AP Biology Final Study Guide

Chapter 2—Chemistry

1. Elements common in living organisms—macro and micro/trace—especially the “big 4” (CHON)

2. Atoms—subatomic particles, mass # vs atomic #, etc.

3. Isotopes—radioactive and heavy

4. Bonds: know if electrons are shared, transferred, equally shared, unequally shared

a. Covalent

b. Ionic

c. Hydrogen

5. “Structure dictates function”—what does this mean and how does it permeate Biology? (examples?)

Chapter 3—Water

1. Polarity and covalent bonding

2. Properties due to H-bonding

a. Hydrophobic/philic

b. Surface tension

c. Ice floats. Why?

3. pH and pOH scales:

a. How do the two scales relate? Acids = what pH? Bases=what pH?

b. Calculate pH from Molarity of H+ or from pOH

c. How does pH 10 differ from pH 9?

Chapter 4—Organic Chemistry

1. Hydrocarbons—bonding between C & H is non-polar covalent and high in energy

2. Isomers—identify each

a. Geometric

b. Structural

c. Enantiomeric

3. Functional Groups—be able to identify each group based on organization of O, N, S, and P (use your flashcards)

Chapter 5—Macromolecules
 37 carbons
ExGlucoseribose linearorinings
fructose
2nd
1. Monomer, dimer, polymer
disaccharides sugarformedjoining
throughglycosidiclinkage
2. Dehydration synthesis reaction bondsformed
tentof
gut bEitose
joinsmonomersinto polymers removal watermoleculesbtwnmonomers sggfeffractose
3. Hydrolysis reaction
addingwater
mesma
breakspolymersinto
4. Carbohydrates:
monomersby usedincellmembrane
me joinedsimplesugars
Polysaccharide many
usedfor storage structure
a. Mono-, di-, oligo-, and polysaccharides
Existycloseglycogen
b. Glycosidic links
AlphaAonrcandborwank

beta can'tdigest
i.

ii.
miffy
Alpha or beta

Starch vs. cellulose—usefulness of each to animals or plants and why?

ÉhTinksoffhaglucose
implants
fuelstorage

5. Lipids: starch fuelstorage ChifftsofBetaglucose

nogengalmula CHO cellulose cellwall wedon'thaveenzymetobreak structureinplantcellwaks
C Oratio highinC a. Structure of a triacylglycerolmay
(glycerol and three fatty acids)
Ex CzHoo 3fattyacids lglycerol joined sterlinkage
b. Saturated vs unsaturated
Intednetionds Ifartino
i. How is each identified by the naked eye (liquid/solid) and by chemical structure? Hint: look for
hydrogen
nsaturatedCoils double bonds!!! unset Liquidfat
sat solidloil
cotta
III initiates
melting
lowers
c. Phospholipids—what is special about the structure of a phospholipids. Think polarity!
only twofattyacids bilayers membranes
6. Proteins
CHONS
a. Uses of proteins
nd oagycerqgggstohyg.pk
Phosphate

structure Enzymes Antibodies transport

fIad
movement receptors hormones
Ginteriorisphobic hydrophobic
hq
b. Polypeptide/peptide bonds
cap
c. Amino acids-basic structure (R group, carboxyl, amino)

i d. Levels of protein structure (Primary-Secondary-Tertiary-Quarternary)

hydrophobicinteractions
e. Denaturation causesproteintolosestructure fund spotsDisulfide
Ionicbonding
ExPHshift.Asaltconcentration heat bridges
7. DNA
Quaternary 2t polypeptidesunite
tofor
NeverhasThymine wagon swanna protein
NIA
is i
a. RNA and DNA—differences and similarities i aminoacidchains
structuredprotein synthesis
singlestranded Both
b. Sugar
Purine
phosphate backbone nitrogenousbuses
All
vs pyrimidines—nitrogenous bases of each type? (ATCGU)
peptide

NImatelipergenesm
i. Purines:
We Green ApplesAffine terrine
Doublestranded
ii. doubleringed
Pyrimidines:
tortillaChips Grail
ThymineCytosineUracil
qq.gov DNAthymine
Chapter 6—Cells
side M
G pairs stronger
logettin
EIemmm then dehydration
qq.gg 1. Basics of microscopes: light, TEM, SEM
surface
detailed synthesis
2. Prokaryote vs 2dkeekinggedmin
nonucleusortebounded Eukaryote Iffier
nudeasImemboundedorgemedles
3.
has
Organelles—function/location (use chart)

4. Cytoskeleton—make-up/general structure
 Chapter 7--Cell Membranes

1. Make-up of membranes and membrane structure

a. What are the importance of lipoproteins, cholesterol, integral and peripheral proteins, and how do they

attach to the cytoskeleton?

2. Transport:

a. Passive vs Active energy use

b. What molecules can pass through the membrane without assistance? (think size and polarity)

c. Types of passive and active transport:

i. Diffusion
a concentrationgradient
ii. Osmosisdiffusionof fromnowconcent
water
cellmembrane
iii. Facilitated diffusionis thathelpmaterialpiiass
transportproteins
iv. Na+/K+ pumps mikittiticeituntistmooingat
Eira
mediated

activetransport AGAINSTgradient vi.

v. Ion pumps

Co-transportmovement of fittodiffusebackoutof
cellmembrane
cow shin d. Diffusion (hypo-, hyper-, isotonic)—what do plants and animals prefer?
lower Isotonic cellswater insome
hypo cellwaterde motghyy
outside concentration
er.gg isolate
Nonet movementof
Chapter 8—Metabolism

Atotalityof anorganismschemical
III
watermovesinto
cellshrinks
waterin orout
Nocellsizechry
Processes
1. Catabolism vs Anabolism synthesis build
Hoti breaky
2.
gains
Exergonic vs Endergonic putMrbin
to
D8
spontaneous
demonic Anabolic release absorb
3. Change in free energy (G)potentialNkt wonk.no EEetEgrakty 06 D H temp
Portionofsystemsurushatcanperform orheat
OH O in enthalpydisorder
Allostericsite
4. Enzymes/catalysts—structure and function
entropy
EEased Activesite
Donotalter Gof reaction?
G allows as O in
5. How do enzymes increase rate
Satan largeOH
loweractivation nro needed rn proceedantibiforto Et
6. Environmental impacts on enzyme function: faster isreleased
it tooextreme enzyme
bind of system
become dis
a. pH gysubstrate
comp
in excessin presence
inhibitor rate is unaltered

tying
structureis retained no
b. temperature folding is lost
but rorder
Enzyme functionis lost
c. salt

d. cofactors smallions bindtoenzymes allowenzymetomaximiseactivity

e. Ex MotiLafargeentitiesthathelpenzymesworkbetterbbnd
co-enzymes

7. How does competitive inhibition differ from non-competitive inhibition?

competitiveoccurs at the activesite disruptingbonds
Doncomp bindto otherpartof enzyme
Chapter 9—Respiration
 Reduction gainot electrons AerobicRespiration
creatingarousingoxygenastermina
o ggtypyqpge.es trainee want
electronacceptor
nrbtromtood
IE 1
FADth IAD Hye Humans other
agnnodergo us terminal e acceptorthan
something
using Oxygen
bstratelevel
osphorislation 1. Redox reactions and electron carriers
glycolosis chrebs fermentation creating.lileNRGfromtoodund
azymebindstoa 2. Aerobic respiration vs anerobic fermentation (organisms that do each) verylowoxygen almostafermentation
Humans lacticacid
naerobic

hosphorylated
yeast ethanol t
3. Substrate vs Oxidative phosphorylation—how much ATP is produced per glucose in aerobic respiration?

4.
o
ATP synthase—basic functionATP
more
and location 34 38 ATPmadein respirationfromIylucose
dativephosphorylation innermitochondrialmembrane
5. ETC—Where are H pumped to and from? What accepts electrons after ETC? How many H pumped per NADH
+ +

flowcreatesp roton
radientthatcanbe 00 protonsarepumpedfrommitochondrialmatrixacrosstheinnermembrane
and FADH ?
arnessedbyATPsynthise 2

6. Fermentation: Location, function, reactants, and products

immm

iq
function makeAtprapidly Iregenerate
NAD in absenceofOxygen
Chapter 10—Photosynthesis

1. Visible light spectrum and the wavelengths that power photosynthesis? (not green)

2. red violet
Basics of light –dependent and independent reactions—location, function, products, and reactants (Use the image

on the front page of the notes for a quick review of what comes in and out of each half of Photosynthesis)

3. Similarities of Photosynthesis to Respiration

Chapter 11

1.) Describe the following cell-membrane bound receptors in detail:

a.) g-protein

b.) tyrosine kinase

c.) ion channel

2.) Know the three steps of cell signaling and the importance of phosphorylation

3.) Local vs. Long distance signaling

a.) know the names of each type and the features of signal delivery

Chapter 12--Mitosis

Vocab:

Centriole

Centrosome
Chromatin

Chromosome

Sister Chromatid

Centromere

Microtubules/spindle fibers

Binary fission

Homologous chromosomes

Metaphase plate

Cleavage furrow/cell plate formation

Know the details of the following:

Interphase (Gap 1, S, Gap 2, Gap 0)

Gap 1

Synthesis

Gap 2

Gap 0

Phases of Mitosis (be able to recognize in drawings or images—see notes or book)

Prophase:

Metaphase:

Anaphase:

Telophase:

Cytokinesis:

DNA content/phase—word problems

 Example: If a cell in G1 has 25ug of DNA, how much will this cell have in metaphase of Mitosis? (A: 50ug) After

cytokinesis? (A: 25ug)

Cancer:

What is cancer?

How does it form?

How does it spread?

Why is it so difficult to treat?

Angiogenesis

Metastasis

Free response prompts

You will be given three of the following essays to write on during the final time. They will be 12pts each. A food drive

voucher will allow you to skip and receive full credit on one question. We will randomly determine which three in class on

the day of the final.

 1. Describe the structure and properties of phospholipid membranes and explain the important roles of proteins and

phospholipids in the plasma membrane. How do plant and animal cells adjust their cells to prepare for cold

temperatures?

2. Proteins, which have diverse functions in a cell (enzymes, etc), are all polymers of the same 20 subunits, amino

acids. Discuss how the structure of amino acids allows this one type of polymer to perform so many functions.

3. Be able to draw and describe the function and transduction pathway of one of the three cell-membrane bound cell

receptors.

4. What are the characteristics of materials that can cross the plasma membrane on their own? Please address size

and polarity. What characteristics of the plasma membrane allow these molecules to cross the membrane?

5. How do animals modify their cell membranes to prepare for cold weather? How do plants modify their membranes

to overwinter? How do these modifications change the physical and chemical characteristics of the cell membrane

to allow the organism to survive? (Think about polarity, presence or absence of cell wall, etc.)

6. Identify three properties of water that are important for life to be able to exist on Earth AND explain how each one

specifically influences living organisms and provide an example of each.

4 animals P cholesterol production insertion of Cholestero

into membraneas acts filling cabinet fdecreasing
temps
Cholesterol helps fluid cooler
keep membranes
more flexible
Plants f unsaturated fattyacids to keep membrane
fluid So to
requires U temp solidify