was
2 Hz. The strains, moments and forces were recorded by a data
acquisition system. Further details on the experimental
technique can be found in [3,6].
The deformation behaviour including ratchetting and cyclic
hardening, short crack growth and fatigue lives have been
investigated under 08, 458 and 908 out-of-phase (constant and
509
YII geometry factor for stress intensity factor calcu-
lation, Mode II
g shear strain
ga amplitude of shear strain
3a amplitude of direct strain
3f0 fatigue ductility coefficient
h degree of interaction
n Poisson ratio
sf0 fatigue strength coefficient
seqv,fictitious fictitious maximum von Mises equivalent stress
in time history of a cycle for assumed proportional
loading
seqv,max maximum von Mises equivalent stress in time
history of a cycle
sstat static direct stress
smax maximum stress of cycle
DJeff effective cyclic J-Integral
DJeff,th effective fatigue threshold, J-Integral
DJI,eff effective cyclic J-Integral Mode I
DJII,eff effective cyclic J-Integral Mode II
DWeff effective cyclic strain energy density
DWI,eff effective cyclic strain energy density, Mode I
DWII cyclic strain energy density, Mode II
variable amplitude) loading and various other kinds of loading,
like cyclic torsion with superimposed static normal stress, cyclic
push–pull with superimposed static torsion, loads with different
frequencies (butterfly paths, f3/fgZ2 and 1⁄2 ), alternating
tension–torsion (cross path), box and diamond paths. Uniaxial,
torsion and proportional tests were available from [6].
In several of these tests the growth of short cracks has been
studied using the plastic replica technique. Furthermore, the
crack opening behaviour was investigated again using the
replica technique. Replicas have been taken at different
positions of one hysteresis loop, e.g. in 908 out-of-phase tests.
Furthermore, fatigue lives of notched specimens (S460N,
shouldered shafts with diameters 27 and 35 mm, notch radius
1.4 mm, Kt,tens.Z2.2, Kt,tors.Z1.56, Fig. 1) were determined
(constant amplitude tests with push–pull, torsion, in-phase and
908 out-of-phase loading, torsion with static tension, tension
with static torsion, mean stresses, butterfly, box and cross
paths; variable amplitude tests with push–pull, torsion and
proportional loading). Notch strain sequences were measured
by strain gauges and compared with finite element calculations
using the new plasticity model [3]. Tests on unnotched
specimens (mainly with uniaxial loading) served for the
parameter identification of the plasticity model.
3. Cyclic deformation
The basis for the short crack model is the information on the
complete stress and strain histories. The latter are calculated
510 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520

297

2,5
90

47
∅ 37

∅ 36
47

R12
2

0
R5 R5

35
35

t = 65

27

47
R1,4

81 12 R120 81
156
308

Fig. 1. Thin-walled tubular specimen, notched specimen.

Table 1
Mechanical properties of the test materials

Material E (MPa) n Rp0,2 Rm (MPa) A5 (%) K 0 (MPa) n0 sf0 (MPa) 3f0 b c

S460N 208.500 0.3 500 643 26 1115 0.161 969.6 0.281 K0.086 K0.493
Al5083 68.000 0.33 169 340 20 544 0.075 780.3 1.153 K0.114 K0.8614
347 steel 200.000 0.3 251 588 52 1329 0.244 865 0.119 K0.097 K0.359

applying the newly developed constitutive model of Döring
[1,2], which is based on Jiang’s models [8,9]. This plasticity
model allows the description of nonproportional hardening and
strong cyclic hardening including the transition from the static
to the cyclic stress–strain curve. Both isotropic and kinematic
hardening are considered. Additionally, a realistic represen-
tation of the relaxation and ratchetting rates under uniaxial,
proportional and nonproportional loading is enabled.
The model is based on the incremental plasticity theory. The
main parts are the von Mises yield criterion, the normality flow
rule and a nonlinear kinematic hardening rule of the
Armstrong–Frederick-type, however, further developed by
Chaboche [10], Ohno and Wang [11] and Jiang [8]. The
detailed description can be found in [1,2,4]. As many effects
can be considered a high number of material parameters is
required. Their identification is also described in [1–3]. Here,
some experimental results and effects under nonproportional
loading are presented in comparison with calculations.
S460N shows cyclic hardening under high and softening
under low strain amplitudes. Al5083 hardens strongly, so that
linear elastic behaviour occurs up to amplitudes of 3aZ0.5%.
The stainless steel reveals almost neutral cyclic hardening
behaviour for strain amplitudes less than 0.5%. The amount of
nonproportional hardening can be determined from tests with
alternating in-phase and 908 out-of-phase loading (100 cycles
in each block) for S460 and 347 austenitic steel, Fig. 2, and
alternating tension–torsion loading, Tab. 2. Nonproportional
cyclic hardening is an additional hardening under loading
situations with rotating principal axes. The magnitude strongly
depends on the microstructure, i.e. on interactions of different
slip systems and dislocations in the material during plastic
deformations. Both steels, especially the 347 austenitic steel,
show strong nonproportional hardening. However, this beha-
viour could not be found for Al5083. Consequently, for this
material it is not necessary to consider nonproportional
hardening in the plasticity model.
In Fig. 2, the development of the normal stresses at the
reversal point of a cycle is shown. Loading was strain
controlled with amplitudes as indicated. The strain sequences
have been switched from proportional to 908 out-of-phase
loading and vice versa. The cyclic softening was completed
after 30–50 cycles. The stresses rose rapidly during the first
 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520 511

600
90° 0° phase shift
400
500

300 400

σa [MPa]
σa [MPa]

300
200
0° 90° 0° phase shift
200

100 Experiment S460N Experiment 347 stainless steel

Döring-model [1] εa=0.231 % 100 Döring-modell [1] εa=0.346 %
γa=0.4 % γa=0.6 %
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
n n

Fig. 2. Out-of-phase hardening (08 and 908): (a) S460N (gaZ0.4%, 3aZ0.231%), (b) 347 stainless steel (gaZ0.6%, 3aZ0.346%).

cycle after the change to out-of-phase loading, followed by a strain amplitude, Fig. 5. For strain amplitudes of 3aZ0.577%
minor increase up to a stabilised level. For the change from out- and gaZ1% the stress amplitudes in the experiment are a factor
of-phase to in-phase loading, the stress amplitudes decrease of 2.5 higher than for proportional loading and a factor of 2.2
and finally reach the initial condition (subsequent softening). higher than in the calculation without considering the
This means that nonproportional hardening is reversible. For nonproportional hardening as with the model [8]. For strain
S460N, the stresses under out-of-phase loading are 1.5 times as amplitudes of 3aZ0.231% and gaZ0.4% the stress amplitudes
high as for proportional loading for the strain amplitude level in the experiment are a factor of 1.6 higher than for
applied, the factor is 2.1 for 347 stainless steel. The new model proportional loading and a factor of 1.5 higher than in the
describes this behaviour quite well. It should be emphasised mentioned calculation. More results can be found in [3]. A
that not the complete difference between the stresses under in- satisfying accuracy in assessing the effect of nonproportional
phase and out-of-phase loading results from nonproportional hardening can be noted with models like [1] or [9]. Remaining
hardening. For out-of-phase loading, the stress amplitudes are discrepancies in the shape of the hysteresis loops could be
higher due to the strain- and stress-time history. However, eliminated by introducing a change of the shape of the yield
stresses increasing beyond that have been found surface due to nonproportional stressing.
experimentally.
Another informative test is the alternating tension–torsion
loading, Table 2 (cross path, S460N), where significantly 4. Short crack model
higher stresses occur than under separate uniaxial loading or
torsion. For the depicted strain amplitudes, experimental stress The growth of short fatigue cracks was modelled by a
amplitudes are 9 and 23% higher, respectively. concept that is based on fracture mechanics [4]. A semicircular
Furthermore, Fig. 3 gives examples of hysteresis loop surface crack is supposed to grow starting at an initial crack
shapes under high strain amplitudes for 908 phase shift, the radius a0 (crack depth and half surface length, respectively;
butterfly path (different frequencies, f3/fgZ1⁄2 ) and the box path a0z20–30 mm) up to the failure crack length afZ250 mm
(strain controlled completely reversed cycling, a strain (technical crack initiation). It is assumed to remain plane and
component is changed only during the other component is its shape is supposed to stay constant. The starter crack length
kept constant) for S460N. From these tests, the effect of a0 is determined by backward integration of the Paris-type law
nonproportional hardening and the results of the plasticity for uniaxial loading. The fatigue lifetime is calculated by
model [1] concerning this effect can be seen compared to other integration of a Paris-type crack growth rate equation giving
models, which do not consider this effect like the earlier model the growth rate as a function of the effective cyclic J-Integral:
of Jiang [8]. For 908 out-of-phase loading the calculated stress Table 2
amplitudes were found to be 20% lower than the experimental Nonproportional hardening: cross path (alternating tension/torsion, S460N)
if no nonproportional hardening is considered. Similar results
3aZ0.26%, 3aZ0.173%,
are obtained for the butterfly and the box path. Further gaZ0.45% gaZ0.3%
experimental results of different characteristic strain paths with sa (MPa) ta sa (MPa) ta
constant amplitudes (3aZ0.173%, gaZ0.3%) are shown for (MPa) (MPa)
S460N in Fig. 4. Calculated and measured amplitudes and Döring-model [1] 421 257 317 197
mean stresses in the stabilised state are in good agreement for Experiment: cross path 437 262 318 200
all investigated paths. Experiment: pure tension/ 356 213 290 180
compression or pure
For 347 stainless steel, even more significant nonpropor-
torsion
tional hardening can be found which strongly depends on the
512 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520

(a) 600 (b) 600

γ γ
400 400
ε ε
200 200
σ [MPa]

σ [MPa]
0 0
–200 –200
–400 –400
–600 –600
–0.50 –0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 –0.50 –0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50
ε [%] ε [%]
(c) 600
γ
400
ε
200
σ [MPa]

Experiment
0 Döring - model [1]
elastic deformation in
–200
the dashed part
–400 Jiang - model [8]

–600
–0.50 –0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50
ε [%]

Fig. 3. Experimental and calculated hysteresis loops (S460N): (a) out-of-phase loading, (b) butterfly path, (c) box path.

da More details on this procedure together with the approximation

Z CðDJeff Þm ; DJeff O DJeff; th : (1)
dn of the crack opening levels can be found in [3,4].
The equivalent J-Integral is calculated by a newly developed
mixed mode hypothesis for nonproportional loading:
5. Crack growth curves
 t 1=t
DJeff Z DJI;eff t
C DJII;eff ; t Z m1Kh ;
During 20 tests on S460N and Al5083 the initiation and
sequ;max Ksmax (2) growth, orientation and density of short cracks with surface
hZ
sequ;fictitious Ksmax lengths from 5 to 500 mm was studied using plastic replicas,
which were examined in the scanning electron microscope.
The calculation is performed for all planes to find the critical Films of cellulose acetate with acetone as solvent were cut into
plane showing the shortest life. Practically, an increment of 58 strips of 5 mm width and taken round the specimen by a
is applied when revolving from one plane to the next plane for rotating device to avoid air bubbles [3,13], meanwhile the
crack growth analysis.
acetone was supplied by a pump. The tests were stopped
The parameter h is an interaction variable between mode I
approximately 10 times until failure. The extensometer had to
and mode II cycles ð0% h% 1Þ. DJI,eff and DJII,eff are the
be removed, the replicas were taken and the test was continued
decomposed effective J-Integral components. Proportionality
afterwards. The first replica was taken after about 1–2% of the
is assumed between J-Integral and decomposed total strain
estimated fatigue live. The crack growth behaviour could be
energy components:
traced back up to a surface length of 2–10 mm, beginning from
DJI;eff Z 2p,YI2 ,DWI;eff ,a; the end of the test, so that typical series of crack images arose
(3) as shown in Fig. 6. Nearly straight surface traces of the cracks
p could be observed.
DJII;eff Z ðY ,U Þ2 ,DWII ,a:
1Kn II II;eff Examples of experimentally determined short crack
YI and YII are the geometry influence factors for the stress curves are plotted together with calculation results in
intensity factor of semicircular surface cracks in an infinite half Fig. 7 for S460N and Fig. 8 for Al5083. The respective
space. DWeff is the strain energy density for the part of a cycle test parameters are given in the diagrams. The crack length
when the crack is open. It has to be determined numerically by is always plotted as the crack depth a, which is identical to
integrating the stress–strain paths. The crack opening stresses half the surface length 2c for the assumed semicircular
are estimated by applying Newman’s equation [12] which has surface crack. The criterion for the crack initiation of
been modified to take into account multiaxial stress states. technical size was afZ0.25 mm.
 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520 513

300 300
S460N γ γ
200 εa=0.173% 200
ε ε
τ [MPa] 100 γa=0.3% 100

τ [MPa]
0 0
–100 –100
–200 Experiment –200
Döring-model [1]
–300 –300
–500 –250 0 250 500 –500 –250 0 250 500
σ [MPa] σ [MPa]

300 300
γ γ
200 200
ε ε
100 100
τ [MPa]

τ [MPa]
0 0

–100 –100

–200 –200

–300 –300
–500 –250 0 250 500 –500 –250 0 250 500
σ [MPa] σ [MPa]

300 300
γ γ
200 200
ε ε
100 100
τ [MPa]

τ [MPa]

0 0
–100 –100
–200 –200
–300 –300
–500 –250 0 250 500 –500 –250 0 250 500
σ [MPa] σ [MPa]

300 300
γ γ
200 200
ε ε
100 100
τ [MPa]

τ [MPa]

0 0

–100 –100

–200 –200

–300 –300
–500 –250 0 250 500 –500 –250 0 250 500
σ [MPa] σ [MPa]

Fig. 4. Experimental and calculated stresses (S460N; 3aZ0.173%, gaZ0.3%).

Three to six cracks could be traced for S460N, Fig. 7.
Calculated and experimentally determined crack growth curves
are in good agreement for in-phase loading, straining with
frequency ratio of two, and the box path. For 908 out-of-phase
sinusoidal loading the life to initiation of a technical crack is
overestimated by a factor of three. Under in-phase and out-of-
phase loading the crack initiated at surface flaws with typical
dimensions about 10–15 mm. In the case with different
frequencies noticeably large crack length could be seen even
in the replica taken first. However, its growth rate was very
small compared to those of other much shorter crack in the
same specimen. This is in accordance with findings often
reported for short fatigue cracks.
For Al5083, Fig. 8, the number of detectable cracks was
smaller than for S460N. Factors of 1.5–2 too short lives are
calculated under in-phase loading. Contrary to this, under out-
of-phase loading the calculated lives tend to be longer than the
experimentally determined lives. Again surface flaws were
514 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520

800
600 90° phase shift 400 εa=0.577%
εa=0.577 % γa=1%
400
γa=1 % 200
σ [MPa]

τ [MPa]
200
0 0
–200
–400 –200
Experiment
–600 Döring-model [1]
–400 Jiang-model [8]
–800
–0.8 –0.6 –0.4 –0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 –1.0 –0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
ε [%] γ [%]

300
400 εa=0.577 % εa=0.231 %
γa=1% 200 γa=0.4 %
200 100
τ [MPa]

τ [MPa]
0 0

–200 Experiment –100

Jiang-model [8]
–200
–400 Döring-model [1]
–300
–800 –600 –400 –200 0 200 400 600 800 –400 –200 0 200 400
σ [MPa] σ [MPa]

Fig. 5. Experimental and calculated stress–strain paths (347 stainless steel, 908 out-of-phase loading).

Fig. 6. Micrographs of short cracks, S460N, 3aZ0.144%, gaZ0.25%.

 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520 515

600 700
S460N

end of experiment
S460N

end of experiment
500 in-phase loading 600
εa=0.144 %, γa=0.25 % 90° out-of-phase loading

crack length a [µm]

crack length a [µm] 500 γa=0.25 %, εa=0.144 %
400 crack 1 crack 1
crack 2 crack 2
crack 3
400
300 crack 3
shack modelort cr crack 4
af _ 300
200 af _ short crack model
200
100 100
a _
0 a0_
0 25000 50000 75000 100000 125000 0 20000 40000 60000 80000
number of cycles n number of cycles n

400 500

end of experiment
SN460 S460N
fε/fγ=2 box path
400
crack length a [µm]

εa=0.144 %, γa=0.25 %

crack length a [µm]

300 εa=0.2 %, γa=0.346 %

af _ 300
crack 1 crack 4
a_
end of experiment
200 crack 2 crack 5 f
crack 3 crack 6 crack 1
200 crack 2
short crack model
crack 3
100 short crack model
100
a0_ a0_
0 0
0 5000 10000 15000 0 10000 20000 30000
number of cycles n number of cycles n

Fig. 7. Comparison of crack growth curves, determined by replicas and calculated using the short crack model [3,4]; S460N.

usual origins of microcrack initiation. These microcracks of the experiments, only mode I crack growth without distinct
stayed growing in a specific plane without distinct kinks. As kinks or a change from mode II to I was found. Only under
with S460N cases with extraordinarily large cracks have been torsion (as the case may be with superimposed static normal
observed existing from the very beginning of the loading, see stress) mode II crack growth was found.
Fig. 8(d). It is emphasized that the short crack growth under
cyclic reversed torsion with superimposed static tension
normal stress occurred under cyclic mode II in the plane 6. Fatigue lives
experiencing the applied tension stress.
The fatigue process consists essentially of short crack For a variety of load cases as partly outlined above the lives
growth for S460N, Al5083 and also for 347 stainless steel [14]. to initiation of a technical crack (afZ250 mm) have been
Microcracks in the length range of 5–10 mm could already be determined both experimentally and analytically. In most of all
investigated cases the results of the short crack growth model
detected after 2–5% of the fatigue life, so that 95–98% of the
were in good accordance with the experimental findings. The
life is governed by short crack growth. It is therefore
ratio between calculated and experimentally determined lives
convenient to model the fatigue process applying fracture
lies between 0.5 and 2.5. Especially the following results have
mechanics for short cracks only and thus suppressing the very
been obtained:
early stage of microcrack initiation. This stage of microcrack
initiation together with the effect of the inhomogeneous † Lives are modelled unerringly for proportional loading of
microstructure on the short crack growth rate is integrally S460N, Fig. 9(a). Both the slope of the life curve and the
considered by the start length a0 which is calculated by critical plane coincide with the experimental results.
backward integration of the crack growth law using the length † For out-of-phase loading of S460N, Fig. 9(a), the accordance
of the technical crack, here afZ250 mm, as the crack length at of the results is still good. In average there is a factor of 1.6
the end of crack growth. The relevant information can be taken between calculated and experimentally determined lives.
from the uniaxial strain live curve. The start crack length a0 is Both experiment and calculation display a life reduction due
justified due to crack initiation at inclusions and defects at the to the phase shift. However, the calculated are not as
surface, as it can be seen from Fig. 6. The size of these pronounced as the experimental values and depend on the
inclusions and defects was occasionally comparable with a0, applied amplitude level. Near the endurance limit the
usually slightly smaller. calculated life curves for in-phase and out-of-phase loading
Crack coalescence could very rarely be observed. Usually cross each other. Experimentally, the critical plane lies nearly
only between 3 and 6 cracks could be detected. For the majority perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the specimen; the
516 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520

(a) 800 (b) 400

Al 5083 Al 5083

end of experiment
in phase loading in phase loading
600 γa=0,4 %, εa=0.231 % 300 εa=0.202 %, γa=0.35 %
crack length a [µm]

crack length a [µm]

af _
crack 1
crack 2

end of experiment
crack 1
400 short crack model 200 crack 2
short crack model
af _
200 100

a0_
a0_
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 0 20000 40000 60000 80000
number of cycles N number of cycles N

(c) 1000 (d) 300

Al 5083 Al 5083
90° phase shift af _ 90° phase shift
800 γa=4.0%, εa=0.231%
end of experiment

end of experiment
γa=0.6%, εa=0.346%

crack length a [µm]

crack length a [µm]

crack 1 200
600 crack 2 crack 1
crack 2
crack 3
short crack model
short crack model
400
100
af _
200
_
a0
a0_
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
number of cycles N number of cycles N
(e) 1000 (f) 500
Al 5083 Al 5083
end of experiment

45° phase shift fε/fγ=1/2

800 400
γa=0,4%, εa=0,231% εa=0.231 %, γa=0.4 %
crack length a [µm]

crack length a [µm]

crack 1 crack 1
600 crack 2 300 crack 2
short crack model
a_

end of experiment
crack 3
f
short crack model
400 200

af _
200 100
a0_
a0_
0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
number of cycles N number of cycles N
(g) 400 (h) 500
Al 5083 Al 5083
end of experiment

torsion with constant torsion with constant normal stress

400
300 normal stress γa=0.52 %, σstat=30 MPa
crack length a [µm]
crack length a [µm]

γa=0.52%, σstat=60 MPa crack 1 crack 4

af_ 300 crack 2 crack 5
crack 1 crack 3 crack 6
200 crack 2 a_
f short crack model
end of experiment

short crack model 200

100
100
a0_ a0_
0
0 5000 10000 15000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000
number of cycles N number of cycles N

Fig. 8. Comparison of crack growth curves, determined by replicas and calculated using the short crack model [3,4]; Al5083.
 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520 517

(a) 1 (b) 1
S460N Al 5083
unnotched specimens unnotched specimens

strain amplitude εa [%]

strain amplitude εa [%]

λ = γa / εa= 3 λ = γa / εa = 3
crack initiation af =250 µm crack initiation af = 250 µm

in-phase loading in-phase loading

Experiment Experiment
Short Crack Model Short Crack Model
45° out-of-phase loading 45° out-of-phase loading
Experiment Experiment
Short Crack Model Short Crack Model
90° out-of-phase loading 90° out-of-phase loading
0.1 Experiment 0.1 Experiment
Short Crack Model Short Crack Model

102 103 104 105 106 102 103 104 105 106
number of cycles N number of cycles N

(c) 1

347 stainless steel

strain amplitude εa [%]

unnotched specimens
λ = γa / εa= 3
crack initiation af = 250 µm
in-phase loading
Experiment
Short Crack Model
45° out-of-phase loading
Experiment
Short Crack Model
90° out-of-phase loading
0.1 Experiment
Short Crack Model

102 103 104 105 106

number of cycles N

Fig. 9. Life curves under proportional, 458, and 908 out-of-phase loading for S460N (a), Al 5083 (b) and 347 stainless steel (c). Comparison with calculated lives
using the short crack model [3,4].

model gives values between 778 and 938 again depending on † For 347 stainless steel, Fig. 9(c), the life reduction due to the
the applied amplitude level. phase shift is now more pronounced in the analytical results,
† Again, good accuracy is achieved for proportional loading of especially at high strain amplitude levels. This result is
Al5083, Fig. 9(b). The calculated critical angle of 648 correlated to the high amount of nonproportional hardening
perfectly meets the measured values between 558 and 708. which leads to higher stress amplitudes and growth rates.
† Also Al5083 showed a slight life reduction due to the phase However, the experimental fatigue lives do not mirror this
shift, Fig. 9(b). However, the model predicts longer lives with effect completely.
a factor of 2–2.5. Critical plane angles have been found † In Fig. 10, the experimental strain life curves for pure torsion
between 758 and 908 in the tests. The model, however, are shown for the materials S460N and Al5083. Some of the
predicted 1278 at low amplitudes near the endurance limit. results are taken from [6]. The investigation was especially
The angle changed gradually to 998 for the highest level focused on the effect of a static normal stress sstat super-
investigated. imposed on a cyclic strain g and shear stress t. For pure

(a) 2 (b) 2
S460N Al 5083
unnohed specimsentc unnotched specimens
pure torsion: pure torsion
experiment experiment
1 short crack model
short crack model
1
σstat / τa ≈ 0.5 σstat / τa ≈ 0.4
γa [%]
γa [%]

experiment experiment
short crack model short crack model
σstat / τa ≈ 1.2 σstat / τa ≈ 0.8
experiment experiment
short crack delmo short crack model

0.2 0.3
103 104 105 106 107 102 103 104 105 106 107
number of cycles N number of cycles N

Fig. 10. Influence of static normal stresses on fatigue lives under torsion for S460N (a) and Al 5083 (b). Comparison with calculated lives using the short crack model
[3,4].
518 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520

(a) 2 (b) 3
S460N in-phase AlMg4.5Mn in-phase
unnotched specimens 45° out-of-phase unnotched specimens 45° out-of-phase
strain amplitude εa [%]

1 λ = γ a / εa = 3
90° out-of-phase
λ = γ a / εa = 3 90° out-of-phase
box path box path
crack initiation af = 250 µm cross path 1 crack initiation af = 250 µm cross path
diamond path
diamond path
butterfly path 1
butterfly path 2 butterfly path 1
regression in-phase butterfly path 2
regression in-phase

0.1
0.1
103 104 105 106 102 103 104 105 106 107
number of cycles N number of cycles N

Fig. 11. Influence of loading paths on fatigue lives for S460N (a) and Al 5083 (b) [3,4].

Table 3
Experimental fatigue lives for different strain paths in comparison with calculated lives (S460N, 3aZ0.173%, gaZ0.3%)

Path γ γ γ γ γ γ γ γ

ε ε ε ε ε ε ε ε

Nexp. 43.400 31.250 43.000 27.000 10.050 10.000 5.700 41.700

Ncalc. 33.295 40.160 60.749 67.741 15.536 12.794 14.594 58.069

torsion, the cracks macroscopically grew in the direction of loading was applied as sinusoidal proportional and 908 phase
the specimen axis. Due to the static stress they occurred shifted tension and torsion. The finite element (FE) code
perpendicular to the specimen axis, because these mode II ABAQUS was used together with a user-supplied material
cracks were opened leading to higher crack growth rates in this subroutine providing the constitutive model according to [1]. In
direction. This effect led to the significant lifetime reduction Fig. 12, an example of the results is compared with measured
which can be seen in Fig. 10 (up to a factor 9 for S460N and 20 paths of the notch root strains.
for Al5083). Particularly for Al5083, a systematic connection The calculated notch stresses and strains served as input to
between the quantity of the normal stress and the lifetime the short crack model [3,4] outlined in the section above.
reduction was found. For S460N, a higher amount of scatter The crack growth equation has been integrated starting from
occurred. Using the short crack model [3,4] it is possible to the same value of a0 as for unnotched specimens until reaching
cover this mechanism qualitatively (multiaxial mean stress the size of the technical crack afZ250 mm. These lives to
during mode II crack growth). initiation of a technical crack are plotted as S–N-curves in
Furthermore experiments with different typical strain paths Fig. 13 together with experimentally determined curves. The
were carried out, to verify the plasticity model, to determine figure shows that the plasticity and short crack model according
the influence of the load-time sequence on the fatigue life and to Döring are able to describe the experimental result,
to verify the mixed-mode criterion used in the short crack
especially the phenomenon of now increasing lives with 908
model, Fig. 11. The comparison between calculated and
phase shift in a notched rather than an unnotched specimen.
experimental lives yields only minor deviations within a factor
The reason for this reversion of the trend is seen in the fact
0.8–2.5 for S460N and 0.7–2.4 for AL 508, Tables 3 and 4.
that at the notch root no longer a purely strain controlled
situation prevails, but a mixture of stress and strain control.
Under stress control, longer lives have been observed for out-
7. Application for notched specimens of-phase loading than for in-phase, meanwhile under strain
control shorter lives occurred [15]. Moreover, now another
The notch root stresses and strains have been calculated for stress component exists in the circumferential direction of the
the notched specimen, Fig. 1. The material was S460N and specimen resulting in different multiaxial strain paths.
Table 4
Experimental fatigue lives for different strain paths in comparison with calculated lives (Al5083, 3aZ0.231%, gaZ0.4%)

Path γ γ γ γ γ γ γ

ε ε ε ε ε ε ε

Nexp. 37.600 28.150 20.450 40.400 8.000 10.450 4.050

Ncalc. 25.263 49.215 37.033 45.257 12.387 10.510 9.682
 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520 519

1.0 600

0.8
400
0.6

0.4
200
0.2

σ, τ [MPa]
γ [%]

0.0 0

–0.2
–200
–0.4

–0.6 σy - εy
–400
FE-calculation
σz - εz
–0.8
measurement τyz - γyz
–1.0 –600
–0.4 –0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 –0.6 –0.4 –0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
ε [%] ε, γ [%]

Fig. 12. Notch stress–strain path (FE result) as input for the lifetime prediction, Döring-model [1], S460N, 908 out-of-phase loading, SY,aZ250 MPa, SYZ,aZ
196 MPa.

In Fig. 13, the S–N-curves as predicted by the hypotheses of 8. Summary

Kandil, Brown, Miller (KBM) [16] and Fatemi, Socie (FS) [17]
are included. Again, the stress–strain paths according to the
plasticity model according to Döring were used as input. It is
obvious that these hypotheses give a longer life for the 908
phase shift compared to the proportional loading case,
according to KBM, however, only at low numbers of cycles
to failure. A weak point in the FS-hypothesis is that in the
unnotched situation longer lives are predicted, too, which is
contrary to the experimental result.
Surveying all available experimental and numerical data the
conclusion can be drawn that the plasticity and the short crack
model constitute a promising approach for the description of
lives to initiation of a technical crack under multiaxial
nonproportional loading. Of course, it is to be posed under
future examination.
800
crack initiation
nominal stress amplitude SY,a [MPa]
fracture proportional loading
The present paper deals with experimentally verifying a
plasticity and a short crack model for multiaxially and
nonproportionally loaded materials. Transfer for the appli-
cation to notched specimens is discussed. For the
verification of the models an extensive experimental
investigation has been performed. It covers strain controlled
cycling of unnotched hollow tube specimens and load
controlled cycling of notched specimens under tension and
torsion. Three very different materials have been investi-
gated (fine grained structural steel S460N, aluminium
Al5083, and 347 stainless steel). A variety of strain and
load paths has been applied, e.g. proportional, phase shifted,
box-, diamond-, and butterfly-path. Results with variable
amplitude loading as well as further results on notched
specimens will be reported in a future publication.
The incremental plasticity model of Döring is based on
classical theories of Chaboche, Ohno-Wang, and Jiang. It is

600 crack initiation fracture 90° out-of-phase loading able to describe cyclic hardening and softening as well as
prop. 90° out-of-phase Döring [1]
prop. 90° out-of-phase Kandil / Brown / Miller [16]
ratchetting and cyclic stress relaxation under multiaxial
400 prop. 90° out-of-phaseFatemi / Socie [17] nonproportional loading. The comparison with experimental
results shows good agreement for all investigated cases.
The short crack model is based on work performed by
Vormwald and Savaidis [5,6] for uniaxial and proportional
200 loading, respectively. An initial microcrack length a0 is
assumed to exist from even before any cyclic loading has
notched specimens
S460N
been applied. Its value is determined by backward integrating
Kt,eq,tension = 2.2 Mt F F Mt the crack growth rate equation using information on the strain
100
SYZ,a/SY,a = 0.873 life curve for technical crack initiation as basic input
80 information. Effective, i.e. closure free ranges are used in the
102 103 104 105 106 107
crack growth equation formulated in the cyclic J-Integral.
number of cycles N
Approximations for mode I and II contributions to an
Fig. 13. Notched specimens: comparison of experimental and calculated lives equivalent are formulated. The short crack growth is traced
(in-phase and 908 out-of-phase loading, S460N) [3,4]. in the critical plane until reaching technical crack size.
520 J. Hoffmeyer et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 508–520
The orientation of the critical plane has to be determined by
iteratively searching for the plane with the shortest life.
Calculated crack growth curves are compared to their
counterparts obtained experimentally. Considering unavoid-
able scatter satisfying accuracy can be stated not only for crack
growth curves but also for the resulting life curves.
Finally, notch stresses and strains as well as S–N-curves are
calculated applying both the plasticity and the short crack
model. Elastic–plastic finite element calculations were carried
out to determine the stress–strain paths. An alternative would
be an approximation method like [18]. Again satisfying
agreement between experimentally determined and calculated
results is found, e.g. the influence of a 908 phase shift is
predicted correctly. This means that for notched specimens
under tension and torsion longer lives appear for this kind of
out-of-phase loading, whereas in strain controlled unnotched
specimens the situation is vice versa. A comparison with other
hypotheses for nonproportional multiaxial fatigue loading
reveals that the plasticity and the short crack model constitute
a promising approach for the description of lives to initiation of
a technical crack. Further experimental examination seems
worthwhile.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support
provided by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.
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