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6
CHAPTER SECTIONS

6.1 What are Stars?

6.2 Birth of Stars
6.3 Fusion in Stars
6.4 Stellar Structures

Chapter Objectives

 Define stars

 Describe interstellar medium and distinguish its role in star formation

 Enumerate and describe the three types of nebula
 Explain the process of star formation and events leading to the formation of protostar
 Analyze the process of nuclear fusion inside stars
 Identify and describe the different parts of the stars

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 6.1 What are Stars?

Stars are the most widely recognized astronomical objects, and represent the most
fundamental building blocks of galaxies. The age, distribution, and composition of stars in a
galaxy trace the history, dynamics, and evolution of that galaxy. Furthermore, stars are
responsible for the manufacture and distribution of heavy elements such as carbon, nitrogen,
and oxygen, and their characteristics are intimately tied to the characteristics of the planetary
systems that may coalesce about them. Consequently, the study of the birth, life, and death of
stars is central to the field of astronomy.

Stars are huge celestial bodies made mostly of hydrogen and helium that produce light
and heat from the churning nuclear forges inside their cores. Aside from our sun, the dots of
light we see in the sky are all light-years away from Earth. They are the building blocks of
galaxies, of which there are billions in the universe. It’s impossible to know how many stars
exist, but astronomers estimate that in our Milky Way galaxy alone, there are 300 billion
(nationalgeographic.com)

Star is any massive self-luminous celestial body of gas that shines by radiation derived
from its internal energy sources (britannica.com).

Star is a luminous ball of gas, mostly hydrogen and helium, held together by its own
gravity. Nuclear fusion reactions in its core support the star against gravity and produce
photons and heat, as well as small amounts of heavier elements (skyandtelescope.org).

They exist in a range of color such as red, orange, yellow, white and blue. They have
also varying sizes; from dwarf to supergiant. You will learn more of these in the next chapter.

Figure 58. Different colors (left) and different sizes of stars (right)

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 6.2 Birth of Stars

The key to understanding star formation is the correlation between young stars and
clouds of gas and dust. Where you find the youngest groups of stars, you also find large clouds
of gas and dust. This should lead you to suspect that stars form from such clouds, just as
raindrops condense from the water vapor in a thundercloud.

The Interstellar Medium

It is a common misconception to imagine that space is empty — a vacuum. In fact, the
space between the stars is not empty but is filled with low-density gas and dust called the
interstellar medium. About 75 percent of the mass of the gas in the interstellar medium is
hydrogen, and 25 percent is helium; there are also traces of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium,
sodium, and heavier atoms. Roughly 1 percent of the mass is made up of microscopic dust
particles called interstellar dust. The dust particles are tiny, about the size of the particles in
cigarette smoke, and observations show that they are made mostly of carbon and silicates
(rocklike minerals) mixed with or coated with frozen water. The average distance between dust
grains is about 10–100 meters. This interstellar gas and dust is not uniformly distributed
through space; it consists of a complex tangle of cool, dense clouds pushed and twisted by
currents of hot, low-density gas. Although the cool clouds contain only 10 to 1000 atoms/cm3,
astronomers refer to them as dense clouds in contrast with the hot, low-density gas that fills
the spaces between clouds. That thin gas has a density of only about 0.1 atom/cm3, which is
the same as 1 atom in every 10 cubic centimeters.

How do astronomers know there is an interstellar medium, and how do they know its
properties? In some cases, the interstellar medium is easily visible as clouds of gas and dust as
in the case of the Great Nebula in Orion, an object you can see with your unaided eye.
Astronomers call such a cloud a nebula from the Latin word for “cloud”. Such nebulae (plural)
are clear evidence of an interstellar medium.

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 Figure 59. The Constellation Orion (left) as
viewed from the Southern Hemisphere. Hunter
Orion is “upside down” when viewed from the
South and his sword lies above the three stars in
his belt. The jewel in his sword looks like a white
pink smudged is Orion Nebula.

Figure 60. A close-up part of the Carina Nebula taken with the Hubble Space Telescope. This image
reveals jets powered by newly forming stars embedded in a great cloud of gas and dust. Parts of the
clouds are glowing from the energy of very young stars recently formed within them. (Credit:
modification of work by NASA,ESA, and M. Livio and the Hubble 20 th Anniversary Team (STScl).

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 Figure 61. The Pillars of Creation taken from the Hubble’s telescope. These towering tendrils of
cosmic dust and gas sits at the heart of M16, or the Eagle nebula. This is part of an active star-forming
region within the nebula and hide newborn stars in their wispy column.

Three Kinds of Nebulae

There are three kinds of nebula namely: emission, reflection, and dark nebula. They are being
described below.

1. Emission nebulae
These are produced when a hot star excites the gas near it to produce an
emission spectrum. The star must be hotter than about B1 (25,000K). Color stars do not
emit enough ultraviolet radiation to ionize the gas. Emission nebulae have a distinctive
pink color produced by the blending of the red, blue, and violet Balmer lines. Emission
nebulae are also called HII regions, following the customs of naming gas with a Roman
numeral to show its state of ionization.

In an HII region, the ionized nuclei and free electrons are mixed. When a
nucleus captures an electron, the electron falls down through the atomic energy levels,
emitting photons at specific wavelengths. Spectra indicate that the nebulae have
compositions much like that of the sun, mostly hydrogen. Emission nebulae have
densities 100 to 1,000 atoms per cubic centimeter, better than the best vacuum produced
in laboratories on earth.

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Figure 62. Examples of emission nebula; NGC 6164 (upper left), Thor’s Helmet (upper right),
Ring Nebula (lower left), and N44 (lower right)

2. Reflection nebulae
It is where slightly cooler stars illuminate gas clouds containing dust, you see
which provide evidence that the dust in the clouds is made up of very small particles.

A reflection nebula is produced when starlight scatters from a dusty nebula.

Consequently, the spectrum of a reflection nebula is just the reflected absorption
spectrum of starlight. Gas is surely present in a reflection nebula, but it is not excited to
emit photons. Reflection nebulae look blue for the same reason the sky looks blue. Short
wavelength scatter more easily than long wavelengths.

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Figure 63. Examples of reflection nebula; Witch Head or IC 2118 (upper left), Messier 78 (upper
right), IC 2631 (lower left), and vdB1 (lower right)
Note: IC means Index Catalogues

3. Dark nebulae
These are produced where dense clouds of gas and dust are silhouetted against
background regions filled with stars or bright nebulae. If a cloud is not too dense,
starlight may be able to penetrate it. Stars can be seen through these clouds; but the
stars look dimmer because the dust in the clouds scatters some of the light. Because
shorter wavelengths are scattered more easily than longer wavelengths, the redder
photons are more likely to make it through, so the stars look slightly redder than they
should — an effect called interstellar reddening. (This is the same process that makes
the setting sun look redder.) Distant stars are dimmed and reddened by intervening
gas and dust, clear evidence of an interstellar medium. At near-infrared wavelengths,
stars are more easily seen through the dusty interstellar medium because those longer
wavelengths are scattered less often. The thin gas and dust fills the spaces between the
denser nebulae. You can see evidence of that in the spectra of distant stars.

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 Figure 64. Examples of dark nebula; Cone nebula (upper left), Horsehead nebula (upper
right), Snake nebula (lower left), and Dark horse nebula (lower right)

The Formation of Stars from the Interstellar Medium

To study the formation of stars, you must continue to compare theory with evidence.
Theory predicts that over time the combined gravitational attraction of the atoms in a cloud of
gas will draw the gas inward, pulling every atom toward the center. But not every cloud will
collapse and form stars; the thermal energy in a cloud resists collapse. Temperature is a
measure of the motion of the atoms or molecules in a material — in a hot gas, the atoms move
more rapidly than do those in a cool gas. The interstellar clouds are very cold, but even at a
temperature of only 10 K, the average hydrogen atom moves about 0.5 km/s (1100 mph). This
thermal motion would make the cloud drift apart if gravity were too weak to hold it together.

Other factors can help a cloud resist its own gravity. Observations show that clouds are
turbulent places with currents of gas pushing through and colliding with each other. Also,
magnetic fields in clouds may resist being squeezed. These three factors — thermal motion,
turbulence, and magnetic fields — resist gravity, so only the densest clouds are likely to
contract. The densest interstellar clouds contain from 103 to 105 atoms/ cm3, include from a
few hundred thousand to a few million solar masses, and have temperatures as low as 10 K. In

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such clouds hydrogen can exist as molecules (H2) rather than as atoms. These dense clouds are
called molecular clouds, and the largest are called giant molecular clouds. Although hydrogen
molecules cannot be detected by radio telescopes, the clouds can be mapped by the radio
emission of carbon monoxide molecules (CO) present in small amounts in the gas. Stars form
in these clouds when the densest parts become unstable and contract under the influence of
their own gravity.

Most clouds do not appear to be gravitationally unstable and will not contract to form
stars on their own. However, a stable cloud colliding with a shock wave (the astronomical
equivalent of a sonic boom) can be compressed and disrupted into fragments. Theoretical
calculations show that some of these fragments can become dense enough to collapse under
the influence of their own gravity and form stars. Shock waves are necessary to trigger star
formation, and space is filled with shock waves. A shock wave is a sudden change in gas
pressure, and a number of processes can produce them. The sudden blast of light, especially
ultraviolet radiation, from a newborn massive star can ionize and drive away nearby gas,
forming an expanding shock wave. The collision of two interstellar clouds can produce a shock
wave. Supernova explosions produce powerful shock waves.

Although these are important sources of shock waves, the dominant trigger of star
formation in our galaxy may be the spiral arms themselves. You have learned previously that
our galaxy contains spiral arms which is the place where star formation occur. As interstellar
clouds encounter these spiral arms, the clouds are compressed, and star formation can be
triggered. Once begun, star formation can spread like a grassfire. Astronomers have found a
number of giant molecular clouds in which stars are forming in a repeating cycle. Both
highmass and low-mass stars form in such a cloud, but low-mass stars are not powerful enough
to keep the star formation going.

When massive stars form, however, their intense radiation and eventual supernovae
explosions push back the surrounding gas and compress it. This compression in turn can
trigger the formation of more stars, some of which will be massive. Thus, a few massive stars
can drive a continuing cycle of star formation in a giant molecular cloud. A collapsing cloud of
gas breaks up because of instabilities in the contracting cloud and produces 10 to 1000 stars or
more. Stars held together in a stable group by their combined gravity are called a star cluster.
An association is a group of stars that are not gravitationally bound to one another. The stars
in an association drift away from each other in a few million years.

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 Figure 65. The formation of star triggered by a shock wave

The Formation of Protostars

To follow the story of star formation further, you need to concentrate on a single
fragment of a collapsing cloud as it forms a star. You might be wondering how the
unimaginably cold gas of an interstellar cloud can heat up to form a star. The answer is gravity.
Once part of a cloud is triggered to collapse, gravity draws each atom toward the center. At
first the atoms fall unopposed; they hardly ever collide with each other. In this free-fall
contraction, the atoms pick up speed as they fall until, by the time the gas becomes dense
enough for the atoms to collide often, they are traveling very fast. Now collisions convert the
inward velocities of the atoms into random motions. Recall that temperature is a measure of
the random velocities of the atoms in a gas. The inward collapse of the cold gas converts

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gravitational energy into high random velocities, causing the temperature to rise. The initial
collapse forms a dense core of gas, and, as more gas falls in, a warm protostar develops buried
deep in the dusty gas.

A protostar is an object that will eventually become a star. It is a dense ball of gas that
is not yet hot enough at the center to start nuclear reactions. Protostars start out very cool and
very faint, which includes temperatures below 100 K. The exact process is poorly understood,
in part because the dusty cloud hides the protostar from sight during its contraction. If you
could see a developing protostar, it would be a luminous red object a few thousand times larger
than the sun. It is not, however, a real red giant, and it is invisible inside its dusty cloud. The
hot gas inside the protostar resists gravity, and the star can continue to contract only as fast as
it can radiate energy into space. Although this contraction is much slower than the free-fall
contraction, the star must continue to contract because its interior is not hot enough to generate
nuclear energy. Throughout its contraction, the protostar converts its gravitational energy into
thermal energy. Half of this thermal energy radiates into space, but the remaining half raises
the protostar’s internal temperature. As the internal temperature climbs, the gas becomes
ionized, becoming a mixture of positively charged atomic nuclei and free electrons. When the
center gets hot enough, nuclear reactions begin generating energy, the protostar halts its
contraction, and, having absorbed part of its cocoon of gas and dust and blown away the rest,
it becomes a stable, main sequence star.

Figure 66. Processes involved in the formation of stars Source: 2010 howstuffworks

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 The time it takes for a cool interstellar gas cloud to contract to the main sequence
depends on its mass. The more massive the protostar, the stronger its gravity and the faster it
contracts. The sun took about 30 million years to reach the main sequence, but a 15-solar-mass
star can contract in only 160,000 years. Conversely, a star of 0.2 solar mass takes 1 billion years
to reach the main sequence. So far the story of the formation of a star from the interstellar
medium has been based on theory. By understanding what the interstellar medium is like and
by knowing how the laws of physics work, astronomers have been able to tell the story of how
stars form. But you can’t accept a scientific theory without testing it, and that means you must
compare the theory with the evidence. That constant checking of theories against evidence is
the distinguishing characteristic of science, so it is time to carefully separate theory from
evidence and ask how much of the story of star formation can be observed.

6.3 Fusion in Stars

Gravity makes protostars contract, and the contraction stops when the internal
temperature rises high enough to start nuclear fusion. It is the process by which the nuclei of
two atoms combine to create a new atom. Remember that stars are made mostly of hydrogen
and helium, which are packed so densely in a star that in the star’s center the pressure is great
enough to initiate nuclear fusion reactions. When you studied the sun, you saw how it fuses
hydrogen into helium in a chain of reactions called the proton–proton chain. However, some
stars generate energy in different ways, so it is time to explore those other fusion reactions.

The CNO Cycle

Main-sequence stars more massive than the sun fuse hydrogen into helium using the
CNO (carbon–nitrogen–oxygen) cycle, a process that uses carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen as
steppingstones. The CNO cycle begins with a carbon nucleus and transforms it first into a
nitrogen nucleus, then into an oxygen nucleus, and then back to a carbon nucleus. The carbon
is unchanged in the end, but along the way four hydrogen nuclei are fused to make a helium
nucleus plus energy, just as in the proton–proton chain. The CNO cycle requires a higher
temperature because it begins with a carbon nucleus combining with a hydrogen nucleus. A
carbon nucleus has a charge six times higher than hydrogen, so the Coulomb barrier is high,
and the particles must collide at high velocities to force the particles close enough together. The
CNO cycle requires temperatures higher than 16,000,000 K. The center of the sun is not quite hot
enough, but stars more massive than about 1.1 solar masses have hotter cores and use the CNO
cycle instead of the less efficient proton–proton chain.

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 Figure 67. The CNO cycle uses 12C as a catalyst to combine four hydrogen atoms (1H)
to make one helium atom (4He) plus energy. The carbon atom reappears at the end of the
process, ready to start the cycle over.

Heavy-Element Fusion
In the later stages of its life, when it has exhausted its hydrogen fuel, a star may fuse
other nuclear fuels such as helium and carbon. Because these nuclei have higher positive
charges, their Coulomb barriers are higher, and the nuclear reactions require higher
temperatures. Helium fusion requires a temperature of at least 100 million K. You can
summarize the helium-fusion process in two steps:

Because a helium nucleus is called an alpha particle, these reactions are commonly
known as the triple-alpha process. Helium fusion is complicated by the fact that beryllium-8,
produced in the first reaction of the process, is very unstable and may break up into two helium
nuclei before it can absorb another helium nucleus. Three helium nuclei can also form carbon
directly, but such a triple collision is unlikely. At temperatures above 600,000,000 K, carbon
fuses rapidly in a complex network of reactions. The process is complicated because nuclei can
react by adding a proton, a neutron, or a helium nucleus or by combining directly with other
nuclei. Unstable nuclei can decay by ejecting an electron, a positron, or a helium nucleus or by

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splitting into fragments. Reactions at still higher temperatures can convert magnesium,
aluminum, and silicon into yet heavier atoms. These reactions involving heavy elements will
be important in the study of the deaths of massive stars.
The Pressure–Temperature Thermostat
Nuclear reactions in stars manufacture energy and heavy atoms under the supervision
of a built-in thermostat that keeps the reactions from erupting out of control. That thermostat
is the relation between gas pressure and temperature. In a star, the nuclear reactions generate
just enough energy to balance the inward pull of gravity. Consider what would happen if the
reactions began to produce too much energy. The extra energy flowing out of the star would
force it to expand. The expansion would lower the central temperature and density and slow
the nuclear reactions until the star regained stability. The same thermostat that keeps the
reactions from running too fast also keeps the reactions from slowing down. Suppose the
nuclear reactions began making too little energy. Then the star would contract slightly,
increasing the central temperature and density and increasing the nuclear energy generation
until equilibrium was regained. The stability of a star depends on the relation between gas
pressure and temperature. If an increase or decrease in temperature produces a corresponding
change in pressure, then the thermostat is working correctly, and the star is stable.

6.4 Stellar Structures

The nuclear fusion at the centers of stars heats their interiors, creates high gas
pressures, and balances the inward force of gravity. If there is a single idea in modern
astronomy that can be called critical, it is this concept of balance. Stars are simple, elegant
power sources held together by their own gravity and supported by their nuclear fusion.
Having explored the births of stars and the way they generate energy, you can now consider
the structure of a star — the variation in temperature, density, pressure, and so on from the
surface of the star to its center.

A star’s structure depends on how it generates its energy, on four simple laws of
structure, and on what it is made of. It will be easier to think about stellar structure if you
imagine that the star is divided into concentric shells like those in an onion. You can then
discuss the temperature, density, pressure, and so on in each shell. Of course, these helpful
shells do not really exist; stars have no separable layers. The structure of stars is determined
by five (5) relations or physical concepts.

1. The Laws of Mass and Energy

The first two laws of stellar structure have something in common — they are both
conservation laws. They say that certain things cannot be created out of nothing or vanish into
nothing. Such conservation laws apply to everything in the universe, but you can use them to
understand the stars. The law of conservation of mass says that the total mass of a star must equal the

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sum of the masses of its shells. This is like saying the weight of a cake must equal the sum of the
weights of its layers. The law of conservation of energy says that the amount of energy flowing out of
the top of a layer in the star must be equal to the amount of energy coming in at the bottom plus whatever
energy is generated within the layer. That means that the energy leaving the surface of the star, its
luminosity, must equal the sum of the energies generated in all the layers inside the star. This
is like saying that all the new cars driving out of a factory must equal the sum of all the cars
made on each of the production lines. These two laws may seem so familiar and so obvious
that you hardly need to state them, but they are important clues to the structure of stars.

2. Hydrostatic Equilibrium
When you think about a star, it is helpful to think of it as if it were made up of layers.
The weight of each layer must be supported by the layer below. The deeper layers must
support the weight of all of the layers above. Because the inside of a star is made up of gas, the
weight pressing down on a layer must be balanced by the gas pressure in the layer. If the
pressure is too low, the weight from above will compress the layer, and if the pressure is too
high, the layer will expand and lift the layers above. This balance between weight and pressure
is called hydrostatic equilibrium. The prefix hydro (from the Greek word for water) tells you
the material is a fluid, the gases of a star, and the suffix static tells you the fluid is stable, neither
expanding nor contracting.

The weight pressing down on each layer is shown by lighter red arrows, which grow
larger with increasing depth as the weight grows larger. The pressure in each layer is shown
by darker red arrows, which must grow larger with increasing depth to support the weight.

The law of hydrostatic equilibrium is the third law of stellar structure, and it can tell
you something important about the inside of a star. The pressure in a gas depends on the
temperature and density of the gas. Deep in the star, the pressure must be high, and that means
that the temperature and density of the gas must also be high. Hydrostatic equilibrium tells
you that temperature must increase with depth inside a star as each layer maintains the
pressure needed to support the weight pressing downward. The layers are kept hot, as you
have seen, by the energy flowing outward from the core of the star.

Now you should recognize hydrostatic equilibrium. It is closely related to the pressure–
temperature thermostat discussed earlier. Of course, exactly how hydrostatic equilibrium
works dehydrogen and helium gas, with some trace of heavier elements. To fully understand
how a star works, astronomers must describe exactly how that gas responds to changes in
temperature and pressure. Hydrostatic equilibrium also applies to planets, including Earth,
but Earth is made of rock and metal, so understanding how hydrostatic equilibrium supports
Earth requires that Earth scientists know how rock and metal respond to changes in
temperature and pressure. Although the law of hydrostatic equilibrium can tell you some
things about the inner structure of stars, you need one more law to completely describe the
interior of a star. You need a law that describes the flow of energy from the center to the surface.

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 Most stars, like the Sun, are not expanding nor contracting. They are stable in size.
Therefore, this fact means that the internal pressure must balance the weight of the material
above it (self-gravity).

Figure 68. The Sun is not expanding or contracting, therefore it is in equilibrium.

The downward force of gravity is balanced by the higher force of pressure (top).
Gravity compression is balanced by the pressure outward (bottom).

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3. Thermal Equilibrium
The amount of energy generated in the core of a star by thermonuclear fusion must equal the
amount radiated away from the star (the only place for the energy to go is outside).

4. Opacity
How fast energy is radiated is determined by the resistance of the stellar envelope to the flow
of photons. If a star has low opacity, it can radiate its energy fast and its temperature and
pressure will be lower=smaller radii.

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 Figure 69. Low density regions have lower opacity, meaning photons flow through them
easily (top), and high density regions have high opacity and photons are often scattered (bottom).

5. Energy Transport
The surface of a star radiates light and heat into space and would quickly cool if that
energy were not replaced. Because the inside of the star is hotter than the surface, energy must
flow outward from the core, where it is generated, to the surface, where it radiates away. The
flow of energy through the shells determines their temperature. To understand the structure

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of a star, you must understand how energy moves from the center through the shells to the
surface.

In the sun, energy flows outward from the core as radiation and then, in the sun’s outer
layers, as convection. Other stars are similar to the sun, but there can be differences. Here you
can apply what you know about the sun to stars in general. The law of energy transport says that
energy must flow from hot regions to cooler regions by conduction, convection, or radiation.
Conduction is the most familiar form of heat flow. If you hold the bowl of a spoon in a candle
flame, the handle of the spoon grows warmer. Heat, in the form of motion among the molecules
of the spoon, is conducted from molecule to molecule up the handle, until the molecules of
metal under your fingers begin to move faster and you sense heat. Conduction requires close
contact between the molecules. Because the particles (atoms, ions, and electrons) in most stars
are not in close contact, conduction is unimportant. Conduction is significant in white dwarfs,
which have tremendous internal densities.

The transport of energy by radiation is another familiar experience. Put your hand
beside a candle flame, and you can feel the heat. What you actually feel are infrared photons
radiated by the flame. Because photons are packets of energy, your hand grows warm as it
absorbs them. Recall that radiation is the principal means of energy transport in the sun’s
interior, where photons are absorbed and reemitted in random directions over and over as they
work their way outward through the radiative zone.

Figure 70. Photons diffuse outward from high density regions to low density regions

The flow of energy by radiation depends on how difficult it is for the photons to move
through the gas. If the gas is cool and dense, the photons are more likely to be absorbed or
scattered, preventing the radiation from getting through easily. Such a gas is opaque. In a hot,
thin gas, the photons can get through more easily; such a gas is less opaque. The opacity of the
gas, its resistance to the flow of radiation, depends strongly on its temperature. If the opacity

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is high, radiation cannot flow through the gas easily, and it backs up like water behind a dam.
When enough heat builds up, the gas begins to churn as hot gas rises and cool gas sinks. This
heat-driven circulation of a fluid is convection, the third way energy can move in a star.

You are familiar with convection; the rising wisp of smoke above a candle flame is
carried by convection. Energy is carried upward in these convection currents as rising hot gas
and also as sinking cool gas. Convection is important in stars both because it carries energy
and because it mixes the gas. Convection currents flowing through the layers of a star tend to
homogenize the gas, giving it a uniform composition throughout the convective zone. As you
might expect, this mixing affects the fuel supply of the nuclear reactions, just as the stirring of
a campfire makes it burn more efficiently.

Figure 71. Convection process in stars just like the Sun

Stellar Interior
A star is divided into six regions based on the physical characteristics of these regions.
The boundaries are not sharp, and the regions vary in size from star to star. For example, hot

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stars have larger radiative zones and smaller convective zones. The reverse is true for cool stars.
The following are the different structures of the stars’ interior:
1. fusion core – a region of energy generation
2. radiation shell – the region where energy transport is by radiation flow
3. convection shell – the region where energy transport is by convection cells
4. photosphere – the surface where photons are emitted, where features like starspots
and stellar flares occur
5. chromosphere – the atmosphere of a star
6. corona – the superhot region, and a white halo of glowing gas, where the stellar
wind originates

Figure 72. The internal structures of stars

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