Arnold Et Al. (2020) - Chapter 1

CHAPTER 1
The discipline of work

psychology
An initial orientation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 describe the discipline of work psychology by being able to:

■ examine the relationship between basic and applied psychology;
■ understand the notion of pragmatic science;
■ specify the key skills of those practising work psychology.
2 understand research and practice in work psychology by being able to:
■ identify the main sources of information about work psychology research and practice;
■ distinguish between opposing philosophies in the conduct of psychological research;
■ describe the key features, advantages and disadvantages of different research designs
used by work psychologists;
■ specify the various methods of data collection used in research by work psychologists;
■
■ identify why diversity, technology and internationalisation are important cross-cutting

themes in work psychology.
2 Work Psychology
Opening case study

Assessing problems in recruitment and retention of nurses in
a hospital unit
You have been called in by the Clinical Lead of a unit operating within a hospital to help examine and
assess why they struggle to recruit and retain nurses. The unit operates across three sites – each
which deal with the same condition, although offer different services (e.g. provision for patients vis-
iting just for treatment or wards for those with serious medical conditions). There is a high turnover
rate of nursing staff and, although the unit regularly advertises for replacement posts, these tend
to go unfilled. When filled, most new nursing staff leave within the first year. Additionally, trainee
nurses tend not to select this unit as part of their practical experience, further restricting the nurse
provision in the unit.
and the scenario. We will return to the case at the end of the chapter and offer an approach to
undertaking a project such as this.
Introduction
In this chapter we aim to help the reader gain a broad understanding of the nature of work
psychology and the context within which it operates before tackling more specific topics later
in the book. We start with a brief description of the discipline of psychology as a whole and
discuss the links between what we call basic and applied psychology, with work psychology
positioned as one branch of applied psychology. We frame work psychology using the notions
of pragmatic science and evidence-based management and give an account of the different
labels sometimes given to work psychology and the topics it covers. We then move to discuss-
ing the skills of a work psychologist with specific emphasis on ethical and critical evaluations
skills. Next, we consider the need for work psychologists to understand and enact research
skills to be able to function effectively. We focus this around several specific features: the best
sources of good knowledge about work psychology (apart from this book of course!); philo-
sophical positions taken by work psychologists; methods used in research; design of research;
and analysis of research data. In the latter part of this chapter we look briefly at important
cross-cutting themes in work psychology: diversity, culture and technology and the potential
impact these issues will have on the research and practice of a work psychologist. These three
aspects feature throughout all the chapters in the book.
Basic psychology and work psychology

Psychology has been defined in various ways. Perhaps the simplest yet most informative
definition is that provided long ago by Miller (1966): ‘the science of mental life’. Mental life
refers to three phenomena: behaviours, thoughts and emotions. Most psychologists these
days would agree that psychology involves all three.
Chapter 1 The discipline of work psychology 3
Table 1.1 Basic areas of psychology and how they apply to the working context
Subdiscipline Basic Application to work Reference
Biological Biological bases of behaviour, The impact of simulated night shift Bescos et al. (2018)
neuropsychology, evolutionary work on insulin sensitivity and risk of
psychology Type 2 Diabetes
Cognitive Thought processes such as attention, The role of cued recall in recalling Frank and Kluge
memory, learning, perception and non-routine complex cognitive skills (2018)
language
Developmental The ways in which people grow and Improve the working lives of the over Altman (2015)
change psychologically throughout life 50s in the UK
Individual differences How people differ from each other The relationship between personality Nielsen et al. (2017)
psychologically and how those traits and exposure to bullying at work
differences can be measured
Social How our behaviours, thoughts and Virtual teams and the impact of Marlow et al. (2017)
emotions affect, and are affected by, virtuality on team communication
other people
The discipline of psychology can be divided into several subdisciplines, each with its own
distinctive focus. Collectively they can be termed basic psychology. There are several ways of
splitting psychology. Table 1.1 illustrates five ways in which basic psychology can be divided.
The table provides examples of applied work research that can be framed within each subdis-
cipline (see the Reference in column 4).
Key learning point
Work psychology is defined in terms of its context of application (see Figure 1.1), and an area
of applied psychology. As you will see throughout this book, work psychologists use concepts,
theories and techniques derived from all areas of basic psychology. Table 1.1 illustrated some
examples of research applying ideas from psychology to the working context. These areas
are not mutually exclusive: studying people at work from several different perspectives is
often necessary in order to understand fully the issue being examined. For example, Gomez
and Taylor (2018) explore the role of National culture (therefore using an individual dif-
ference approach) and in-group/out-group status (social) in strategies used to resolve group
conflict. Results indicated a Mexican sample of MBA students showed more of a preference
for confronting conflict using social influence and negotiating than a US sample – thereby
illustrating the impact of culture on conflict resolution approaches.
4 Work Psychology
Exercise 1.1
Think of a work-related topic or problem that interests you. It may be something that you have come
across in your studies or heard about in the media. Consider which of the basic areas of psychology
you might draw on if you were going to research this area. Remember, you are likely to draw on more
than one. Consider how each would help you to better understand the issue.
As shown in Figure 1.1, areas of applied psychology use ideas and information from basic
psychology. Conversely, they can also contribute ideas and information to the development
of basic psychology. Sometimes theory from basic psychology can directly contribute to the
solution of real-world problems. The need for solutions to difficult and complex real-world
problems can also stimulate developments in basic psychology. Applied psychology (rather
than basic psychology) offers theories and techniques directly applicable to practical prob-
lems and real-life situations. In fact, it might be argued applied psychologists are interested
in solving problems, while basic psychologists are motivated to develop knowledge for its
own sake. Thus, there may be a danger that the areas of applied psychology will fail to reflect
advances in basic psychology: some more theoretically inclined psychologists fail to take
sufficient account of work in applied psychology, or of current real-world issues.
The approach that many work psychologists aim for is what Anderson et al. (2001) refer
to as pragmatic science. This type of work addresses problems of practical importance and
does so using rigorous methodology. In pragmatic science, good research and practice are
almost indistinguishable. We have tried to ensure that, where possible, the vast majority of
the material cited in this text falls into this category. It refers to research that is done well,
that has been subject to review and critique, and stood up to tests of its quality. At the same
time, the research is useful and relevant: it helps organisations. Linley (2006: 3) summarises
the benefits of this approach:
academic-practitioner divide very
effectively, because they catalyse the interests, needs and aspirations of both parties through
delivering findings that are not only academically sound and valued, but that also offer practical
application and advancement.
Areas of basic Areas of applied

psychology psychology
Arrows represent flows of information and ideas
Figure 1.1 The relationship between areas of psychology

Key learning point
Pragmatic science gives us the best of both worlds:good research that has clear practical relevance.
More recently the term evidence-based management (EBMgt) has been used to describe
better how theory and practice can be connected. Briner at al. (2009) argue that effective
decisions in organisations need to combine:
■ Evaluated good quality evidence. Research findings that have been subjected to crit-
ical review by independent experts, for example through systematic review and
meta-analysis of findings from numerous studies, can provide a solid evidence base for
decisions. The use of results from single studies to inform practice in new settings would
be especially risky.
■ The experience and judgements of practitioners who have some reliable insight, often
developed through experience and reflection, into the issue being addressed.
■ Input from those likely to be affected by the decision (stakeholders), including what is
important to them and what they prefer.
■ Information drawn from the organisational context, for example data held by the organ-
isation about the issue being tackled, information about the pressures and opportunities
facing the organisation and so on.
The term scientist-practitioner is often used to describe people who integrate research
and practice to good effect. Lowman (2012) indicates that these are people who work with
important issues and measure important outcomes of their interventions. They are also good
at sharing their knowledge. This sounds relatively straightforward, but as Lowman points out,
‘the needs of clients do not necessarily derive from what research has chosen to study nor
does the path of science always focus on practical applications’ (2012: 153). No matter how
knowledgeable or qualified the psychologist appears to be, they will need to work with a range
of stakeholder groups if their advice is to have the best chance of success.
Key learning point
The terms evidence-based management and scientist-practitioner emphasise the need for psycholo-
and other knowledgeable professionals.
We should note that the effective application of theory and research is rarely straight-
forward. There are many tensions that can draw researchers and practitioners away from
a pragmatic science model, including policy priorities, organisational context, values and
demographics.
Work psychology has at least two distinct roots within applied psychology. One resides in a
pair of traditions that have often been termed ‘fitting the person to the job’ (FPJ) and ‘fitting
the job to the person’ (FJP). The FPJ tradition manifests itself in employee selection, training
and vocational guidance (e.g. see Chapters 3, 7 and 11). These endeavours have in common an
6 Work Psychology
attempt to achieve an effective match between job and person by concentrating on the latter.
The FJP tradition focuses instead on the job, and the design of tasks, equipment and working
conditions that suit a person’s physical and psychological characteristics (e.g. see Chapter 6).
You will see the influence of both approaches throughout this text.
The FPJ and FJP traditions essentially concern the relationship between individuals and
their work. The other root of work psychology can be loosely labelled human relations (HR).
It is concerned with the complex interplay between individuals, groups, organisations and
work. It therefore emphasises social factors at work much more than FPJ and FJP (e.g. see
Chapter 9).
Key learning point
There are two important traditions in work psychology. The concern of how jobs can be fitted to peo-
ple (FJP) and how people can be fitted to jobs (FPJ);and the human relations approach emphasising
individuals’ experiences and interpretations at work.
One source of confusion you may experience is that the discipline of work psychology has
a lot of different names. The label often used in the USA is industrial/organizational psychol-
ogy (or I/O psychology for short). In the UK, it is often called occupational psychology, but this
term is uncommon in most other countries. In the UK the title of Occupational Psychologist
is protected in law, meaning that only appropriately qualified persons can use the title.
Throughout Europe, increasing use is made of the psychology of work and organisations and
work and organisational psychology to describe the area. Just to confuse things further, some
specific parts of the field are given labels such as vocational psychology, managerial psychology,
business psychology and personnel psychology. Meanwhile, there are also some bigger areas of
study (e.g. human resource management and organisational behaviour) to which psychology
contributes greatly.
Our advice for the confused reader is: don’t panic! The differences between these labels do
mean something to some people who work in the field but should not unduly worry most of
us. In the main, the same content areas are covered regardless of the label used. We use the
term work psychology because of its simplicity, and because to us it encompasses the individual
and organisational levels of analysis.
With the confusion of labelling behind us, we can now be more specific in the areas
(or knowledge domains) in which work psychologists apply psychological ideas to work
and organisations. Figure 1.2 illustrates the five areas of work psychology as defined by
the Standards for the Accreditation of Masters and Doctoral Programmes in Occupational
Psychology published by the British Psychological Society (BPS, 2017). You will see
that all these areas are covered within this volume, some (e.g. psychological assessment
at work) with specific chapters and others (e.g. leadership, engagement and motivation)
crossing several chapters. Table 1.2 depicts the chapters in this text which relate directly
to the BPS’ knowledge domains. Interestingly, Chapter 13 is an example of a topic which
bridges more than one of the knowledge domains. In practice, most issues work psycholo-
gists research or practice in cross multiple knowledge domains. While they may be ini-
tially framed within one domain (e.g. development of a new selection system) the design
process will invariable mean considering other domains (e.g. the need to revise training
programmes given the quality of people now being selected into the organisation; the
differing motivational needs of these new people; design of work to ensure the new skills
are being used effectively).
Diversity, gender, fairness, culture
Psychological
Assessment at Work
Learning, Training and

Development
Research Design,
Applying Psychology to Leadership, Engagement Advanced Data
Work and Organisations and Motivation Gathering and
Analytical Techniques
Well-being and
Work
Work Design,
Organisational Change and
Development
Figure 1.2 The five domains of work psychology
Table 1.2 BPS knowledge domains in work psychology and relevant chapters in this volume
Knowledge domain Chapter(s) in this volume
Psychological assessment at work Chapters 2, 3 and 4 are important when considering the relevant literature in
this knowledge domain
Learning, training and development Chapter 7 is focused directly on training and development. Chapter 11 on
careers is also relevant in training and development
Leadership, engagement and motivation Chapter 10 focuses directly on leadership and Chapter 6 on motivation.
Chapter 5 on attitudes and Chapter 9 on teams are also relevant for
understanding employee engagement and motivation
Well-being at work Chapter 8 is focused specifically on well-being at work
Work design, organisational change and Chapter 12 examines the key issues in organisational change
development
In addition to the content areas, the common and important themes of diversity, gen-
der, fairness and culture need to be addressed in each content area. The BPS describes two
other areas that integrate with all domains. First, students and practitioners in occupa-
tional psychology need good knowledge of research design, data gathering and analysis.
Second, it is expected that qualified work psychologists will understand a range of specific
techniques they are likely to use in their practice. This involves the development of generic
skills such as questionnaire design, interviewing, report writing, presentation skills and
data analysis methods.
8 Work Psychology
The skills of a work psychologist
We are aware that some of you reading this book are commencing your studies in work psy-
chology, whereas others are simply studying a work psychology module as part of other
non-psychology academic courses. It may therefore seem that a section on the skills needed
by a work psychologist might be of more relevance to the former than the latter. However,
while information on becoming a Chartered Psychologist or Registered Occupational Psy-
chologist is mostly relevant to those of you with a psychology background, arguably the
skills inherent with work psychology are useful for everyone in education and practice. In
educational contexts, having the appropriate knowledge and skills will help you understand
better the literature you are researching for essays, dissertations or projects. In practice, some
of you may become leaders in your future careers, researchers in other disciplines or work in
related areas (e.g. human resources). Understanding the skillset of a work psychologist will
become a valuable asset for you in the future.
Clearly, given the discussion so far, understanding the five knowledge domains are key to
becoming an effective work psychologist. However, by examining the US-based O*Net web-
site (https://www.onetonline.org/) and searching Industrial-Organizational Psychologists it is
evident that domain knowledge is only one part of the skillset of a work psychologist. Attrib-
utes include experience in a range of technology software, active listening, decision-making,
oral and written comprehension, mathematical ability and critical thinking. To make this
more concrete, let us detail how some of these attributes are important for studying, research-
ing and practicing work psychology (Table 1.3).
The rest of this chapter will focus on three highly important skills inherent within a work
psychologist’s role. The following two short sections will consider ethics and critical analysis,
whereas research skills will be examined in the second part of this chapter.
Ethical conduct is crucial to operating as a work psychologist. As an example, in the UK all
practising psychologists are bound by a Code of Ethics and Conduct (British Psychological
Society, 2018). This code requires practising psychologists to be guided by four principles:
1 Respect: ‘Psychologists value the dignity and worth of all persons, with sensitivity to the
dynamics of perceived authority or influence over persons and peoples and with par-
ticular regard to people’s rights’.
Table 1.3 Selected work psychologist skills and examples of why they are important
Active listening If interviewing an employee as a form of data collection, a competent work psychologist
should attend fully to what the employee is saying, ask appropriate questions and reflect
on points being made
Mathematical ability In order to understand data in company reports, in research papers, in national surveys
etc., a good level of mathematical ability is needed
Oral expression Being able to convey complex and technical ideas in psychology to non-psychology
audiences is an essential skill for a work psychologist. Mostly, clients will not be
cognisant of the theories, methods of analysis techniques
Statistical software When collecting data, having knowledge of statistical analysis software packages helps
the work psychologist interpret the data
Problem solving When presented with an organisational problem by a client, being able to review
information and evaluate options helps the work psychologist to develop actions plans
and solutions
2 Competence: ‘Psychologists value the continuing development and maintenance of high

standards of competence in their professional work, and the importance of preserving
their ability to function optimally within the recognised limits of their knowledge, skill,
training, education, and experience.’
3 Responsibility: ‘Psychologists value their responsibilities to persons and peoples, to
the general public, and to the profession and science of Psychology, including the
avoidance of harm and the prevention of misuse or abuse of their contribution to
society.’
4 Integrity: ‘Psychologists value honesty, probity, accuracy, clarity and fairness in their
interactions with all persons and peoples and seek to promote integrity in all facets of
their scientific and professional endeavours.’
(From BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct, 2018: 5–7)
In practical terms, this means that psychologists are required to consider, among other
things, the following:
■ Consent: Participants in the research should normally be made aware beforehand
of all aspects of it that might reasonably be expected to influence their willingness to
participate.
■ Deception: Deception of those who participate in the research should be avoided wherever
possible. If deception is necessary for the effective conduct of the research, it should not
be the cause of significant distress when participants are debriefed afterwards.
■ Debriefing: After participation, the participants should be given any information and
other support necessary to complete their understanding of the research, and to avoid
any sense of unease their participation might have engendered.
■ Withdrawal from the investigation: The psychologist should tell participants of their right
to withdraw from the research (usually participants are not required to give their reasons
for withdrawing).
■ Confidentiality: Subject to the requirements of legislation, information obtained about a
participant is confidential unless agreed otherwise in advance.
■ Protection of participants: As much as is reasonably practicable, the investigator must pro-
tect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation.
Key learning point
adhere to ethical principles. This is partly to protect the rights and well-being of people who pay for
their services and/or participate in their research.
Psychologists need to be skilled in the analysis, synthesis and understanding of informa-

tion (textual or numerical). This critical analysis requires the individual to go beyond just
collating and describing information they have accessed. It involves evaluating the quality
of the information received; identifying patterns and relationships in the information; chal-
lenging assumptions/ideas offered using other information; posing questions; identifying
gaps in the information; and expressing an informed opinion. Critical analysis is regularly
a part of the assessment criteria in academic modules and evidencing this skill is often the
difference between an excellent and a good mark in an assignment. Frequently we get asked
10 Work Psychology
by our students: ‘how can we critically evaluate?’ Using the PEEL paragraph writing approach
is a useful aid to thinking and ultimately writing critically:
Position – state your position/point on a topic area.
Evidence – support your position with evidence obtained from the research literature.
Evaluate – evaluate how and why your evidence supports your position.
Link – link your points together across paragraphs to develop a coherent argument.
Like many skills, critical analysis is better practiced than described in words. Exercise 1.2
offers a practical approach to understanding and engaging on critical analysis.
Exercise 1.2 Critical analysis
The best way to understand critical analysis is to engage in critical analysis. This exercise will hopefully
allow you to understand what’s involved when critically analysing research data. It is in two parts:
1
March 2017 on the prevalence of mental health problems. Listen to the critical approach taken
the gaps in understanding they identify and discuss.

2 Using a similar approach, think about the sorts of information you would want to obtain and
employees are bullied at work.’
Hopefully, as a result of this exercise, you will be a little more critical of headline-grabbing statistical
findings. These headlines can be uncritical and overlook the subtleties and nuances of the research.
Understanding research in work psychology
Alongside ethics and critical analysis, research skills are vital to be a successful work psycholo-
gist. The rest of this chapter will focus on skills and introduce what you need to know when
researching and understanding work psychology. We do not profess to provide a comprehen-
sive section on research methods and statistical analysis – there are plenty of specific texts that
offer this facility – but we do focus on the main areas when accessing or conducting research
within the sphere of work psychology. We present this section as a series of questions you
need to ask in order to understand a specific topic area within work psychology and activities/
methods to help you understand those questions.
The starting point for anyone engaging in research or practice in work psychology, is to access
the current literature on that topic area. This is important for several reasons:
■ to obtain the current perspective on a topic area;
■ to help identify issues, themes and gaps in current understanding;
■ to guide the development of research questions;
■ to identify the methods used to study a topic;
■ to help in the development of practical interventions.
Broadly, such knowledge can be obtained from two sources.
Academic literature
General texts on work psychology (and other similar terms) give a necessarily brief account of
major developments. Additionally, related textbooks on organisational behaviour and human
resource management will cover some of the same material as generic work psychology books,
albeit from different perspectives. These texts tend to cover a large range of topics within work
psychology, capturing the current literature and synthesising the main theories/research/mod-
els. Other specialist books devoted to particular topics (e.g. leadership, motivation and change)
and sometimes even to particular theories (e.g. Social Identity Theory) provide a deeper under-
standing of that topic, but lack the breadth associated with general texts. Therefore, as a student,
researcher or practitioner in this area you need to decide as to what knowledge you need at a
current point in time. For example, if starting your educational journey in work psychology
you may well commence with a general text to get a feel of work psychology and then move to
more specific texts on a topic in which you have interest or are planning to research/practice in.
Many new theoretical developments, and tests of established theories, can be found in
academic journals. The advantage of academic journals over books is that they tend to pro-
vide a more contemporary perspective on a specific topic. Their disadvantage is that they
may only offer a small snapshot of a topic area, often focusing on a very specific and limited
set of research questions. Also, they have a style to their writing which on initial inspec-
tion can seem complex and incredibly detailed. Journal articles have been subject to a peer
review process. This means two/three independent reviewers (plus the journal editor) have
read initial draft versions of papers, suggested areas for change and agreed a final version
which meets high quality standards in methodology, analysis and impact on science/practice.
This final, published version should not be viewed as a ‘definitive answer’ to a research topic
area (we contend that no research is perfect). Your newly developed skills in critical analysis
will always find avenues to question in any journal article. Indeed, the authors will present a
series of limitations of their work to illustrate the confines of the research. Other researchers
(which may include the original authors), then come along, critically review the research
and implement a new study to answer similar questions. Over time, the extant literature on
a topic area builds and builds allowing students, researchers and practitioners to develop an
evidence-based perspective on the research area.
Leading journals of work psychology include Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology (published in the UK), Journal of Applied Psychology (USA), Journal of Occupational
Health Psychology (USA), Journal of Organizational Behavior (USA/UK), Human Relations (UK),
Work & Stress (EU), European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology (EU), Personnel
Psychology (USA) and Journal of Vocational Behavior (USA). There are also other prestigious
journals which include work psychology along with other disciplines applied to work behav-
iour, including Academy of Management Journal (USA) and Academy of Management Review
(USA). Some other journals concentrate more on the concerns of practitioners; that is, people
who earn their living by supplying work psychology to organisations (e.g. The Industrial–
Organizational Psychologist [USA]).
It is worth noting that more authors are now making their articles available to all through
open access via the journal or through their online profiles and services such as ResearchGate.
Key learning point
Some topic areas have a large research base and it can be daunting to be faced with this volume
of reference material. To help, start by looking for review papers or meta-analyses on a topic area.
These provide a current perspective and, in the case of meta-analyses, statistical analysis of research
For example, the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior publishes
12 Work Psychology
Non-academic literature
Insights on a specific topic can also be found within non-academic contexts. While these
may not necessarily be subject to peer review along the lines of a journal article; they can
present analysis at a national/global level or discussions focused at a practitioner audience.
Such literature includes Governmental reports, research by professional bodies, practitioner
perspectives, public/private sector reports and online material. When accessing this research,
you need to evaluate the credibility and authenticity of the work before considering its use
in your own research and practice. Often, such literature provides a context for your own
research/practice and can prove useful in setting the scene (see Table 1.4 for some examples).
Once you have decided which texts/articles/reports to read, your next set of questions revolves
around the approach, methodology and analysis of the research. Work psychology is eclectic
in the methods used to study phenomena and the approaches to analysing information from
these studies. Having insight and understanding of these features provides work psychologists
with an informed view as to the quality and limitations of the information they access. Let
us contemplate four considerations.
1. The philosophical position taken by the work psychology researcher
The assumptions about the nature of knowledge and theory influence how work psycholo-
gists go about their research, the kinds of data they obtain, and how they interpret their find-
ings. Albeit, not necessarily espoused within a research paper, it will be evident from the way
they construct their introduction, the methodology adopted and the approach to analysis,
Table 1.4 Examples of non-academic literature on work psychology topics
Source Example
Governmental European Quality of Life Survey (Eurofound, 2016). Cross-country comparisons on

work–life balance
Professional bodies/trade unions International Test Commission (https://www.intestcom.org/) guidelines on

test-related issues
Practitioner Montefiori (2016). Games-based assessment: Face validity, fairness perception,

and the impact on employer’s brand image. Assessment & Development Matters,
8(2), 19–22
Public/Private sector reports National Health Service Change model (2018). A model for change operated
within a national health care organisation
Online Live Internet statistics (http://www.internetlivestats.com/). Provides live data on

number of people across the world using the Internet
Charities and NGOs MIND offers research and resources on mental health at work positioned at indi-
viduals and organisations (https://www.mind.org.uk)
the position taken by researchers in studying a topic area. This is important to acknowledge
and understand, because psychology is not a united or unified discipline and includes a mul-
tiplicity of views and perspectives. Indeed, scholars hold strongly to their position and defend
it vigorously. Knowing the position of the work psychologist allows you to understand the
assumptions made in the research as well as the limitations of the specific position adopted.
As already expressed, we are not writing a textbook on research methods here; hence we
will restrict our debate to the extreme philosophical positions. The most fundamental polar-
ity has been described nicely by, among others, Easterby-Smith et al. (2018: Chapter 3) as
positivism versus social constructionism. Each of these positions has distinct and very dif-
ferent philosophical roots.
Positivism assumes that the social world exists objectively. This usually (but not always)
implies measuring things using quantitative data (i.e. numerical). Science is seen as advanc-
ing by making hypotheses (predictions) about laws and causes of human behaviour and then
testing those hypotheses, preferably by simplifying the problem of interest as much as possi-
ble. Progress is often made by trying to falsify these predictions, including ruling out alterna-
tive explanations for findings or for data that might provide evidence against the validity of
a theory. In the absence of such findings and data we can be more confident that a theory is
at least approximately correct or at least useful. To draw upon an often-used example: if you
want to prove all swans are white then it’s better to look for non-white swans (this is referred
to as falsification) than to spend your time identifying even more white ones (which would
be an uncritical, confirmatory approach). It is also assumed that the researcher can investi-
gate without influencing what is being investigated: that is, their presence and actions are
assumed not to alter how people would naturally behave, think or feel.
The other extreme is labelled social constructionism. This viewpoint suggests that reality
is not objective. Instead, the meaning of events, concepts and objectives is constructed and
interpreted by people, through the complex and unfolding interplay of thought processes
and social interactions. Instead of measuring how often certain behaviours occur, the aim of
research is to examine the different ways in which people interpret and explain their experi-
ence. We cannot really gain direct access to the way participants view things because we must
interpret others’ views. If we are going to collect data about someone’s view of the world, we
will need to interact with them and interpret what they say or do. This means that the data
produced are always an interpretation of the participants’ experience. Therefore, data are
not viewed as some objective reality that exists independent of the view of the researcher or
the views of the research participants. In good examples of this research, the researcher will
provide an account of how they influenced all aspects of the research process: this is referred
to as reflexivity. The data produced by such research tend to be harder to obtain and to sum-
marise than those produced by positivist research, but tend to be richer in meaning, detail
and explanation.
Key learning point
There is an important philosophical distinction in psychology between positivism and phenomeno-

logical approaches. The former emphasises objectively verifiable causes of behaviour, thoughts and
emotions;the latter focuses more on people’s subjective explanations and accounts and recognises
the impact of the investigator on the research process and findings.
These perspectives are bipolar opposites in their beliefs, assumptions and stance. In work
psychology several researchers/practitioners operate a more pragmatic stance in which
they see the benefits and need for both approaches to research – depending on the research
question(s) or practical work they are engaging in. While the academic literature in work
14 Work Psychology
psychology is still dominated by the positivistic approach, constructivist research is increas-

ing and, in some areas (e.g. workplace bullying), scholars have called specifically for more of
this type of research to help understand and capture the diversity of participants’ experiences
and perspectives. Many topics in work psychology can be investigated from both perspectives
and all points in between (see exercise 1.3). As far as possible we try to reflect both positivist
and non-positivist research in this text as both have something to offer our understanding
of work-related issues.
Exercise 1.3 Positivism vs constructivism
A clear way to be able to evaluate if a work psychologist is taking a positivism or constructivism stance
studying the effects of workplace bullying on employee job satisfaction. Below illustrates research
Positivism – To what extent does experiencing workplace bullying behaviours relate to employee
Constructivism
Now you have a go. Think of each of the research areas below from the positivism and constructivism
■ Applicant reactions to internet-based testing.

■ Cross-cultural perceptions of commitment at work.
■ Career aspirations of older adults.
2. The methods used to collect data
Work psychologists use a variety of techniques in their research on human behaviour,

thoughts and emotions in the workplace. Research methods are the specific ways in which
information is gathered within the overall research strategy (the methodology). Understand-
ing the methods available to gather information is useful as it allows the researcher, practi-
tioner and student an insight into how research has been conducted, the problems associated
with the method of collecting information and the potential for future research using differ-
ent research methods. The philosophical position adopted by the researcher will often dictate
the research methods used; i.e. questionnaires and objective data are synonymous with the
positivistic approach and interviews with the social constructivism approach.
Questionnaires are often used to assess a person’s attitudes, values, opinions, beliefs or experi-
ences (see Chapter 5). Psychometric tests are normally employed to measure ability or person-
ality (see also Chapter 3). Questionnaires and tests normally require a person to answer a series
of written questions presented on paper or on a computer screen. Answers are often multiple
choice; that is, the person must select the most appropriate response from a choice of several.
This kind of questionnaire is often referred to as structured, because both the questions asked
and the response options available to the person completing it have been predefined by the
researcher. Unstructured questionnaires, where questions are broader and people respond in
their own words, are much rarer. Responses are usually expressed as a number representing,
for example, a person’s intelligence, extroversion or job satisfaction. Some questionnaires
and tests need to be administered by the researcher in person or in a tightly controlled way
(such as psychometric testing). Others are designed to be self-explanatory and can be filled
in by the respondent without supervision. Increasing use is being made of online adminis-
tration of questionnaires and tests. Structured questionnaires are easily the most commonly
used research method in work psychology. They have the advantage of providing large quan-
tities of data with relatively little hassle for researcher or respondents. Also, the data are usu-
ally relatively easily subjected to statistical analysis. They are often used in a positivist way.
This means that they may fail to reflect important aspects of respondents’ experiences and be
(mis) used by the researcher as a way of getting quick and easy information rather than truly
engaging with people in the setting being researched (the questions to which the participant
can respond is restricted by the researcher’s choice of questions).
Interviews
A work psychologist may conduct one or more interviews, normally with an individual, but
sometimes with a group of people. Group interviews are often designed to encourage discus-
sion among interviewees about one or more topics and are often referred to as focus groups (see
Gray, 2018, Chapter 18). The work psychologist asks questions and records responses, either
by making notes and/or using a voice recorder. The questions may be specified in advance,
in which case it is a structured interview. On the other hand, the interviewer may define only
the general topic they wish to investigate and permit respondents to talk about whatever they
wish within that topic. This is an unstructured interview. Somewhere between the two extremes
is a semi-structured interview: questions are designed before the interview and used to guide
the discussion, but the interviewer may ask follow-up probe questions or adjust the schedule
in response to what the interviewee says or how they behave. This approach may also be used
to adjust the content of the interview as the research progresses and the researcher wishes to
explore new issues based on the data collected from other participants.
Psychophysiological and psychophysical measures

Psychophysiological and psychophysical measures involve assessing a person’s neurologi-
cal, biological, physical or physiological state or performance. So, for example, in a study
of work stress, measures could include average heart rate, muscle activity, eye movements
and electrical activity in the brain (by electroencephalogram [EEG]). These methods of data
collection are less common in work psychology than in some other areas of psychology. This
is partly because collecting such data is invasive, and organisations and their employees are
often reluctant to engage in such research. Moreover, although research of this type yields
‘hard data’, organisations are rarely concerned about blood cortisol levels, and much more
concerned with issues such as performance, absence and turnover. The psychological mean-
ing of these data can also be difficult to determine. For example, elevated heart rate could
result from excitement, fear, anger, frustration or any combination of emotions, or it may be
indicative of cardiovascular illness.
Observation
Work psychologists may observe people’s behaviour by stationing themselves as unobtru-
sively as possible, and recording the frequency, source and timing of behaviour. This can
be termed structured observation. Alternatively, work psychologists may participate in the
events they are studying. This is participant observation. Where people are being observed
in their workplace, they are normally informed or asked about it in advance. Their awareness
may itself affect their behaviour, but that is usually preferable to the alternatives of secrecy
or even deception (especially given ethical concerns). Clearly, a strength of observation is
that it allows the researcher to form impressions of what is said and done in a workplace at
first hand (without having to rely upon potentially biased data from employees). One possible
disadvantage of observation is that if people know they are being observed, they may behave,
think or feel differently from how they otherwise would (Gray, 2018).
16 Work Psychology
Key learning point
Observational data should not be interpreted as ‘hard facts’. This is because employees are likely to
be aware that they are being observed, and the observer will have their own perspective on what they
are observing.
Diaries
People may be asked to keep a diary of key events and/or their behaviour, thoughts and feel-
ings. It is normally necessary to give people a fair amount of structure to help them to focus
their written comments, and to stay in contact with them as an encouragement to keep up the
diary-filling. One important advantage of the diary method is the ability to track the detailed
and fast-moving developments of people’s day-to-day lives. One disadvantage is that, almost
inevitably, some people on some occasions will forget to complete their diary, or simply not
bother.
Experience sampling methodology (ESM) is a mixture of questionnaire and diary methods.
Often ESM studies use electronic hand-held devices that are issued to participants or through
smartphone applications. Typically, software will trigger alarms on these devices several times
during the day: when the alarm sounds the participant answers questions presented on the
electronic device. This approach helps researchers to investigate the subtle sequential rela-
tionships between variables (for example, if a person reported feeling happy at work at lunch-
time, might it be that their experiences at work in the morning reliably predict them going
on to report being happy?). Because data collection is more ‘instant’, arguably less invasive
and disruptive, and less affected by biases and flaws associated with human memory, the
data collected may be more accurate than data collected once a day (see Daniels et al., 2009).
Archival sources
As Bryman (2001) has pointed out, archival sources are a potentially rich but sometimes
neglected form of data. This is, strictly speaking, a source of data rather than a method of
collecting it. Archival information is anything that exists in organised form before, during or
after the work psychologist’s investigation. Examples include employee absence data, com-
pany accounts, productivity records, human resource policy documents, accident statistics,
minutes of meetings and many others. Data from archival sources are most often used either
to provide a context for a particular research project, or to investigate the impact of an event
on the functioning of an organisation.
Similar to the philosophical position debate, pragmatic work psychologists are likely to use
a variety of research methods to help them understand a particular issue – whether this is in
research or practice. Figure 1.3 illustrates a hypothetical research methods approach using dif-
ferent measures which may be adopted by a work psychologist to examine workplace stress.
The researcher is interested in the role demands play in workplace stress. Each of the methods
will provide different information to the researcher and each will be analysed using different
techniques (see later). However, overall the research can develop a more holistic picture of
the role job demands play in workplace stress and allow us to triangulate the findings from
one method of data collection with another.
3. The design of the research
Research designs concern the overall research strategy employed. This strategy depends on
the researcher’s beliefs about scientific investigation as well as the nature of the phenomena
being researched.
Questionnaire
Employee ratings
of types and
intensity of job
demands at work
Diary Interview
Daily diary over 2 Semi-structured
weeks, where Workplace interview with
employees record stress employees on their
extent of job experiences of
demands that day work demands
Physiological
Average heart rate
during demanding
and less demanding
work periods
Figure 1.3 Hypothetical research methods used by a work psychologist
The survey design

The key distinguishing feature of a survey is that its use does not usually disrupt naturally
occurring events, nor does its use control them. It simply takes a snapshot of what is hap-
pening, usually by asking people about it. The aim is usually to gather (mostly) quantitative
information about certain phenomena (for example, events, attitudes) from many people.
On occasions this will be done simply to ascertain the frequency of occurrence of a certain
event, such as feeling anxious at work. More commonly, a survey will be used to discover the
relationships of variables with each other – for example, whether anxiety at work tends to be
accompanied by low job satisfaction (this does not mean that anxiety causes satisfaction, but
just that the two tend to occur together).
Most commonly surveys involve questionnaires, although surveys can be conducted via
interviews (e.g. market research). Questionnaires cannot be just thrown together (as they are
in some popular magazines) if they are to do a proper job. What is included in the question-
naire and the way questions are worded should be driven by good quality research and strong
theories. Consistent with the positivist research philosophy, questionnaires must be carefully
devised so that they unambiguously measure what they are supposed to measure, i.e. so that
they are valid (see Chapter 3). It is important to collect data from an appropriate sample of
the relevant study population. Ideally, the respondents should be a representative sample of
all those people to whom the survey is relevant.
18 Work Psychology
The survey has both advantages and disadvantages (see Bryman, 2001). It can be used with
people directly involved in the issues to be investigated. It can investigate their experiences
in their day-to-day setting. It is normally easy to distribute and collect and makes relatively
low demands on participants’ time (something that is often an important consideration for
work psychologists). On the other hand, the survey does not involve any manipulation of
the variables being investigated. This makes it very difficult to establish cause and effect. For
example, if you have surveyed employees on their perceptions of their leader and their own
levels of task performance you cannot say that leader behaviour causes task performance.
They may well be related, but as you’ve not considered other variables nor actually tested a
prediction, cause and effect cannot be established. This is termed a cross-sectional survey.
Longitudinal surveys can provide some insight into cause and effect relationships. Here,
data are gathered on more than one occasion. Conditions pertaining at time 1 (A) may cause
those at time 2 (B) but not, presumably, vice versa. However, even if event A happens before
event B, that does not necessarily mean that A causes B, just that it happens first. To be more
confident of cause and effects, we would have to see if carefully planned adjustments to A
predicted B and rule out the effects of other variables on both and A and B. This, as you might
imagine, is difficult to do in complex real-life work contexts.
Surveys often comprise self-reported data on all constructs they assess. While this provides
insights, and is often the right way to assess a variable (e.g. if assessing perceptions then the
right approach is to ask an individual to self-report their perceptions), it has the potential to
lead to biases in responses which impact on the findings (e.g. they often lead to inflated rela-
tionships between variables). The work psychologist can reduce this impact to some extent by
using other sources of data (e.g. manager ratings, co-worker ratings or objective archival data)
for some of the variables being assessed. Taking the leader behaviour and task performance
example again, a researcher could ask an employee to rate his/her leader behaviour and obtain
co-worker ratings of the employee’s task performance.
Having said all of that, well-designed survey-based studies often provide a good starting
point for further research. They provide quick tests of relationships between variables that
can then be examined more rigorously with more complex research designs.
Key learning point
Survey research is relatively easy to conduct in work organisations. However, it is often difficult to
determine cause and effects from the data collected.
The experimental design

One key advantage of an experiment is that it allows the psychologist control over what hap-
pens in ways that can be used to rule out alternative explanations for the research findings. This
permits stronger inference about causes and effects. There are several key aspects of an exper-
iment which need to be included for the research to be considered an experimental design:
■ Independent and dependent variables – the independent variable (IV) is the variable the
researcher manipulates in order to assess its impact on an outcome (or dependent varia-
ble, DV). Simply, this could comprise one IV (e.g. distraction) and one DV (error rates on
a clerical checking task) or could involve several IVs (e.g. visual or auditory distraction).
■ Experimental and control groups – the experimental group are the individuals who
receive the manipulation and the control group are those who do not receive the manip-
ulation. People in the control group should as far as possible perform the same action as
those in the experimental group, apart from the manipulation. We then compare the out-
come across both groups to assess if there are differences. For example, the experimental
group will be subject to a distraction when completing the error checking task, whereas
the control group will not. This is often termed conditions. The IV has two conditions:
distraction vs no distraction.
■ Random allocation – participants should be randomly allocated to either the experimen-
tal or control condition. This is to reduce the potential for bias in allocation and avoid
groups being unequal in a specific psychological construct. For example, if we did not
randomly allocate people to the distraction vs no distraction condition, we might find
that those in the distraction condition tended to be more skilled in ignoring distractions
and hence the difference between the two groups could be minimal.
The psychologist’s control necessarily makes it an artificial situation because the real world
is rarely so neat and tidy. Unless the psychologist indulges in a huge (and unethical) decep-
tion, the experimental participants will know that they are not in a real job, and that the
experiment will last only a short time period. This could crucially affect their reactions to
the task. In running experiments something is gained – control – but something is lost – real-
ism. Arguments rage over the use of experimental approaches to investigate organisational
phenomena. Some argue that it is only by finding out things in controlled settings first that
one can begin to study them in more applied settings. Others argue that the experimental
situation produces results that would not be discovered or hold true in the ‘real world’ because
they do not exist there.
Key learning point
Laboratory experiments allow the work psychologist to control and manipulate the situation in order
to establish whether there are causal relationships between variables, but it is often not clear whether
the same relationships would occur outside of laboratory situations.
Sometimes it is possible to conduct a field experiment instead. Quasi-experiments of

varying degrees of sophistication are often used in work psychology. These experiments take
place in a real work setting, probably with the people who worked there. Such experiments
rarely have ‘perfect’ designs. Even if managers and union officials at a factory were prepared to
allow the psychologist to create an experimental and control group on the factory floor, they
would probably not allow random assignment of participants to groups (a key feature of a
‘true’ experiment). Also, they probably could not arrange things such as identical supervision
and identical opportunities to interact with co-workers, even if they wanted to. However, you
may see true experiments designed using scenarios or vignettes. Here the researcher develops
a set of, more often written, vignettes on a work-related topic and within the vignettes manip-
ulates the information so that the experimental group receives vignettes with the manipula-
tion in and the control group does not. Participants are then asked to rate their perceptions
of the scenario as if they were involved and differences between groups on ratings can be
assumed to be due to the manipulation in the scenario. This removes the problem of trying to
set up an experiment within the field (as everyone reads the scenarios) but it relies on ratings
of intent and not actual behaviour: there can be large differences between these two things
(see Chapter 5).
Occasionally, it is possible for psychologists to conduct a field experiment using events
that are occurring anyway. This is sometimes called a natural experiment. For example, some
groups may engage in interventions to improve their working conditions while other groups
who will get the intervention some time later act as a ‘waiting list’ control (see Chapter 8).
From an ethical point of view, it is important to ensure that eventually all participants have
access to an effective intervention.
20 Work Psychology
Key learning point
It is occasionally possible to conduct experiments in real-world settings, though usually the work
psychologist has far less control over the situation than in laboratory experiments.
Both surveys and experiments normally use numbers to express data (i.e. quantitatively).
They allow the people participating in the research little chance to express their opinions
in their own words, since the work psychologist investigates a limited number of variables
of their own choice, selected in advance. Hence surveys and experiments do not obtain a
detailed picture of any individual’s world. They both involve the psychologist in a detached,
quasi-scientific role, and tend to reflect the positivist research philosophy described earlier.
Qualitative research often (though not always) involves a much greater emphasis on see-
ing the world from the point of view of the people who participate in it (Cassell and Symon,
2004). That is, it tends to more often reflect the phenomenological research philosophy
described earlier. This normally means collecting detailed information using observation
and/or interviews from a small number of individuals or organisations – perhaps only one.
This information is intended to paint a picture rather than measure a limited number of
specific phenomena. Drawing on Gubrium and Holstein (1997), Silverman (2001: 38–9) has
identified four kinds of qualitative research:
1 Naturalism: The emphasis is on observing what goes on in real-life settings. This tends
to produce rich descriptions of behaviour and events, but little insight into how those
things are understood by the people involved.
2 Ethnomethodology: Focuses on a close analysis of interactions between people and how
these maintain and reflect social order. This can show how social groups and cultures
work but runs the risk of neglecting the role of broader contextual factors such as eco-
nomic conditions.
3 Emotionalism: Here the primary interest is in establishing a close rapport with the people
being researched and finding out about their experiences and feelings. This differs from
the previous two categories in giving priority to people’s personal opinions, rather than
the researcher’s frame of reference, but runs the risk of overemphasising emotion.
4 Postmodernism: Rejects the notion that there is an objective truth, focusing instead on
how people portray themselves and their contexts in order to achieve personal goals and/
or affirm their sense of identity.
Key learning point
the situations they are in:it often involves a broader and more flexible approach to data collection. The
focus may be on behaviour, social interaction, personal experience or self-presentation.
Qualitative research usually produces a large amount of data, which requires some editing
and interpretation by the researcher. It can be time-consuming and complex. Even obtaining
the necessary access to people in their workplace can prove impossible. It leaves researchers
vulnerable to the accusation that they have simply discovered in the data what they expected
to find.
There are many qualitative research methods. Symon and Cassell’s (2012) text provides an
excellent description of many such techniques. Other techniques include:
■ Case study research, which involves the collection of data from several teams, organisa-
tions or individuals in order to better understand how the research context influences the
research findings. Case studies can be aggregated in order to identify some of the general
findings that apply across different research settings.
■ Ethnography where the researcher participates in the research setting in order to collect
data that reflect the meaning of events, behaviours or activities in the research setting
(rather than the meaning that might be attached to things by some ‘detached’ observer).
For example, one of the authors of this text spent some time, underground, with various
sewage workers in order to better understand their working conditions (and who said the
work psychologist’s life wasn’t very glamorous?).
■ Repertory grid technique, which is sometimes used to identify the knowledge, skills
and competencies of effective (and ineffective) employees in job analysis.
■ Attributional coding, which can be used, for example, to analyse how people describe the
causes of the events that occur in their working lives.
Action research design

Lewin (1946) coined the term action research to describe research where the researcher and
the people being researched participate jointly in it. Action research is intended both to solve
immediate problems for the people collaborating with the researcher, and to add to general
knowledge about the topic being researched. It involves not only diagnosing and investigat-
ing a problem, but also making changes in a work organisation based on research findings and
evaluating the impact of those changes. Gray (2018) illustrates action research as a cyclical
process involving planning (detailing the focus on the research), acting (developing actions
and gathering the information), observing (noting the impact of the actions) and reflecting
(evaluating the outcomes).
Action research can involve any of the research methods described earlier but, like quali-
tative research, is most likely to use interviews and participant observation (see Meyer, 2001).
Much more than other research designs, it focuses on a specific problem in an organisation
and its solution. It abandons the detachment of survey and experimental designs. Like qual-
itative research, it seeks to examine how people participating in the research see things, and
it usually covers fairly long periods of time. Unlike much qualitative research, it involves
attempting to solve a problem, and monitoring the success of that attempt.
From the point of view of the researcher, action research can be exciting, difficult and
unpredictable. It requires close involvement with an organisation because of its problem
orientation. In action research, the process of conducting the research can become as much
a focus of interest as the problem it was originally designed to address.
Key learning point
In action research, the psychologist and the people involved in the situation being researched work
together to define the aims of the research and solve practical problems. Chapter 8 includes some
specific examples.
Mixed methods approach

An increasing amount of research in work psychology is beginning to draw upon several meth-
ods used in combination, or sequence, to strengthen research designs. This mixed methods
approach is used to make the best of both worlds, drawing on the advantages of several different
22 Work Psychology
techniques to offset the disadvantages of each. It is common that this ‘mixing’ refers to the
use of both qualitative and quantitative methods in the same study. Gray (2018: 198, adapting
Greene et al., 1989) describes several ways this can be done and the benefits of each:
1 Triangulation: Convergence, corroboration, correspondence or results from different
methods.
2 Complementarity: ‘Seeks elaboration, enhancement, illustration, clarification of the
results from one method with the results from the other method.’
3 Development: ‘Seeks to use the results of one method to help or inform the other method.’
4 Initiation: ‘Seeks the discovery of paradox and contradiction, new perspectives, the recast-
ing of questions or the results from one method with questions or results from the other
method.’
5 Expansion: ‘Seeks to extend the breadth and range of inquiry by using different methods
from different inquiry components.’
Key learning point
Research design refers to the overall strategy in conducting research, whereas research methods are
the procedures by which information is collected.
Data are outcomes of the research design and methods used by a work psychologist. Data can
be numbers-based (e.g. ratings on a scale, score on a test, average heart rate or reaction-time
on a computer task) or text-based (e.g. transcript of interview, synopsis of company records or
postings on an online message board). The philosophical position, research design and meth-
ods tend to dictate the type of data measured by the work psychologist. For example, the work
psychologist taking a positivistic position using a survey design with a questionnaire method
is likely to generate numbers-based data. Yet at this stage, all we are faced with is a series of
information which can be said to be in its raw form. For it to be useful, work psychologists
need to interpret the information and analyse it in a manner to make it more meaningful and
interpretable. This analysis is then used by work psychologists to help provide answers to the
research questions posed. It is beneficial for practitioners, because it allows them to gauge the
strength of a particular study and how useful it might be in their own practice.
Once again, we do not intend for this section to be a detailed discussion of approaches to
analysis. Rather, we detail the main types of analyses methods and how you may come across
them in a work psychology related context. Firstly, we will detail when data is numbers-based
(or statistical) and then when text-based (or qualitative).
Statistical analysis
When numbers are generated as data work psychologists need some way of collating the data
and interpreting it considering the research questions posed. They do this in two, intercon-
nected ways – descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics, as their
name suggests, describe the patterns in the data, such as the mean, median, mode and stand-
ard deviation. Inferential statistics allow us to test the strength of our research findings and
infer whether we can have enough confidence in them (termed statistical significance).
They are interconnected because through running a specific inferential statistical approach
we can observe if the data shows notable differences or relationships; yet we always refer to our
descriptive statistics to see where our differences or relationships are. For example, look back
to our research study on distraction and clerical checking task error rates. We have two groups:
an experimental group of 50 employees who are distracted while performing a task; and a
control group of 50 employees who are not. We obtain error rate scores for all 100 employees
and run an inferential statistic to see if there is a significant difference between the two groups
(later you will see which one is appropriate). Inferential statistics suggest there is a significant
difference and we then refer to the descriptive statistics (means error rates for both groups) to
view which group showed the higher error rates on average: from our research question we
would expect this to be the experimental group. Thus, descriptive and inferential statistics
work together during data interpretation.
Our research questions may mean that we are interested in examining differences on a
measure between two or more groups (as in the above example) or that we are more interested
in the relationship between two or more measures (e.g. job satisfaction ratings and absentee-
ism rates). As a result, the choice of descriptive and inferential statistics depends on the type of
data collected and research questions posed. Table 1.5 illustrates some of the main statistical
approaches used in work psychology. It is by no means an exhaustive list and does not delve
deep into the approach to analysis each takes. Rather it is meant to be an introduction to the
analyses you may come across when studying work psychology.
Table 1.5 Main statistical analyses seen within work psychology
Test Features Work-related example
Independent Assesses the significance of a difference between two Comparing mean scores in clerical checking error rates
t-test (t) different group mean scores. Cannot be used when there between a group experiencing a distraction and one
are more than two groups having no distraction
Dependent Assesses whether the means of two sets of scores from Comparing the difference in means scores on knowledge
t-test (t) the same people differ significantly. Cannot be used when of health and safety before and after safety training
there are more than two groups
Analysis of Extends the principles of the t-test to more than two Differences in error rates between groups given either a
variance (F) groups and can be used to identify interaction effects visual, auditory or no distraction (independent)
ANOVAs can assess the difference between independent Differences in ratings of seriousness of work-related,
or dependent groups as well as a combination of personal and physical negative acts at work by the same
independent and dependent variables (mixed) employees (dependent)
Differences in average heart rate between young
and older employees, pre and during a games-based
assessment (mixed)
Chi square (x2) Used to test differences between groups in the frequency Differences in the frequency of males and females likely to
with which group members fall into defined categories leave the organisation within the next year
Correlation (r) Tests the extent to which scores on two variables tend to Relationship between workload and employee burnout
go together (i.e. covary)
Multiple Extension of correlation for more than two variables. Able Relationships between workload, role ambiguity, conflict
Regression (b) to examine the relative strength of each individual variable and burnout. Tests the overall relationship and which of
in relating to an outcome variable. Can also test interaction the three predictor variables shows the strongest effect
effects between variables
Factor analysis Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) examines the EFA of a 100-question measure to establish the factor
relationships between variables and clusters them into structure for personality
related factors
CFA of an already established five-factor model of
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) assesses the level of fit personality on a sample of people in a country where the
of an already identified structure to the data provided EFA above was not carried out
SEM Examines the level of fit of the data to a model which The fit of a model which hypothesises organisation
predicts relationships between variables stress predicts negative emotion which in turn predicts
counterproductive work behaviour
24 Work Psychology
Meta-analysis
There is debate within psychology about whether we should steer away from using traditional
statistical approaches of establishing the significance of differences and correlations and
move towards analyses focusing on the actual size of the effect (effect size). These effect-size
measures (e.g. correlation, d-value and odds ratio) help establish how strong the relationship,
difference or likelihood is. Advocates argue they provide a better representation of the actual
findings from research than focusing on significance levels alone. For example, we might find
that the difference in error rates between our distracted and non-distracted groups, as tested
by an independent t-test, is significant. We’d probably run down the corridor of our academic
department whooping with delight if this was the case! However, referring to our descriptive
data (means error rates) for each group might show that the actual difference in units is quite
small (e.g. the experimental group on average makes 12.2 error rates and the control group
10.8 – a difference of only 1.4 errors). An effect size measure (in this case it would be a d-value)
would allow the researcher to fully understand the size of this difference (e.g. small, medium
and large) and therefore likely change the way they view their data – resulting in more of a
reflective smile whilst walking down the corridor! In journal articles you may see researchers
reporting statistical significance data and effect sizes, as this is the current default approach
for many journals.
One analysis approach which uses effect sizes as its data is meta-analysis. This type of
article is quite common, especially in topic areas where a lot of research has been conducted.
The aim of meta-analysis is to provide an overview and summary of what general conclusions
can be drawn from a body of research. A researcher conducting a meta-analysis extracts effect
size estimates (e.g. correlations or d-values) from relevant research studies and weights them
according to the sample size. They also control for several other artefacts within the data, such
as reliability of the measures used and restriction in the range of the data. The technique is
powerful because it focuses on looking at the average effect size and the spread of effect sizes.
This can help us to avoid the pitfalls associated with basing our practice on findings from
single, possibly unrepresentative studies, that each have their own limitations and flaws.
Meta-analysis has been criticised by some as being something of a blunt instrument that
cannot capture important details of how particular research studies were carried out. There is
a risk we may lose sight of some of the important contextual nuances that impact on the vari-
ables we are interested in. Exclusion criteria remove some studies from the research analysed,
even though these may contain interesting and important findings. Others have defended
meta-analysis. Rosenthal and DiMatteo (2000) have reviewed these arguments and conclude
that many of the criticisms are invalid if meta-analysis is properly conducted. An example of
meta-analysis that gives some insight into its usefulness is that reported by Kivimäki and col-
leagues (2015) into the links between long working hours and a serious illness, the experience
of a stroke (see Chapter 8). Their meta-analysis gathered up data from 25 studies from across
the world containing an eye-watering total of 528,908 participants. It would be difficult if
not impossible to conduct a single study of this size into such an important issue with such
a diverse participant group.
Analysing qualitative data

In this section we look at approaches to analysing text-based data. Just as there are many
techniques for analysing numerical data, so the same is also true for qualitative data. Just as
statisticians sometimes disagree about which statistical techniques are appropriate in which
circumstances, so qualitative researchers sometimes disagree about the best ways to analyse
qualitative data. Statistical arguments are usually about technical issues, whereas disagree-
ments over how to analyse qualitative data are more often to do with the researcher’s philo-
sophical and theoretical position and their impact on data analysis and reporting.
Table 1.6 An excerpt from a research interview
A lawyer discusses assessment of work performance
Note: I = Interviewer, R = Respondent
I: How is your performance evaluated here and what do you think of that?
R: They have an annual PDR, which is Personal Development Review. You are given a form to complete a short time
before and then you meet with whoever’s undertaking it generally – the partner that you report to – and you sit in a
room and discuss it.
I: And is that a fruitful discussion or is it going through the motions?
R: For me it was fruitful because I think the . . . the difficulty I have with these is that more senior people can see the
benefit and the relevance of them. When you get down to the secretaries, they view it very, very much as a . . .
almost as a disciplinary matter. It’s their annual kicking from the boss because they haven’t been up to standard.
I: But it doesn’t sound like you feel that way about your PDR?
R: No. I think it’s the only true way of finding out your own standing and seriously expressing ambitions and what you
have to achieve to reach those.
I: And is it sufficiently candid and open to achieve that?
R: It was for me, yes.
I: There’s a couple of indications that it might not be for everybody. Is that true? Or am I reading too much into that?
R: No, you’re right. There are some people who I’ve been told on the quiet have reached as far as they will go but having
spoken to those individuals – not directly about their PDRs, but you know, just generally – I don’t think they’ve
actually been told that clearly.
I: Okay.
R: I think that’s more a function of whoever’s actually doing the PDR because I had two very forthright speakers who
will tell you exactly whereas others are a little bit more political.
I: Okay. There would have been a time when having your performance assessed and working in a managed system was
a bit of an insult for a professional person, but it sounds like that comes with the territory now.
R: It does. I’ve only had them since I’ve been here. It was a new concept to me. And yes, I was very nervous before it. But
unless you do get some form of independent view, I don’t think you’re the best judge of your own performance.
Table 1.6 shows an extract from a research interview conducted by one of the authors
of this text. The interview was one of 80 conducted by one of the authors and colleagues
as part of an investigation of how lawyers and architects see their work, and how they, as
professionals, view management and being managed. In this extract, the interviewer (I) and
respondent (R) (a lawyer working for a large firm of solicitors) discuss how the respondent’s
work is evaluated.
How might these data be analysed? What general statements can be made, and conclu-
sions drawn based on data such as these? This depends heavily both on the research questions
being asked (together with the theoretical and/or practical basis for considering those ques-
tions important), and on the philosophical assumptions of the researcher. Excellent coverage
of the range of methods available for analysing qualitative data can be found in the texts by
Cassell and Symon (2004) and Symon and Cassell (2012).
One way of analysing this transcript would in effect involve turning qualitative data into
quantitative data. The researcher could attempt to assess how positively the interviewee felt
about the firm’s methods for assessing the work performance of employees, perhaps on a
numerical scale. While such a scoring procedure might be useful, it would of course be a huge
26 Work Psychology
waste of information if that was all that was done with these data. It is unethical to inconven-
ience participants by collecting data that will not be used. By going down an interview route,
the researcher is interested in understanding the individual’s experiences of a specific topic
and therefore requires a deeper level of exploration.
There are several different approaches to analysing textual data, including thematic analysis,
grounded theory, discourse analysis and interpretative phenomenological analysis. Each
differs in the extent analysis operates from a deductive (that is, deducing what types of response
are important on the basis of prior theory and research) or inductive (that is, starting with the
data and trying to develop theory on the basis of it) analysis approach. Arguably, the foundation
for most different qualitative analysis approaches is thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is often
used to identify informative, relatively consistent and accessible patterns in the data in which the
researcher sorts meaningful chunks of the text into themes reflecting the recurrent ideas which
can be detected in the material. This is an iterative process where the researcher engages with
the text, identifies initial patterns, collates thoughts into themes and reflects on the strength of
those themes. Thematic analysis can be used deductively or inductively.
Braun and Clarke (2006) propose a six-stage process for thematic analysis.
1 Familiarisation with the data. A researcher transcribes the interview data, reads it through
and re-reads it several times noting down initial ideas. As a result, including the actual
interview itself, the researcher has interacted with the text four or more times and hence
becomes immersed in the text. Familiarisation is central to understanding the perspective
of the interviewee.
2 Generate initial codes. Short labels (codes) are provided for sections of text within the
interview transcript that are perceived as important by the researcher (these codes are
usually modified several times throughout an analysis). Collate the codes with the accom-
panying text (quotes) that support them.
3 Search for themes. Examine the codes and quotes and consider if there are patterns of
meaning across the codes. These patterns are indicators of possible themes within your
data.
4 Review themes. Check if the themes generated tell the story of the experiences from your
interviewee. Themes do not necessarily have to be reflected in the transcripts of all your
interviewees; but should show an element of importance within the interviews (even if
this was just for one person).
5 Define themes. Provide a label for the theme which reflects the meaning inherent within
the quotes and codes under that theme. The researcher needs to compose a detailed
analysis of the theme and present the story each theme tells and how it fits in the wider
story of the data. From a deductive perspective your theme name will reflect or resonate
with a component from established theory. From an inductive perspective you generate
a theme from the data itself.
6 Report the findings. This will involve the description and discussion of each theme, pro-
viding enough relevant quotes to support the meaning of the theme and discussing them
in light of academic research.
Done well, qualitative analysis is not easy. It is easy to do poorly. Anyone choosing to
undertake qualitative research under the premise that it is simpler than statistics is either a
qualitative analysis genius or, more likely, is not fully cognisant of the nature of this form
of analysis. Even, what may be viewed as, a basic thematic analysis takes time and skill to
collect the data, transcribe the interview and code the interview. Then you repeat for the
other interviews you have conducted. Plus, you have the added complexity of continually
reflecting on your analysis thinking about the assumptions you held going into the coding,
how your own values, experiences of work, education and other parts of your life shaped
how you coded the data and whether the themes just reflected the questions asked. It is vital
the researcher reflects on how she/he may have influenced all stages of the qualitative data
collection and analysis.
Exercise 1.4 Thematic analysis
Using the short transcript provided in Table 1.6, run a thematic analysis using Braun and Clarke’s
process. Just use the first five steps and see what theme(s) you develop. Reflect on any assumptions
you held going into the coding. How might your own values, experiences of work, education and
The changing world of work

It is probably true to say that nobody has ever lived at a time when they felt that not very much
was happening or changing in their world. Economic, political, demographic, technological,
global and consumer factors all impact on the nature of how an organisation runs: its mission
and goals; how it decides to organise work, how it is structured, how it manages individuals and
how it judges success/effectiveness. Contextual factors can enhance or inhibit organisational
functioning (Johns, 2006). Of course, factors need not always be external and can arise just
as easily from internal pressures (e.g. restructuring, diversification, response to engagement
surveys) but these are often triggered by change occurring in the wider environment. There is
no doubt that work psychologists engaging with one specific topic area need to ensure they
have one eye on external and internal contextual factors. These help to explain the historical
context of the problem or issues being tackled, why an organisation is where it is and why it is
going in a specific direction. A work psychologist trying to implement an intervention without
considering these contextual factors is likely to be faced with resistance, a lack of readiness to
accept the intervention and limited evidence of the effectiveness of an intervention.
In Table 1.7 we note some of the world of work changes under the headings of diversity,
technology and culture, and suggest some consequences for what are, or should be, hot topics
Table 1.7 World of work changes and their implications for work psychology
World of work changes Implications for work psychology
Diversity
Ageing working population Learning, performance and engagement with work of older people
Increasing labour market participation and Further development of fair selection procedures; the work
equality for historically disadvantaged groups experiences of members of disadvantaged groups; impact of
diversity on workplaces and organisational performance
Technology
More people working remotely (e.g. at home) using Supervision and leadership of people not physically present; impact
information and communication technologies (ICT) of isolation on work performance and satisfaction; effective virtual
communication and teamwork
Computer and Internet-delivered forms of
assessment. Remote selection and assessment using the Internet; games-based
assessment; remote appraisal and online training
Culture
Increasing internationalisation of organisations Cross-cultural comparisons of workplaces; working abroad;

and markets interpersonal and intercultural influence
Selection and assessment in multi-national Appropriateness of selection procedures across cultures;
organisations translation and adaptation of assessments
28 Work Psychology
within work psychology. Throughout the text, you will notice chapter authors have included
these three components in various guises within their topic areas. This should allow you
to reflect on some of the implications of each trend within each of the specific topics. We
just highlight these factors here to advance the idea of the need to be aware of the potential
impact each of these factors has on work psychology research and practice. Chapter authors
offer more specific contexts and discussion in relation to their own topic areas. It is too sim-
plistic to imagine each of these factors operates independently of the others. For example,
introducing a new selection system into an organisation involving initial screening via online
games-based assessments not only throws up technological considerations (e.g. robustness
of the Internet delivery, screen design and layout, security of data) but also diversity con-
siderations (assessing for group differences in scores on the basis of demographics, access
for applicants with a disability) and cultural considerations (equivalence of the test across
different cultures, digital divide in access to the internet across countries).
Key learning point
The world of work is changing rapidly because of increased diversity, technological advances and
changes.
Summary
Work psychology is an applied approach to psychology and concerns both the interaction
between an individual and their work, and the relationships between people in the work
setting. This includes issues such as: psychological assessment; learning, training and devel-
opment; leadership, engagement and motivation; employee well-being; work design; and
organisational change and development. It is diverse, with differing positions on how data
should be collected, analysed and reported, although many work psychologists adopt a prag-
matic stance to their work. Work psychologists need to develop a varied skillset in order to
function effectively within their profession, as well as ensuring they engage in professional
development to maintain and update their skills. Three areas in which work psychologists are
particularly adept are ethical skills, critical analysis and research skills. It is also important to
for work psychologists to examine the context in which they are operating and not neglect
diversity, technological and cultural factors in their research or practice. As can be seen from
the topics addressed in this text, work psychology has a lot to offer organisations.
Closing case study

Assessing problems in recruitment and retention of nurses in
a hospital unit
Recall the case presented at the start of the chapter:
You have been called in by the Clinical Lead of a unit operating within a hospital to help examine
and assess why they struggle to recruit and retain nurses. The unit operates across three sites –
each which deal with the same condition, although offer different services. There is a high turnover
rate of nursing staff and while the unit regularly advertises for replacement posts these tend to
go unfilled. When filled, most new nursing staff leave within the first year. Additionally, trainee
nurses tend not to select this unit as part of their practical experience, further restricting the nurse
provision in the unit.
Now let us work through how you might approach this case using the knowledge you have gained
within this chapter.
Skills
Active listening – you will need to listen appropriately to the Clinical Lead, lead nurses and other
stakeholders at the start of the process to fully understand their needs. Further during data
collection, active listening is vital in the data collection process.
Oral expression – you will need to convey psychological research/theory to the stakeholders in
Problem solving – you will need to understand the problem fully and develop a set of actions on
how you are going to address the problem.
Evidence-based management – you will want to look at various sources of data (academic
literature, relevant stakeholders, organisational context, and practitioners) and plan actions
to obtain data from these sources.
Critical analysis – reflect critically on the information provided by the sources identified above.
Ethical practice – ensure throughout the whole project you conform to good ethical practice.
This is in your dealings with the Clinical Lead and in the data collection process. Think about
security of data, informed consent of research participants, ensuring confidentiality of infor-
mation (especially that provided by nurses), plan for a debrief and how findings will be dis-
seminated to all parties.
Research plan
-
ing the experiences of current nurses as a way of identifying why there is a problem in recruitment
and retention. Your plan is to run a series of interviews with nurses from the different sites, at
different levels, and analyse the findings via a thematic analysis methodology. At present you are
unsure of the approach to take and how to frame the interview. You therefore decide to complete
a review of research literature initially searching academic and nursing specific references for liter-
ature on problems in retention of nurses. Several specific journal articles as well as opinion pieces
are highlighted, and it is evident from these that work stress is the dominant explanatory mechanism
for understanding problems in recruiting and retaining nurses. So, what began as a recruitment
problem, is now moving more towards a well-being angle. You then focus the review within work
stress generally and come across the Job Demands-Resources Model (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007;
see Chapter 8) as a framework for positioning your data collection plan. As a result, you are focused
more within the constructivism position, albeit your interview and themes will be informed by the
JD-R model (this is taking a deductive approach). You can see here how a positivism and constructiv-
ism dichotomy is not always easy to visualise in practice. You report back to the Clinical Lead as well
as senior clinical staff your proposed plan of action, gain their approval and set a timeline for data
collection. In liaison with unit managers at the three sites you arrange for dates for data collection
to take place with nurses who have volunteered to be a part of the study. You compose an ethical
30 Work Psychology
protocol, design your interview schedule based on the JD-R model and send to unit managers for
their approval. You decide to trial the interview on a unit manager and as a result, make some minor
the unit, explain the research is confidential and how the interview will run (plus how data will be
used going forward), detail that the interview is recorded but once transcribed the recording will
be deleted. You run your 10 interviews in each unit and start the process of transcribing the inter-
views. You then adopt Braun and Clarke’s stage approach to thematic analysis and develop an initial
thematic map illustrating the job demand and job resource themes within the role. You provide an
initial short report to the Clinical Lead and present your findings to the management team. You then
develop a more detailed report with specific recommendations that is sent to the Clinical Lead and
advise that the initial summary report is shared with all staff in the units. You offer to support the
JD-R and turnover intention is undertaken.

The role of an experienced work psychologist!
1 Using an evidence-based management framework, discuss how you would approach

researching workplace bullying within an organisation. Think about the questions you
would want to ask the different sources of information.
2 Is work psychology any different to management consultancy? Think about this with
reference to the skillset of a work psychologist.
3 In pairs or groups take opposing philosophical stances (e.g. positivism or constructiv-
ism) and debate why your approach to research is the best one to adopt.
4 You have been asked to deliver a leadership training programme to a multinational
organisation’s top 100 future leaders. Think about the possible technological, diversity
and cultural factors which may come into play in designing, delivering and evaluating
this programme.
5 How may the world of work change in the future? What implications does this have for
the work psychologist?
Relevant websites
Professional psychology associations offer considerable information about the theory and
practice of psychology, including work psychology. Three good ones are the Society for In-
dustrial and Organizational Psychology at https://www.siop.org/; the European Association
of Work and Organizational Psychology (EAWOP) at http://www.eawop.org/ and the Divi-
sion of Occupational Psychology, British Psychological Society at https://www.bps.org.uk/
member-microsites/division-occupational-psychology. For those wishing to be an occupa-
tional psychologist in the UK the Standards for the Accreditation of Masters and Doctoral
Programmes in Occupational Psychology can be found at: https://www.bps.org.uk/sites/
bps.org.uk/files/Accreditation/Occupational%20Accreditation%20(2017).pdf. The Health
and Care Professions Council is also relevant (http://www.hcpc-uk.co.uk). Also of use is the
Association for Business Psychology (https://www.theabp.org.uk/home.aspx).
The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) have an excellent website
that provides access to reports and surveys on a range of important workplace issues. It is at
http://www.cipd.co.uk.
Suggested further reading

Full details for all references are given in the list at the end of this book.
1 Cathy Cassell and Gillian Symon’s books Essential Guide to Qualitative Methods in Organ-
izational Research (Sage, 2004) and Qualitative Organizational Research: Core methods and
current challenges (Sage, 2012) are superb, focused introductions to a wide range of quali-
tative methods and how they are used in organisational research.
2 Mark Easterby-Smith et al., Management and Business Research, 6th edition (Sage, 2018),
gives a clear and practical guide to key issues in formulating and doing research.
3 David Gray’s book on Doing Research in the Real World, 4th edition (Sage, 2018), offers a
comprehensive guide to researching within applied contexts.
4 Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics by Andy Field (Sage, 2017) is a very accessi-
ble text that shows how to understand and use the SPSS software package. It is peppered
with a good amount of humour to lighten the load. You can also access material from
the same author via https://www.discoveringstatistics.com/
5 For an accessible reference on reflection and reflexivity please follow this link: https://
uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/32441_01_Bolton_3e_Ch_01.pdf.

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CHAPTER 1

The discipline of work

1 describe the discipline of work psychology by being able to:

■ identify why diversity, technology and internationalisation are important cross-cutting

Opening case study

Basic psychology and work psychology

Subdiscipline Basic Application to work Reference

Key learning point

Areas of basic Areas of applied

Arrows represent flows of information and ideas

Figure 1.1 The relationship between areas of psychology

Key learning point

Key learning point

and other knowledgeable professionals.

Key learning point

Diversity, gender, fairness, culture

Learning, Training and

Figure 1.2 The five domains of work psychology

Knowledge domain Chapter(s) in this volume

Well-being at work Chapter 8 is focused specifically on well-being at work

The skills of a work psychologist

2 Competence: ‘Psychologists value the continuing development and maintenance of high

Key learning point

Psychologists need to be skilled in the analysis, synthesis and understanding of informa-

Exercise 1.2 Critical analysis

the gaps in understanding they identify and discuss.

employees are bullied at work.’

Understanding research in work psychology

Key learning point

1. The philosophical position taken by the work psychology researcher

Table 1.4 Examples of non-academic literature on work psychology topics

Governmental European Quality of Life Survey (Eurofound, 2016). Cross-country comparisons on

Professional bodies/trade unions International Test Commission (https://www.intestcom.org/) guidelines on

Practitioner Montefiori (2016). Games-based assessment: Face validity, fairness perception,

Online Live Internet statistics (http://www.internetlivestats.com/). Provides live data on

Key learning point

There is an important philosophical distinction in psychology between positivism and phenomeno-

psychology is still dominated by the positivistic approach, constructivist research is increas-

Exercise 1.3 Positivism vs constructivism

■ Applicant reactions to internet-based testing.

2. The methods used to collect data

Work psychologists use a variety of techniques in their research on human behaviour,

Psychophysiological and psychophysical measures

Key learning point

3. The design of the research

Figure 1.3 Hypothetical research methods used by a work psychologist

The survey design

Key learning point

The experimental design

Key learning point

Sometimes it is possible to conduct a field experiment instead. Quasi-experiments of

Key learning point

Key learning point

Action research design

Key learning point

Mixed methods approach

Key learning point

Table 1.5 Main statistical analyses seen within work psychology