MULTI-INPUT HIGH STEP-UP DC-DC CONVERTER WITH INDEPENDENT

CONTROL OF VOLTAGE AND POWER FOR HYBRID RENEWABLE ENERGY

SYSTEMS

ABSTRACT

A new non-isolated multi-input step-up converter is presented. By implementing a new

switching algorithm in the proposed topology, the converter output voltage, as well as the
power absorbed from each source, can be controlled independently, resulting in a simple
controller, which is a distinctive virtue for this converter in comparison to similar multi-input
converters. Current sharing between various sources is achieved independently. No need to
control different parameters of switches’ gate-source voltage such as the delay between
switches and thus independent maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm can be
used for each input source. Providing soft-switching condition and transferring power from
all inputs to the load independently are other features of this converter.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Hybrid energy systems (HESs) supplied by multiple renewable (e.g. photovoltaic (PV) and
wind generation) and non-conventional (e.g. fuel cell (FC)) energy sources have attracted
many interests in recent decades for their effective environmental and economical aspects.
Conventionally, multiple sources in HES are individually interfaced with the load by single-
or multi-stage power electronic converters due to their different output characteristics.
Simpler circuitries with lower cost and more efficiency can how-ever be achieved using
multi-input DC–DC converters (MICs).Some isolated and non-isolated topologies have been
proposed for MICs in the literature. An isolated MIC with buck-boost topology such a
topology is costly due to using a multi-winding magnetic coupling with the required large
energy storage inductance. In a flexible isolated MIC was proposed that can operate as buck,
boost or buck-boost converter. Inputs are connected in parallel through individual
bidirectional switches as developed. Only one of inputs can supply the output at any time and
simultaneous energy transfer from multiple inputs was not considered.

Recent developments in renewable energy based power systems, hybrid vehicles, aerospace
systems, renewable energy based smart grids and hand held portable devices have brought
challenges to design new DC–DC power conversion systems. This new systems will be
composed of several input energy sources, integrated through a multi-input power electronics
converters that could accommodate a variety of input sources and combine their advantages
to deliver a controlled output for diversified applications. Renewable energy sources (RES)
such as solar, wind, biomass etc are having a deep positive impact in the manner in which
electrical energy is being consumed. With particular reference to India, the country’s
increased focus on developing alternative sources of energy is well-understood by the total
energy consumption and the target set. Advances in renewable energy-based systems are
posing interesting challenges to power electronic converters which are located between the
source and load. These converters play a major role in voltage transmission ratio and
efficiency. Furthermore, with advancements in renewable energy technologies, hybrid energy
sources are gaining importance and need to be integrated in a coordinated manner. Multi-
input converters play a very important role in integrating various renewable energy sources
with the common bus.
The energy consumption of the world is increasing dramatically with the rapid increase of
population. Renewable energy resources are holding the predominant place for satisfying the
future energy demand .Among the available renewable sources, wind and solar are
predominant ones, since they have more advantages on production, maintenance, etc. when
compared with others. However, the renewable energy generation has a drawback that the
change of the output characteristic becomes intense because the output greatly depends on
climatic conditions, including solar irradiance, wind speed, temperature, and so forth. Many
researches are still going on this field to improve the efficiency of this type of systems having
wind and solar as resources. Batteries are usually taken as storage mechanism for smoothing
output power, improving start-up transitions and dynamic characteristics, and enhancing the
peak power capacity. Combining the photovoltaic generation with wind power generation,
the instability of an output characteristic each other was compensated.

The development of Renewable Energy (RE) sources such as Photovoltaic (PV), Wind
Turbine (WT) and Hydrogen Fuel Cell (HFC) has continuously increased recently. The fossil
resources which make up crude oil and gas are almost exhausted. The environmental
concerns on the other hand such as global warming are becoming increasingly serious and
require significant attention. Therefore, RE sources are the answer to these since they are
available, sustainable and have no or small impact on the environment. Interestingly, the cost
of the PV, WT and HFC are expected to decrease in future with the development of RE
technologies.

To achieve high voltage gain values, generally gain extension techniques are adopted.
Voltage multiplier cells (VMC), voltage lift (VL), diode capacitor multiplier (DCM),
switched capacitors (SC), switched inductors (SI) and combinations of these are some of
them. The converters presented employ switched inductor and switched capacitor cells to
achieve high voltage gain. However, as the voltage gain cells are introduced closer to the
input and before the switches, they are subjected to high voltage stress. The voltage gain
value of the converter presented is limited due to the employment of VMCs as the component
count and losses associated with the additional components increase when higher gain values
of more than 10 are required. In the converters described in high voltage gain value is
obtained by adjusting the turn's ratio of the CIs. Nevertheless, the input ripple content is on
the higher side. By judiciously employing CIs, ripple free input current is achieved in the
converter described. In DCM is used as gain extension mechanism while the converters
described employ voltage-lift technique
Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are
naturally replenished on a human timescale such
as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy replaces
conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space
heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services

Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other
energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment
of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate
change mitigation, and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is
strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the
national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy
contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are
projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. While many
renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and
remote areas and developing, where energy is often crucial in human development. United
Nations' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moonhas said that renewable energy has the ability to lift
the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity.

OVERVIEW

Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such

as sunlight, wind, tides, plant growth, and geothermal heat, as the International Energy
Agency explains:
 Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly.
In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the
earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind,
ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from
renewable resources.

Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist
over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a
limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency,
and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy
security and economic benefits.

Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity

generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services

POWER GENERATION

Renewable energy provides 21.7% of electricity generation worldwide as of

2013.Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, and wind power alone
already provides a significant share of electricity in some areas: for example, 14% in the U.S.
state of Iowa, 40% in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 49% in
Denmark. Some countries get most of their power from renewable, including Iceland (100%),
Norway (98%), Brazil (86%), Austria (62%), New Zealand (65%), and Sweden (54%)

HEATING

Solar hot water makes an important contribution to renewable heat in many countries,
most notably in China, which now has 70% of the global total (180 GWth). Most of these
systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings and meet a portion of the hot water
needs of an estimated 50–60 million households in China. Worldwide, total installed solar
water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million
households. The use of biomass for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national
use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct geothermal for heating is also growing
rapidly
TRANSPORT FUELS

Renewable biofuels have contributed to a significant decline in oil consumption in the

United States since 2006. The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced worldwide in 2009
displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of gasoline, equal to about 5% of
world gasoline production

RENEWABLE RESOURCES

A renewable resource is an organic natural resources that can replenish in due

time compared to the usage, either through biological reproduction or other naturally
recurring processes. Renewable resources are a part of Earth's natural environment and the
largest components of its ecosphere. A positive life cycle assessment is a key indicator of a
resource's sustainability.

Definitions of renewable resources may also include agriculture production, as

in sustainable agriculture and to an extent water resources. In 1962 Paul Alfred Weiss defined
Renewable Resources as: "The total range of living organisms providing man with food,
fibres, drugs, etc...". Another type of renewable resources is renewable energy resources.
Common sources of renewable energy include solar, geothermal and wind power, which are
all categorized as renewable resources.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

[1] A New Family of Multi-Input Converters Based on Three Switches Leg, Mahdi
Azizi, Mustafa Mohamadian,Reza Beiranvand-2016

Multi-terminal converters eliminate using several single-input-single-output converters and

simplify their topologies and reduce their cost. In this paper, a new family of multi-input
converters based on three switches leg is introduced. Inputs of the proposed converters are
similar and they are topologically interchangeable and have boost or buck operation modes.
The proposed converter has one output which operates as an inverter. Here, all operating
modes of the proposed converters and their effects on each other are investigated, in details.
Also, an appropriate switching technique for the converters is given. A detailed comparison
between conventional and proposed two-input converters is also presented. A two-input, one-
output prototype converter has been implemented to validate the given analyses and to verify
the proposed converter’s performance. The experimental results are in good agreement with
the theoretical and simulated analyses. Multi-terminal converters eliminate using several
single-input-single-output converters and simplify their topologies and reduce their cost. In
this paper, a new family of multi-input converters based on three switches leg is introduced.
Inputs of the proposed converters are similar and they are topologically interchangeable and
have boost or buck operation modes. Here, all operating modes of the proposed converters
and their effects on each other are investigated, in details. Also, an appropriate switching
technique for the converters is given.

TECHNIQUE

 Two-input, one-output prototype converter

ADVANTAGES

 Improve converter’s performance

 Improve system reliability

DISADVANTAGES

 Increase manufacturing cost

 Increase number of devices
[2] Asymmetrical Half-Bridge Double-Input DC/DC Converters Adopting Pulsating
Voltage Source Cells for Low Power Applications, Fuxin Liu,Zhicheng Wang, Yunyu
Mao, and Xinbo Ruan-2014

In the renewable hybrid power system, multiple-input converters (MICs) serve as the
interface of several sources with a load, and provide the energy to the load simultaneously or
individually, which can optimize the utilization of sources, simplify the system configuration,
and reduce the overall cost. In the applications with isolated requirement, available MICs
usually have complex configuration and numerous transformer windings. In this paper, a
family of asymmetrical half-bridge double-input converters (DICs) adopting pulsating
voltage source cells (PVSCs) for low power applications is proposed. Compared with
available isolated DICs, the proposed converters have advantages of simple architecture, soft-
switching realization, and high conversion efficiency. In this paper, the derivation and
feasible control strategy for the proposed converters are illustrated. Specifically, the operation
principle of DIC composed of two buck PVSCs is analyzed. Finally, theoretical analysis is
validated by the experimental results from a 240 Wprototype.DIC is one special case of MICs
that only two independent dc input sources are included. The objective of this paper is to
propose a family of asymmetrical half-bridge DICs adopting three kinds of basic non-isolated
PVSCs, as well as the control strategy at different operation modes. The proposed converters
are classified into two categories: buck-derived converter and buck– boost-derived converter,
which have fewer power components, simple configuration, and soft-switching realization
compared with available isolated DICs.

TECHNIQUE

 Asymmetrical half-bridge double-input converters (DICs)

ADVANTAGES

 Improve feasible control strategy

 Simple architecture

DISADVANTAGES

 Increase complexity process

 It suffer hard-switching
[3] A New Multi-Input Three-Level DC/DC Converter, Serkan Dusmez, Xiong Li, and
Bilal Akin -2015

Power electronics solutions based on multiple converter configurations offer cost-effective

solutions by integrating a number of components at input or output power stages. This paper
proposes a new multi-input isolated three-level converter for renewable and sustainable
energy systems adopting high dc link voltage. Multiple dc sources are integrated to the three-
level dc/dc converter before the isolation stage, resulting in reduced part-count, determining
dc link voltage level and allowing flexibility in transformer design. The proposed architecture
eliminates two boost switches which are present in the two-stage counterpart. The input
inductors are operated in discontinuous conduction mode; thus, power can be shared between
input sources through proper selection of input inductors. A low voltage prototype has been
designed to serve as a proof of concept. Following the concept proposed in pulsating current-
source (PCC) cells are integrated to the same bridge before the isolation stage, while the
adopted bridge offers utilizing low voltage rated upper and lower switches due to the three-
level structure. The control of PCCs is integrated to the operation of the three-level bridge
converter. Thus, the control complexity of the proposed converter is similar to that of a three-
level dc/dc converter. On the other hand, the proposed converter provides reduced part-count
and lower voltage stress across the upper and lower switches. The input inductors are
operated in discontinuous conducting mode (DCM), which allows autonomous power sharing
between input sources with proper selection of input inductors

TECHNIQUE

 Multi-input isolated three-level converter

ADVANTAGES

 Cost-effective solutions
 Improve flexibility in transformer design

DISADVANTAGES

 It requires multiple input sources

 Increase voltage stress
[4] Nonlinear Power Sharing Controller for Double-Input H-Bridge Based Converters,
Reza Ahmadi, Hassan Zargarzadeh, and Mehdi Ferdowsi-2012

A nonlinear controller with power sharing control capability for a double input buck-buck
boost converters. First it reviews the principles of operation of the buck-buck boost
converters and finds the nonlinear model of this converter. Next, it proposes a Lyapunov
based nonlinear controller which is adaptive against input voltage and load disturbances.
Finally, it provides sufficient experimental results to verify the operation of the designed
controller. On the other hand, the power sharing capability of multi-port converters, which is
the ability of the multi-port converters to vary the ratio of the power drawn from each input
source, makes the operating point of these converters variable, thus, making it very difficult
to control a multi-port converter with a conventional linear controller. The aim of this work is
to design a nonlinear controller, independent of the operating point of the converter, for a
double-input buck-buck boost converter. In addition to normal functions of conventional
controllers such as line and load regulation and disturbance rejection, this controller has the
capability of handling the power sharing mechanism, which means shifting the operating
point of the converter in order to vary the amount of power drawn from each input source
while keeping the converter stable. The designed controller is simple enough that can be
implemented using a typical digital signal processor.

TECHNIQUE

 Lyapunov based nonlinear controller

ADVANTAGES

 High efficiency
 High performance

DISADVANTAGES

 Difficult to control a multi-port converter

 Large disturbances occur
[5] High Gain DC-DC Converter Based on the Cockcroft-Walton Multiplier, Lukas
M¨uller and Jonathan W. Kimball-2015

Recent advancements in renewable energy have created a need for both high step-up and high
efficiency dc-dc converters. These needs have typically been addressed with converters using
high frequency transformers to achieve the desired gain. The transformer design, however, is
challenging. This paper presents a high step-up current fed converter based on the classical
Cockcroft-Walton (CW) multiplier. The capacitor ladder allows for high voltage gains
without a transformer. The cascaded structure limits the voltage stresses in the converter
stages, even for high gains. Being current-fed, the converter (unlike traditional CW
multipliers) allows the output voltage to be efficiently controlled. In addition, the converter
supports multiple input operations without modifying the topology. This makes the converter
especially suitable for photovoltaic applications where high gain, high efficiency, small
converter size and maximum power point tracking are required. Design equations, a dynamic
model, and possible control algorithms are presented. The converter operation was verified
using digital simulation and a 450 W prototype converter. The topology presented utilizes a
simple boost converter structure at the input, decreasing implementation complexity.
However, a different switched capacitor cell is used that greatly reduces the achievable
voltage gain. This reduction, in turn, greatly increases the number of components required to
realize the desired voltage gain. The topology of achieves a gain similar to the proposed
converter and also supports two input ports, but the inputs and output are all referenced to
different returns.

TECHNIQUE

 Cockcroft-Walton (CW) multiplier

ADVANTAGES

 High gain and high efficiency

 Small converter size

DISADVANTAGES

 High component stresses

 High voltage ratings are required
[6] High-Efficiency DC–DC Converter With Two Input Power Sources, Rong-Jong
Wai,Chung-You Lin, and Bo-Han Chen-2012

This study is to develop a high-efficiency converter with two input power sources for a
distributed power generation mechanism. The proposed converter can boost the varied
voltages of different power sources in the sense of hybrid power supply to a stable output dc
voltage for the load demand. An auxiliary circuit in the proposed converter is employed for
achieving turn-ON zero-voltage switching (ZVS) of all switches. According to various
situations, the operational states of the proposed converter can be divided into two states
including a single power supply and a dual power supply. In the dual power-supply state, the
input circuits connected in series together with the designed pulse width modulation can
greatly reduce the conduction loss of the switches. In addition, the effectiveness of the
designed circuit topology and the ZVS properties are verified by experimental results, and the
goal of high-efficiency conversion can be obtained. An auxiliary circuit with a small inductor
operated in the discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) is utilized for achieving turn-ON ZVS
of all the switches, and the huge reverse-recovery current of the output diode in the traditional
boost converter can be removed via the utilization of an auxiliary inductor series connected
with a diode. Consequently, the proposed dual-input converter can efficiently convert two
power sources with different voltages to a stable dc-bus voltage. According to the power
dispatch, this converter could be operated at two states including a single power-supply state
and a dual power-supply state

TECHNIQUE

 Distributed power generation mechanism

ADVANTAGES

 Reduce the conduction loss

 Improve system performance

DISADVANTAGES

 Complex topology
 Slow transient responses
[7] A DC-DC Converter with High Voltage Gain and Two Input Boost Stages,
V.A.K.Prabhala, Poria Fajri, V.S.P.Gouribhatla, P.Baddipadiga, Mehdi Ferdowsi -2015

A family of non-isolated high-voltage-gain dc-dc power electronic converters is proposed.

The suggested topologies can be used as multiport converters and draw continuous current
from two input sources. They can also draw continuous current from a single source in an
interleaved manner. This versatility makes them appealing in renewable applications such as
solar farms. The proposed converters can easily achieve a gain of 20 while benefiting from a
continuous input current. Such a converter can individually link a PV panel to a 400-Vdc bus.
The design and component selection procedures are presented. Several diode-capacitor
stages are cascaded together to boost up the voltage which limits the voltage stresses on the
switches, diodes and capacitors. Due to the advantages listed above, these converters are
good solutions to integrate solar panels into a dc micro grid. In conventional approaches as
the output voltage of PV panel is low, several panels are connected in series when connecting
the PV array to the 400-Vdc bus through conventional step-up converters. This results in
reduced system reliability which can be addressed by connecting high voltage gain converter
to each individual PV panel. Moreover, since it is a multi-port converter with a high voltage
gain, independent sources can be connected and power sharing, MPPT algorithms etc. can be
implemented independently at each input port.

TECHNIQUE

 Non-isolated high-voltage-gain dc-dc power electronic converters

ADVANTAGES

 Easily achieve higher gain

 Improve flexibility

DISADVANTAGES

 High current stress in the boost switch

 It degrade the efficiency
[8] Non-isolated multi-input–single-output DC/DC converter for photovoltaic power
generation systems, Mohammad Reza Banaei, Hossein Ardi, Rana Alizadeh, Amir
Farakhor-2014

A new multi-input non-isolated DC/DC converter with high-voltage transfer gain is proposed
in this study. The presented converter consists of the conventional buck–boost and boost
converters. All the stages except the last stage are buck–boost converters. The last stage is the
conventional boost converter. The proposed multi-input high-voltage gain converter benefits
from various advantages such as reduced semiconductor current stress, no limitation for
switching duty cycle and wide control range of different input powers. The presented
converter can even operate when one or some power input fail to provide energy to the load.
The steady-state operation and dynamic modelling of the suggested converter are analysed
thoroughly. Experimental results are also provided to verify the feasibility of the presented
converter. For the clean energy power generation with a low-output terminal voltage such as
PV energy generation a multi-input type DC/DC converter is essential. In the suggested
converter the delivered power from each input can be independently controlled. The proposed
multi-input DC/DC converter offers reduced semiconductor current stress, higher voltage
gain compared with recently presented multi-input DC/DC converters such as reduced
limitations for switching duty cycles for more flexible control, wide control range of different
input powers and hence a robust operation.

TECHNIQUE

 Multi-input non-isolated DC/DC converter

ADVANTAGES

 High-voltage gain
 Improve feasibility

DISADVANTAGES

 Increase transmission costs

 Higher losses
[9] Step-Up DC–DC Converters: A Comprehensive Review of Voltage Boosting
Techniques, Topologies, and Applications, Mojtaba Forouzesh, Yam P. Siwakoti,
Saman A. Gorji, , Frede Blaabjerg -2017

DC–DC converters with voltage boost capability are widely used in a large number of power
conversion applications, from fraction-of-volt to tens of thousands of volts at power levels
from mill watts (mW) to megawatts (MW). The literature has reported on various voltage
boosting techniques in which fundamental energy storing elements (inductors and capacitors)
and/or transformers in conjunction with switch (es) and diode(s) are utilized in the circuit.
These techniques include switched capacitor (charge pump), voltage multiplier, switched
inductor/voltage lift, magnetic coupling and multi-stage/-level, and each has its own merits
and demerits depending on application, in terms of cost, complexity, power density,
reliability, and efficiency. To meet the growing demand for such applications, new power
converter topologies that use the above voltage boosting techniques, as well as some active
and passive components, are continuously being proposed. The permutations and
combinations of the various voltage boosting techniques with additional components in a
circuit allow for numerous new topologies and configurations, which are often confusing and
difficult to follow. Therefore, to present a clear picture on the general law and framework of
the development of next generation step-up dc–dc converters, this paper aims to
comprehensively review and classify various step-up dc–dc converters based on their
characteristics and voltage boosting techniques.

TECHNIQUE

 Step-up dc–dc converters

ADVANTAGES

 Low power density

 Lower switching losses

DISADVANTAGES

 Low stability characteristics

 Difficult high bandwidth control design
[10] A Novel High Step-up DC-DC converter with Continuous Input Current
Integrating Coupled Inductor for Renewable Energy Applications, Hossein Ardi, Ali
Ajami and Mehran Sabahi -2017

A non-isolated DC-DC converter with high voltage gain is presented. Three diodes, three
capacitors, an inductor and a coupled inductor are employed in the presented converter. Since
the inductor is connected to the input, the low input current ripple is achieved which is
important for tracking maximum power point of Photovoltaic (PV) panels. The voltage stress
across switch S is clamped by diode D1 and capacitor C1. Therefore, a main switch with low
on-resistance RDS (on) can be employed to reduce the conduction loss. Besides, the main
switch is turned on under zero current. This makes the switching loss to be reduced. The
steady state analysis of the proposed converter is discussed in this paper. Finally, the
proposed converter prototype circuit is implemented to justify the validity of the analysis.
These converters have the main drawback of high input current ripple. This makes problems
in tracking maximum power point of PV panels. Because of low dynamic response of F.C.s,
these converters are not applicable for these systems. In order to solve this problem, coupled
inductor based interleaved converters have been proposed. Utilizing many components are
the main disadvantages of these converters. In a SEPIC based step-up converter has been
proposed. Owing to the inductor of SEPIC converter which is connected to input, the input
current rippled has been reduced. However, the voltage gain of this converter is still low
which can be enhanced.

TECHNIQUE

 Non-isolated DC-DC converter

ADVANTAGES

 High voltage gain process

 High efficiency and small size

DISADVANTAGES

 High power dissipation

 High input current ripple
 CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

EXISTING SYSTEM

Hybrid energy grid-connected system as well as the key role of multi-input high step-up
converters in these systems is presented. One of the main difficulties for implementing multi-
input converters is current-sharing and regulating output voltage or total absorbed power at
the same time. In multi-input converters, the variation of each input source can affect the
control of other sources; not only the duty cycle of switches but also the delay between each
switch should be controlled to be able to perform maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
and current-sharing between input sources

High step-up multi-input converter

High step-up multi-input converter is proposed by using voltage multiplier (VM) stages.
However, in this circuit, achieving high voltage gain requires a high number of components
and high cost to increase voltage multiplier stages. Another drawback is that in the topologies
of the number of input sources cannot be extended to more than two or at the most three
sources unlike converter

Soft-switching double-input DC-DC converters

Soft-switching double-input DC-DC converters are proposed by using two boost converters
placed in series to transmit power to the load independently and an active clamp structure is
used as an auxiliary circuit to provide turn-on zero-voltage switching (ZVS) condition. In
using an additional diode in the auxiliary circuit, current stress on the switches is reduced.
However, the mentioned converters cannot provide high step-up voltage conversion.

DISADVANTAGES

 Increase the converter losses

 Complicated control circuit
 Large Ripples
 Increase Filter size components
PROPOSED SYSTEM

High step-up techniques and boost stages and utilization of improved switching patterns, a
new non-isolated multi-input high step-up converter for hybrid renewable energy systems is
proposed. The presented topology provides autonomous control of output voltage as well as
input power, which is the main advantage over existing multi-input converters. Indeed, the
output voltage of the proposed converter is controlled solely by the switch of the master input
and the total input power can be controlled by the switches of slave inputs. This feature is
valuable for standalone applications in which the output voltage regulation is needed. Also, to
provide current sharing between each source, there is no need to control different parameters
of the switches’ gate-source voltage like delay between switches and the MPPT algorithm for
each source can be implemented independent of other inputs for both grid-connected and
stand-alone applications similar to single-input single output DC-DC converters.

ADVANTAGES

 High voltage gain

 Reduce cutting manufacturing costs
 Reduce Current Stress

REQUIREMENTS

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

 PV panel
 Battery
 PIC Microcontroller Unit
 DC-DC Converter
 Super Capacitor
 DC-AC inverter

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

 Embedded C
 Keil C Software
PROPOSED BLOCK DIAGRAM

PIC
PV Input Battery Microcontroller
Unit

Enhanced PWM DC-DC

Converter

Super Capacitor

Load DC-AC Inverter

Fig Block diagram

 CHAPTER 4

PROPOSED PROCESS EXPLANATION

Proposed high step-up multi-input converter

Fig Topology of the proposed multi-input converter

In the proposed converter, the input source which has lowest voltage is master input and duty
cycle of the switch connected to this input can solely regulate the output voltage. Other input
sources of this converter are slave inputs used for controlling total input power. In this paper,
𝑉𝑖𝑛1 and 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 are assumed, respectively, master and slave inputs. It should be mentioned
that the duty cycle of switch S1, related to master input, will be always greater than the duty
cycle of other switches under steady-state conditions.

In order to simplify operating modes analysis, the dual-input version of the converter is
considered. This converter is composed of inductors L1 and L2, power switches S1 and S2,
coupled-inductors L3 and L4 with, respectively, n1 and n2 winding turns, capacitors C1, C2,
C3, and Co, and diodes D1, D2 and Do. In order to simplify the converter analysis,
semiconductor devices are assumed ideal, the voltage of all capacitors are assumed constant
and the magnetizing inductance Lm is supposed to be large enough with low current ripple so
that ILm is assumed constant. It is noted that in case of using more than two input sources,
the analysis will not change, and the operation of all switches connected to the slave inputs
will be like the S2 switch.
Mode 1 [before t0)

Fig Mode [before t0]

In this mode, both switches S1 and S2 are off. Therefore, the energy of input sources is
transferred to the load through diode Do, and capacitor C3 is transferring energy to the
output. To simplify converter analysis, it is assumed that the inductor current IL1 is greater
than the inductor current IL2, which is not required for circuit operation, and thus, the body
diode of switch S2 conducts. if 𝐼𝐿2>𝐼𝐿1, the body diode of another switch conducts. In this
mode, diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and do not conduct. Using Kirchhoff’s current
law (KCL), the equation of leakage inductance current Ilk is determined, by the following
equation:

where ILm is the current conducts through the magnetizing inductance of the coupled
inductors
Mode 2 [t0, t1)

Fig Mode [t0-t1]

At t0, the switches S1 and S2 are turned on simultaneously and diodes D1 and D2 are reverse
biased, so that switches current IS1 and IS2 increase whereas leakage current Ilk and the
current through output diode IDo decrease to zero at the end of this mode. Additionally, the
inductors L1 and L2 are charged linearly by the input voltages V1 and V2, respectively. The
duration of this mode is given by:

Mode 3 [t1, t2)

Fig Mode [t1-t2]

In this mode, the switches S1 and S2 continue conducting the current, and Ilk becomes
negative. Do is also reverse biased while D2 is forward biased and the capacitor C2 is
discharged through the capacitor C3. Moreover, the output capacitor Co supplies the
demanded load power. At the end of this mode, ILk reaches I1. Therefore, the duration of this
mode can be calculated as:

Mode 4 [t2, t3)

At t2, S2 is turned off while S1 is on. Hence, D1 and D2 are forward biased, Do is reverse
biased, and the current flows through D1 charges the capacitor C2. In this condition, Ilk
steeply decreases, and at the end of this mode, Ilk and ID2 reach zero. Duration of mode 4
can be obtained as:
At the beginning of this mode, using KCL law, the initial current of C2 is determined by:

Fig Mode [t2-t3]

Mode 5 [t3, t4)

Fig Mode [t3-t4]

At t3, Do is forward biased and transfers the energy of the input source V2 into the load.
Also, Ilk starts to increase, which leads to decrease of ID1 to reach zero at the end of this
mode. In this condition, diode D2 is reverse biased. By considering the amplitude of leakage
inductance current, Ilk equals I2 at t4, the duration of mode 5 can be calculated as follows:

Where I2 is calculated as follows

Mode 6 [t4, t5)

Fig Mode [t4-t5]

At t4, ID1 reaches zero, so that the diode D1 turns off. The output diode Do is conducting,
and the energy of source V2 is transferred to the output while the diode D2 is reversed biased
like the previous mode.
Mode 7 [t5, t6)

Fig Mode [t5-t6]

At t5, switch S1 turns off, and the body diode of switch S2 starts conducting current because
the value of IL1 is greater than that of IL2. In this condition, D1 is forward biased to conduct
the current difference between Llk and L1. Also, Do is conducting current while D2 is
reversed biased. By considering the value of Ilk equals to I3 at t6, the duration of mode 7 is
given by

Where the value of I3 is given by:

Converter Analysis and Design Considerations
The converter’s voltage gain ratio and its capability to independently control the output
voltage and input power are analyzed. In addition, design of the converter components,
including capacitors and inductors as well as voltage and current stress of semiconductors are
presented.
Voltage Gain Ratio of the Proposed Converter
According to the inductor L1 volt–second balance, the voltage of the capacitor C2 is achieved
by (10). It is noted that, by considering duty cycle of switch S1 (d1) greater than duty cycle of
switch S2 (d2) (d1>d2), VC2 is only dependent on the value of Vin1 according to

Since the voltage of capacitor C1 is equal to the average voltage of the switch S2 drain node,
the value of Vc1 is calculated by

According to the volt–second balance principle for the leakage inductance Llk and by
defining ΔV can be obtained

Substituting equation VC3 is given as follows

By considering the output voltage relation is achieved by

Components Design
In this table, I3 is calculated from (9) and I1 is equal to 2𝐼𝑜𝑑2⁄ which is achieved based on the
capacitors C2 ampere-second balance principal by neglecting interval time (t1-0). Also, the
value of 𝐼𝐿2 which is the current of slave input can be calculated from the power and voltage
of the related PV module at maximum power point (MPP), because the power of each slave
input is independent of other inputs. 𝐼𝐿1, which is the current of master input is determined
by (𝑃𝑖𝑛1𝑉𝑖𝑛1), in which 𝑃𝑖𝑛1 is equal to the difference between nominal output power and
the power of other slave inputs. By considering a desired peak-to-peak ripple current,
inductors L1 and L2 are designed like a traditional boost converter as follows:

The design procedure for the coupled inductors used in this converter is like the transformer
of the traditional flyback converter. During mode 3 that all switches are on, Lm should
discharge C1 to provide current second balance of this capacitor. When at least one of the
switches is off, the C1 capacitor is charged, and power is transferred to the output. The
average charging current of this capacitor is 𝑛1𝑛2𝐼𝑜. Thus, an average of Lm current (ILm-
avg) is equal to this value and considering its ripple equal to [(VC1 . d2-max) / (fsw . Lm)],
its peak current is [(𝑛1/𝑛2*𝐼𝑜+VC1. d2-max)/(fsw . Lm)] in which fsw is the switching
frequency. Considering the current ripple of Lm equal to 0.2(ILm-avg), Lm operates under
CCM condition. Therefore, by calculating the average and pick current of Lm, this coupled
inductor can be designed like the transformer of a fly back converter as discussed
Additionally, the value of capacitors C1, C2, C3, and Co are designed based on their peak-to-
peak ripple voltage; thus, they can be calculated as follows:
Independent Control of Output Voltage and Input Power
In the proposed converter, the output voltage and input power are controlled independently.
This advantage is proved as follows: In equation as the leakage inductance (Llk) has a very
low value, it can be neglected. Therefore, the output voltage relation of the converter is given
by

According to the output voltage is controlled merely by d1, which has a higher value than the
duty cycle of other switches. In addition, because the duty cycle of the switch connected to
the lowest input voltage, i.e. master input, will be always higher than that of other inputs, it
can solely regulate output voltage. This can be proved by the volt-second relation of input
inductors as follows.

According to mode 5 and mode 7, when one of the switches turns off, the clamp circuit
conducts and (Vin-Vc2) is placed across all input inductors during the OFF duration time of
the switches. As input voltages have a very lower value in comparison to VC2, they can be
neglected. Writing volt-second balance for L1 and L2 inductors which are presented in
equations respectively and omitting Vc2 from these equations, relation of Vin1 and Vin2 is
achieved as
According to this figure, it can be concluded that the duty cycle of the switch, which is
connected to the lowest input voltage (master input) is always higher than others and thus
based on equation it can solely control the output voltage, It is noted that in the range of d1 is
selected to be higher than 0.5 because according to d1, which regulates the output voltage,
must be high to have a high step-up conversion ratio. Thanks to this feature, when d1, which
relates to master input, regulates the output voltage, d2 is used to control the power absorbed
from V2 (slave input). Thus, the difference in total output power and the power provided by
V2 (slave input) is supplied by V1 (master input). Accordingly, the output voltage regulation
and power distribution between inputs sources are controlled independently resulting in a
simple controller.

Control Diagram of the Proposed Converter

Fig Proposed Control Circuit

One of the main difficulties for implementing multi-input converters is current-sharing and
regulating output voltage or total absorbed power at the same time. In multi-input converters,
the variation of each input source can affect the control of other sources; not only the duty
cycle of switches but also the delay between switches should be controlled to be able to
perform MPPT and current-sharing between input sources. Therefore, various variables have
an impact on the current-sharing and MPPT algorithm of multi-input converters, which has
complicated their control circuit. While, for the proposed converter, the MPPT algorithm for
each input source and regulating output voltage are independent of each other, as proved. In
order to implement the control circuit of the proposed converter, the type of load and input
sources must be declared
 CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE EXPLANATION

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

A photovoltaic system makes use of one or more solar panel electricity. It consists of various
components which include the photovoltaic modules, mechanical and electrical connections
and mountings and means of regulating and/or modifying the electrical output.

Photovoltaic arrangements

Photovoltaic cell

Fig 6 Basic structure of PV cell

The basic ingredients of PV cells are semiconductor materials, such as silicon. For solar cells,
a thin semiconductor wafer creates an electric field, on one side positive and negative on the
other. When light energy hits the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the
semiconductor material. When electrical conductors are connected to the positive and
negative sides an electrical circuit is formed and electrons are captured in the form of an
electric current that is, electricity. This electricity is used to power a load. A PV cell can
either be circular or square in construction.
Photovoltaic module

Because of the low voltage generation in a PV cell (around 0.5V), several PV cells are
connected in series (for high voltage) and in parallel (for high current) to form a PV module
for desired output. In case of partial or total shading, and at night there may be requirement of
separate diodes to avoid reverse currents The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells
may have adequate reverse current characteristics and these are not necessary. There is
wastage of power because of reverse currents which directs to overheating of shaded cells. At
higher temperatures solar cells provide less efficiency and installers aim to offer good
ventilation behind solar panel. Usually there are of 36 or 72 cells in general PV modules. The
modules consist of transparent front side, encapsulated PV cell and back side. The front side
is usually made up of low-iron and tempered glass material. The efficiency of a PV module is
less than a PV cell. This is because of some radiation is reflected by the glass cover and
frame shadowing etc.

Photovoltaic array

Fig 7 Photovoltaic system

A photovoltaic array (PV system) is an interconnection of modules which in turn is made up

of many PV cells in series or parallel. The power produced by single module is not enough to
meet the requirements of commercial applications, so modules are connected to form array to
supply the load. In an array the connection of the modules is same as that of cells in a
module. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired
voltages; the individual modules are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce
more current. In urban uses, generally the arrays are mounted on a rooftop. PV array output
can directly feed to a DC motor in agricultural applications.
Working of PV cell

The basic principle behind the operation of a PV cell is photoelectric effect. In this effect
electron gets ejected from the conduction band as a result of the absorption of sunlight of a
certain wavelength by the matter (metallic or non-metallic solids, liquids or gases). So, in a
photovoltaic cell, when sunlight hits its surface, some portion of the solar energy is absorbed
in the semiconductor material.

Fig 8 Working of PV cell

The electron from valence band jumps to the conduction band when absorbed energy is
greater than the band gap energy of the semiconductor. By these hole-electrons pairs are
created in the illuminated region of the semiconductor. The electrons created in the
conduction band are now free to move. These free electrons are enforced to move in a
particular direction by the action of electric field present in the PV cells. These electrons
flowing comprise current and can be drawn for external use by connecting a metal plate on
top and bottom of PV cell. This current and the voltage produces required power.

Modeling of PV panel

The photovoltaic system can generate direct current electricity without environmental impact
when is exposed to sunlight. The basic building block of PV arrays is the solar cell, which is
basically a p-n junction that directly converts light energy into electricity. The output
characteristic of PV module depends on the cell temperature, solar irradiation, and output
voltage of the module. The figure shows the equivalent circuit of a PV array with a load
 Fig 9 Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

Usually the equivalent circuit of a general PV model consists of a photocurrent, a diode, a

parallel resistor which expresses a leakage current, and a series resistor which describes an
internal resistance to the current flow. The voltage current characteristic equation of a solar
cell is given as

The photocurrent mainly depends on the cell’s working temperature and solar irradiation,
which is explained as

The saturation current of the cell varies with the cell temperature, which is represented as

The shunt resistance RP of the cell is inversely related with shunt leakage current to the
ground. Usually efficiency of PV array is insensitive to variation in RP and the shunt-leakage
resistance can be assumed to approach infinity without leakage current to ground

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

A hybrid energy system might consist of various renewable energy conversion component
like wind turbine, PV array and hydro turbines as well as conventional non-renewable
generators like diesel generators, micro turbine and storage device like battery. A hybrid
energy system might have all or part of it. In order to correctly select the components and
subsystems for optimal sizing of the entire system, the first step is the modeling of individual
components. Modeling process enables to identify and assists in knowing the components’
characteristics and supports in decision making. The details of modeling is reflected by its
correct prediction of performance, however it is too complex or extremely time consuming to
design a perfect model. A sufficiently appropriate model should be tradeoff between
complexity and accuracy. Performance of individual component is either modeled by
deterministic or probabilistic approaches

BATTERY

There are many studies focused on battery modeling in the literature. Models can be
classified according to the different modeling approaches used. The major categories are
mathematical models, electrochemical models and electrical equivalent circuit networks. The
literature also contains examples of combined model types such as analytical–
electrochemical models. In addition, battery thermal models have been investigated in a
number of studies

Fig. 6. Equivalent circuit of the battery

Batteries in Electrical Vehicles

The purpose of this chapter is to undertake a review of literature on battery technology and
battery powered electrical vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and advances in the hardware in
loop. The nature of research carried out by earlier researcher and scientist has helped to set up
direction for further research work in this area. Under-standing the significance of the battery
in automobile field, an overview of battery technology and battery management systems has
been studied. In this chapter, an account of various topics of battery i.e. battery chemistry,
batteries for electrical car, power backup calculations, etc. has been taken. The literature
review has provided a foundation for secondary data to validate the results obtained during
the initial experimentation. The major challenges in the electrical vehicles are also studied
with special reference to battery performance parameters. A recent trend of Electrical
Vehicles and Hybrid Electric Vehicles are also studied and undertaken survey. This chapter
also describes various battery models like electrochemical model, equivalent circuit model,
simple battery model, superior simple model etc. for better management of performance
parameters. This chapter provides sound background for studying battery performance
parameters, its management for optimum utilization and batteries used for electrical vehicles.

Fundamentals of Battery Technology

A cell is an electrochemical unit, while a battery is consists of two or more cells connected in
series or parallel combination to accomplish particular operating ratings. For example, the
BP5-12 battery has a nominal voltage of 12 volts, consisting of 6 cells connected in series.
Since this configuration does not provide access to the internal anode and cathode terminals
of each cell in the series string, it is difficult to determine much about the electrochemical
status of individual cells from the available battery terminal measurements of voltage and
current. An electrochemical cell contains the basic components: anode, cathode, electrolyte,
and separator. In the electrochemical processes of the cell, an anode is the electrode where
the oxidation reaction occurs, meaning that it releases electrons to the external circuit. A
cathode is correspondingly the location where the reduction occurs, collecting the electrons
from the anode through the external circuit. For a battery cell, the positive electrode becomes
cathode during discharge and behaves as anode during charge, while the negative electrode
becomes an anode during discharge and behaves as cathode during charge. In the common
literature, however, the convention is to adopt the terminal name designations that are
appropriate during discharge operation. The electrolyte is the medium that conducts the ions
between the cathode and anode of a cell. The separator is a nonconductive layer that is
permeable to ions, yet capable of preventing a galvanic short circuit between the cathode and
anode terminals.

The accepting of battery technology and knowing battery parameter performance is an

important sector for battery powered instrumentation or devices. However, in almost all
belongings the battery behaves as key component with highest cost, weight and volume.
Some of the electrical specifications of electronic instrument are also decided by the battery.
A battery is a device which converts chemical energy in to electrical energy. It is nothing but
collection of cells. The cell consists of two different electrodes i.e. copper and zinc and
electrolyte i.e. citric acid. The electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte as shown in figure

The primary cells are designed for single time use and can be disposed with some industrial
process. Common applications of primary cells are cameras, torches, wrist watches, etc. The
secondary cells are used for multi-time and are rechargeable. Secondary cells are
uninterrupted power supply, automobile, standalone instruments, mobile phone battery, etc.
In case of rechargeable batteries, the chemical reactions are reversed to return charged state
of the battery. The output voltage and energy depends on numbers and types of the cell.
Battery uses different materials like lead, nickel, acid, lithium and alkaline. A battery comes
with different sizes and shapes from compact electrochemical cells to big size battery. Even
after the removal of these materials from consumer batteries many of these substances inside
a battery are toxic to some extent and some are very toxic.

Fig. 7: Construction of Electrochemical Cell

Battery models

Battery modelling is useful for understanding behaviour of the battery system for its
dependence on various parameters. In case of battery model, the effect on viscosity of
electrolyte used in battery can be predicted to understand battery performance parameters.
Such models could be used in battery operated vehicles to predict its performance. There are
different kinds of batteries used for electrical vehicles and many factors affect on battery
performance parameters. For the estimation of battery performance various mathematical
models plays a significant role. The battery performance parameters are state of charge
(SOC), battery storage capacity, rate of charge or rate of discharge, temperature, battery age
or shelf life etc. The battery performance depends on the measurable quantities like
temperature and performance characteristics. However, battery performance also depends on
parameter such as battery age, the way battery handling, manufacturing defects or tolerances
and variations of cells within the battery. The lead-acid battery represents a fundamental and
main element in the renewable energy systems and in the hybrid vehicles. Therefore, it is
necessary to study the modelling and simulation of lead acid battery.

Simple battery model

This battery model consists of an ideal voltage source i.e. Ein, constant internal resistance i.e.
Rbat and the terminal voltage i.e. Vbat. This model consists of an ideal battery with open-
circuit voltage Ein and a constant internal resistance Rbat or Equivalent Series Resistance.

Fig. 8: Simple battery model

This model consists of an ideal battery with open-circuit voltage Ein and a constant internal
resistance i.e. Rbat or Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR). The terminal voltage is given by
Vbat which can be determined from open-circuit measurement. The equivalent series
resistance can be determined from open-circuit measurements and extra measurement with
load connected. The simple battery model has several drawback and disadvantage for
modelling the battery. This simple model does not take into account of varying internal
resistance because of varying state of charge, electrolyte concentration and sulphate
formation. The basic assumption of this model is limitless battery and model does not depend
on state of charge of battery. It means that dynamic behaviours of the battery parameters are
not considered. This information clearly indicates that it is approximate model and cannot be
considered for battery monitoring in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV).
In these above equations E0, K, Q, A and B are constants depends on the types of battery. „q‟
be the static battery voltage and battery current is Ibatt. Ein and Vbat are internal battery
voltage and Terminal voltage respectively. The integral of current determines the charges
with the number between lower limit zero and upper limit determined by the battery
capacitance (Q)

The terminal voltage equation of the simple model is

However, the internal resistance of the battery is different under discharge and charge
conditions. This model does not consider the internal dynamics of the battery, in particular
the effect of the diffusion of the electrolytic chemicals between the battery plates

POWER SUPPLY

BLOCK DIAGRAM

The ac voltage, typically 220V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps that ac
voltage down to the level of the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave
rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage.
This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation.

A regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains the same dc value even if the
input dc voltage varies, or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This voltage
regulation is usually obtained using one of the popular voltage regulator IC units.

TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER FILTER IC REGULATOR LOAD

 Figure 9: Block diagram (Power supply)

WORKING PRINCIPLE

TRANSFORMER

The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-230V) to (0-
6V) level. Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be connected to the precision
rectifier, which is constructed with the help of op–amp. The advantages of using precision
rectifier are it will give peak voltage output as DC; rest of the circuits will give only RMS
output.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

When four diodes are connected as shown in figure, the circuit is called as bridge
rectifier. The input to the circuit is applied to the diagonally opposite corners of the network,
and the output is taken from the remaining two corners.

Let us assume that the transformer is working properly and there is a positive
potential, at point A and a negative potential at point B. the positive potential at point A will
forward bias D3 and reverse bias D4.

The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1 and reverse D2. At this time
D3 and D1 are forward biased and will allow current flow to pass through them; D4 and D2
are reverse biased and will block current flow.

The path for current flow is from point B through D1, up through RL, through D3,
through the secondary of the transformer back to point B. this path is indicated by the solid
arrows. Waveforms (1) and (2) can be observed across D1 and D3.

One-half cycle later the polarity across the secondary of the transformer reverse,
forward biasing D2 and D4 and reverse biasing D1 and D3. Current flow will now be from
point A through D4, up through RL, through D2, through the secondary of T1, and back to
point A. This path is indicated by the broken arrows. Waveforms (3) and (4) can be observed
across D2 and D4. The current flow through RL is always in the same direction. In flowing
through RL this current develops a voltage corresponding to that shown waveform. Since
current flows through the load during both half cycles of the applied voltage, this bridge
rectifier is a full-wave rectifier.

One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave rectifier is that with
a given transformer the bridge rectifier produces a voltage output that is nearly twice that of
the conventional full-wave circuit.

This may be shown by assigning values to some of the components shown in views A
and B. assume that the same transformer is used in both circuits. The peak voltage developed
between points X and y is 1000 volts in both circuits. In the conventional full-wave circuit
shown—in view A, the peak voltage from the center tap to either X or Y is 500 volts. Since
only one diode can conduct at any instant, the maximum voltage that can be rectified at any
instant is 500 volts.

The maximum voltage that appears across the load resistor is nearly-but never exceeds-500
v0lts, as result of the small voltage drop across the diode. In the bridge rectifier shown in
view B, the maximum voltage that can be rectified is the full secondary voltage, which is
1000 volts. Therefore, the peak output voltage across the load resistor is nearly 1000 volts.
With both circuits using the same transformer, the bridge rectifier circuit produces a higher
output voltage than the conventional full-wave rectifier circuit.

IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units contain the
circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and overload protection
all in a single IC. IC units provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed
negative voltage, or an adjustably set voltage. The regulators can be selected for operation
with load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of amperes, corresponding to
power ratings from milli watts to tens of watts.

Figure:10 Circuit diagram (Power supply)

A fixed three-terminal voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, Vi,

applied to one input terminal, a regulated dc output voltage, Vo, from a second terminal, with
the third terminal connected to ground.

The series 78 regulators provide fixed positive regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts.
Similarly, the series 79 regulators provide fixed negative regulated voltages from 5 to 24
volts.

 For ICs, microcontroller, LCD --------- 5 volts

 For alarm circuit, op-amp, relay circuits ---------- 12 volts

PIC MICROCONTROLLER

PIC stands for the peripheral interface controller was developed in the year 1993 by
“Microchip Technology”. Firstly, this controller was developed for supporting PDP computer
to regulate its peripheral devices, and thus, termed as a peripheral interface device.PIC
microcontroller are very fast and executing a program can be made easy compared with other
controllers. The architecture of this microcontroller based on “Harvard architecture”. The
specifications of this microcontroller include wide availability, ease of programming, serial
programming capacity, large user base, interfacing of microcontroller with other peripherals,
etc.

Peripheral Interface Controller

PIC (peripheral Interface Controller) is the world’s smallest microcontroller that can be
programmed to carry out a vast range of tasks. These programming and the simulated process
of this microcontroller can be done by a circuit-wizard software. PIC microcontroller is an IC
and its architecture comprises of CPU, RAM, ROM, timers, counters and protocols like SPI,
UART, CAN which are used for interfacing with other peripherals. Applications of
microcontroller include industrial purpose. The advantages of using this microcontroller
include low power consumption, high performance, support hardware and software tools such
as simulators, compilers, and debuggers.

Peripheral Interface Controller Architecture

The architecture of Peripheral Interface Controller comprises of central processing unit

(CPU), I/O ports, A/D converter, memory organization, timers/counters, serial
communication, interrupts, oscillator and CCP module that are discussed in detailed below.
 Fig Architecture of PIC Microcontroller

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

It is not different from other microcontrollers CPU and the PIC microcontroller CPU consists
of the ALU, CU, MU and accumulator, etc. Arithmetic logic unit is mainly used for
arithmetic operations and to take logical decisions. Memory is used for storing the
instructions after processing. To control the internal and external peripherals, control unit is
used which are connected to the CPU and the accumulator is used for storing the results and
further process.

Memory Organization

The memory module in the PIC microcontroller architecture consists of RAM (Random
Access Memory), ROM (Read Only Memory) and STACK.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is an unstable memory which is used to store the data temporarily in its registers. The
RAM memory is classified into two banks, and each bank consists of so many registers. The
RAM registers are classified into two types: Special Function Registers (SFR) and General
Purpose Registers (GPR).

General Purpose Registers (GPR)

These registers are used for general purpose only as the name implies. For example, if we
want to multiply two numbers by using the PIC microcontroller. Generally, we use registers
for multiplying and storing the numbers in other registers. So these registers don’t have any
special function,- CPU can easily access the data in the registers.

Special Function Registers

These registers are used for special purposes only as the name SFR implies. These registers
will perform according to the functions assigned to them , and they cannot be used as normal
registers. For example, if you cannot use the STATUS register for storing the data, these
registers are used for showing the operation or status of the program. So, user cannot change
the function of the SFR; the function is given by the retailer at the time of manufacturing.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read only memory is a stable memory which is used to store the data permanently. In PIC
microcontroller architecture, the architecture ROM stores the instructions or program,
according to the program the microcontroller acts. The ROM is also called as program
memory, wherein the user will write the program for microcontroller and saves it
permanently, and finally the program is executed by the CPU. The microcontrollers
performance depends on the instruction, which is executed by the CPU.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

In the normal ROM, we can write the program for only once we cannot use again the
microcontroller for multiple times. But, in the EEPROM, we can program the ROM multiple
times.

Flash Memory
Flash memory is also programmable read only memory (PROM) in which we can read, write
and erase the program thousands of times. Generally, the PIC microcontroller uses this type
of ROM.

Stack

When an interrupt occurs, first the PIC microcontroller has to execute the interrupt and the
existing process address. Then that is being executed is stored in the stack. After completing
the execution of the interrupt, the microcontroller calls the process with the help of address,
which is stored in the stack and get executes the process.

BUS

BUS is used to transfer and receive the data from one peripheral to another. It is classified
into two types such as data bus and address.

Data Bus: It is used for only transfer or receives the data.

Address Bus: Address bus is used to transmit the memory address from the peripherals to the
CPU. I/O pins are used to interface the external peripherals; UART and USART both are
serial communication protocols which are used for interfacing serial devices like GSM, GPS,
Bluetooth, IR , etc.

A/D converters

The main intention of this analog to digital converter is to convert analog voltage values to
digital voltage values. A/D module of PIC microcontroller consists of 5 inputs for 28 pin
devices and 8 inputs for 40 pin devices. The operation of the analog to digital converter is
controlled by ADCON0 and ADCON1 special registers. The upper bits of the converter are
stored in register ADRESH and lower bits of the converter are stored in register ADRESL.
For this operation, it requires 5V of an analog reference voltage.
 Fig A/D Converters

Timers/ Counters

PIC microcontroller has four timer/counters wherein the one 8-bit timer and the remaining
timers have the choice to select 8 or 16-bit mode. Timers are used for generating accuracy
actions, for example, creating specific time delays between two operations.

Interrupts

PIC microcontroller consists of 20 internal interrupts and three external interrupt sources
which are associated with different peripherals like ADC, USART, Timers, and so on.

PIC16f877a

The PIC microcontroller PIC16f877a is one of the most renowned microcontrollers in the
industry. This microcontroller is very convenient to use, the coding or programming of this
controller is also easier. One of the main advantages is that it can be write-erase as many
times as possible because it uses FLASH memory technology. It has a total number of 40
pins and there are 33 pins for input and output. PIC16F877A is used in many pic
microcontroller projects. This powerful (200 nanosecond instruction execution) yet easy-to-
program (only 35 single word instructions) CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller packs
Microchip's powerful PIC® architecture into an 40 package and is upwards compatible with
the PIC16C5X, PIC12CXXX and PIC16C7X devices. The PIC16F877A features 256 bytes
of EEPROM data memory, self programming, an ICD, 2 Comparators, 8 channels of 10-bit
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter, 2 capture/compare/PWM functions, the synchronous
serial port can be configured as either 3-wire Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI™) or the 2-wire
Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C™) bus and a Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter
(USART).
PIC16f877a finds its applications in a huge number of devices. It is used in remote sensors,
security and safety devices, home automation and many industrial instruments. An EEPROM
is also featured in it which makes it possible to store some of the information permanently
like transmitter codes and receiver frequencies and some other related data. The cost of this
controller is low and its handling is also easy. It is flexible and can be used in areas where
microcontrollers have never been used before as in microprocessor applications and timer
functions etc.

 It has a smaller 35 instructions set.

 It can operate up to 20MHz frequency.
 The operating voltage is between 4.2 volts to 5.5 volts. If you provide it voltage more
than 5.5 volts, it may get damaged permanently.
 It does not have an internal oscillator like other PIC18F46K22, PIC18F4550.
 The maximum current each PORT can sink or source is around 100mA. Therefore,
the current limit for each GPIO pin of PIC16F877A is 10 mili ampere.
 It is available in four IC packaging such as 40-pin PDIP 44-pin PLCC, 44-pin TQFP,
44-pin QFN

PIC PIN DETAILS

PIC16F877a has 5 Ports in total which are:

 Port A: It has 6 Pins in total starting from Pin # 2 to Pin # 7. Port A Pins are labelled
from RA0 to RA5 where RA0 is the label of first Pin of Port A.
 Port B: It has 8 Pins in total starting from Pin # 33 to Pin # 40. Port B Pins are
labelled from RB0 to RB7 where RB0 is the label of first Pin of Port B.
 Port C: It has 8 Pins in total. It's pins are not aligned together. First four Pins of Port C
are located at Pin # 15 - Pin # 18, while the last four are located at Pin # 23 - Pin # 26.
 Port D: It has 8 Pins in total. It's pins are also not aligned together. First four Pins of
Port D are located at Pin # 19 - Pin # 22, while the last four are located at Pin # 27 -

Pin # 30.

 Port E: It has 3 Pins in total starting from Pin # 8 to Pin # 10. Port E Pins are labelled
from RE0 to RE2 where RE0 is the label of first Pin of Port E.

PIC Microcontroller basic circuit

SUPER CAPACITOR
A super capacitor (SC), also called an ultra capacitor, is a high-capacity capacitor with a
capacitance value much higher than other capacitors, but with lower voltage limits, that
bridges the gap between electrolytic capacitors and rechargeable batteries. It typically stores
10 to 100 times more energy per unit volume or mass than electrolytic capacitors, can accept
and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and tolerates many more charge and discharge
cycles than rechargeable batteries. Super capacitors are used in applications requiring many
rapid charge/discharge cycles, rather than long term compact energy storage in automobiles,
buses, trains, cranes and elevators, where they are used for regenerative braking, short-term
energy storage, or burst mode power delivery. Smaller units are used as power backup for
static random-access memory (SRAM).

Fig 16 Super capacitor

The capacitor is a two-terminal passive component, which is widely used in electronics.

Almost, every circuit we find in electronics, use one or more capacitors for various usage.
Capacitors are the most used electronics component after resistors. They have a special
ability to store energy. There are different types of capacitors available in the market, but one
which is recently getting popularity and promise a replacement or alternative of batteries in
future, are super capacitors or also known as ultra capacitors. A super capacitor is nothing but
a high-capacity capacitor with capacitance values much higher than normal capacitors but
lower voltage limits. They can store 10 to 100 times more energy per unit volume or mass
than electrolytic capacitors, can receive and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and
tolerate more charging discharging cycles than rechargeable batteries.

Fig 17 Schematic illustration of a super capacitor

Construction of a Super capacitor

Super capacitor is an electrochemical device. Interestingly, there are no chemical reactions

are responsible to store its electrical energies. They have a unique construction, with a large
conductive plate or electrode, which are closely situated with a very small surface area. Its
construction is the same as an electrolytic capacitor with a liquid or wet electrolyte between
its electrodes.

The electrodes, Red and blue, are coated double-sided. They generally made of graphite
carbon in the form of carbon nanotubes or gels or a special type of conductive activated
carbons. To block the large electron flow between electrodes and passing the positive ion, a
porous paper membrane is used. The paper membrane also separates the electrodes. As we
can see in the above image, the porous paper membrane is situated in the middle which is
green in color. The electrodes and paper separator are impregnated with the liquid electrolyte.
The aluminum foil is used as a current collector which establishes the electrical connection.
 Fig 18 Battery construction

The separation plate and the area of the plates are responsible for the capacitance value of the
capacitor. The relation can be denoted as

Where, Ɛ is the permittivity of the material present between plates A is the area of the plate D
is the separation between plates So, in case of super capacitor, the contact surface is needed
to be increased, but there is a limitation. We cannot increase the physical shape or size of the
capacitor. To overcome this limitation special type of electrolytes are used to increase the
conductivity between plates thus increasing the capacitance.

The super capacitors also called as double layer capacitor. There is a reason behind it. Very
small separation and large surface area using special electrolyte, the surface layer of
electrolytic ions form a double layer. It creates two capacitor constructions, one at each
carbon electrodes and named a double layer capacitor. These constructions have a drawback.
The voltage across the capacitor became very low because of the decomposition voltage of
the electrolyte. The voltage is highly dependent on the electrolyte material; the material can
limit the electrical energy storing capacity of the capacitor. So, due to the low terminal
voltage, a super capacitor can be connected in series to store electrical charge at a useful
voltage level. Due to this, the sup capacitor in series produce higher voltage than usual and in
parallel, the capacitance became larger. It can be clearly understood by the below Super
capacitor Array Construction technique.
BASIC DESIGN

Fig 19 Basic design process

Typical construction of a super capacitor: (1) power source,(2) collector, (3) polarized
electrode,(4) Helmholtz double layer,(5) electrolyte having positive and negative ions, (6)
separator Electrochemical capacitors (super capacitors) consist of two electrodes separated by
an ion-permeable membrane (separator), and an electrolyte ionically connecting both
electrodes. When the electrodes are polarized by an applied voltage, ions in the electrolyte
form electric double layers of opposite polarity to the electrode's polarity. For example,
positively polarized electrodes will have a layer of negative ions at the electrode/electrolyte
interface along with a charge-balancing layer of positive ions adsorbing onto the negative
layer. The opposite is true for the negatively polarized electrode. Additionally, depending on
electrode material and surface shape, some ions may permeate the double layer becoming
specifically adsorbed ions and contribute with pseudo capacitance to the total capacitance of
the super capacitor.

Storage principles

Electrochemical capacitors use the double-layer effect to store electric energy; however, this
double layer has no conventional solid dielectric to separate the charges. There are two
storage principles in the electric double-layer of the electrodes that contribute to the total
capacitance of an electrochemical capacitor

 Double-layer capacitance, electrostatic storage of the electrical energy achieved by

separation of charge in a Helmholtz double layer
  Pseudo capacitance, electrochemical storage of the electrical energy achieved by
Faradaic redox reactions with charge-transfer

Both capacitances are only separable by measurement techniques. The amount of charge
stored per unit voltage in an electrochemical capacitor is primarily a function of the electrode
size, although the amount of capacitance of each storage principle can vary extremely.

Construction and properties of super capacitors

The construction of super capacitor is similar to the construction of electrolytic capacitors in

that they consist of two electrodes, an electrolyte and a foil separator. The separator is
sandwiched between the electrodes and the foil is rol folded into a shape, usually cylindrical
or rectangular. This folded form is placed into housing, impregnated with e and hermetically
sealed. The electrolyte used in the construction of super capacitors as well as the electrodes,
are dif from those used in ordinary electrolytic capacitors. In order to store electrical charge,
a super capacitor uses porous materials as separators in order to store ions in those at an
atomic level. The most commonly used material in modern super capacitors is activated
charcoal. The fact that not a good insulator results in a maximum operating voltage limited to
under 3 V. Activated charcoal is not the prefer material for another reason: the charge carriers
are comparable in size to the pores in the material and some of them t into the smaller pores,
resulting in a reduced storage capacity. One of the most exciting materials used in super
capacitor research is graphene. Graphene is a substance consisted o carbon, arranged in a
planar sheet only one atom thick. It is extremely porous, acting as an ion “sponge”. Energy
den achievable using graphene in super capacitors are comparable to energy densities found
in batteries. However, even t prototypes of graphene super capacitors have been made as a
proof of concept, graphene is difficult and expensive to in industrial quantities, which
postpones the use of this technology

Super capacitor Array construction

To store charge at a useful required voltage, super capacitors need to be connected in series.
And for increasing the capacitance they should be connected in parallel. Let's see the array
construction of the Super capacitor. In the above image, the cell voltage of a single cell or
capacitor is denoted as Cv, whereas the capacitance of a single cell is denoted as Cc. The
voltage range of a super capacitor is from 1V to 3V, the series connections increase the
voltage and more capacitors in parallel increase the capacitance.
 Fig 20 Super capacitor array construction

INVERTER

Fig 13 Inverter

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct

current (DC) to alternating current (AC).The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and
overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter
does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source. A power inverter can
be entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical effects (such as a rotary
apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion
process.
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the centre tap
of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow
back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding
and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the
transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit.

The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a
spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the
stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary
contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the
switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter
switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A
similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo machines.

As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and various other types
of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs. Certain
ratings, especially for large systems (many kilowatts) use thyristors (SCR). SCRs provide
large power handling capability in a semiconductor device, and can readily be controlled over
a variable firing range.

The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an output
transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature as
opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply.
Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of
sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the
fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics that are included in the
series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.

DC TO AC INVERTER

The conversion of DC voltage to AC voltage is a common problem. In any circuit, we can

observe that if we design a circuit that takes the AC input and gives DC output. But, if we
want to change the circuit from DC to AC, a DC to AC converter circuit is used. The inverter
(converter) is frequently required in the circuits like where DC to AC conversion is not
possible. So, an inverter circuit is employed for converting the DC to AC converter.
The converter is a power electronic device, used to convert DC to AC. These devices use
switching devices. The DC to AC conversion can be done among 12V, 24V, 48V to 110V,
120V, 220V, 230V, 240V with supply frequency 50Hz/60Hz. For a better understanding of
this concept here is a simple 12V DC to 220V AC Converter circuit which is designed to
convert DC to AC. DC to AC converters is mainly designed for changing a DC power supply
to an AC power supply. Here, DC power supply is comparatively stable as well as positive
voltage source whereas AC oscillates approximately a 0V base stage, typically in a sinusoidal
or square or mode.

Fig 14 DC to AC Inverter circuit

The common inverter technology used in electronics is to convert a voltage source from a
battery into an AC signal. Generally, they operate with 12 volts and commonly used in
applications like automotive, lead-acid technology, photovoltaic cells, etc. A transformer coil
system & a switch is the simple circuit used for an inverter. A typical transformer can be
connected toward the DC signal’s input through a switch to oscillate back quickly. Due to the
current flow in bi-directional in the primary coil of the transformer, an alternating current
signal is an output throughout the secondary coils.

Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a method of

reducing the average power delivered by an electrical signal, by effectively chopping it up
into discrete parts. The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by
turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is
on compared to the off periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load. Along with
maximum power point tracking (MPPT), it is one of the primary methods of reducing the
output of solar panels to that which can be utilized by a battery.[1] PWM is particularly
suited for running inertial loads such as motors, which are not as easily affected by this
discrete switching, because their inertia causes them to react slowly. The PWM switching
frequency has to be high enough not to affect the load, which is to say that the resultant
waveform perceived by the load must be as smooth as possible.

The rate (or frequency) at which the power supply must switch can vary greatly depending on
load and application. For example, switching has to be done several times a minute in an
electric stove; 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer; between a few kilohertz (kHz) and tens of kHz for a
motor drive; and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer
power supplies. The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is
very low. When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is
being transferred to the load, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss,
being the product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works
well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed
duty cycle. PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle
has been used to convey information over a communications channel.

PWM stands for Pulse Width Modulation; we will get into the reason for such a name later.
But, for now understand PWM as a type of signal which can be produced from a digital IC
such as microcontroller or 555 timer. The signal thus produced will have a train of pulses and
these pulses will be in form of a square wave. That is, at any given instance of time the wave
will either be high or will be low. For the ease of understanding let us consider a 5V PWM
signal, in this case the PWM signal will either be 5V (high) or at ground level 0V (low). The
duration at which the signals stays high is called the “on time” and the duration at which the
signal stays low is called as the “off time”.

Fig 29 PWM Modulation

For a PWM signal we need to look at two important parameters associated with it one is the
PWM duty cycle and the other is PWM frequency.

The reason PWM is popular is simple. Many loads, such as resistors, integrate the power into
a number matching the percentage. Conversion into its analogue equivalent value is
straightforward. LEDs are very nonlinear in their response to current, give an LED half its
rated current and you still get more than half the light the LED can produce. With PWM the
light level produced by the LED is very linear. Motors, which will be covered later, is also
very responsive to PWM.

One of several ways PWM can be produced is by using a saw tooth waveform and a
comparator. As shown below the saw tooth (or triangle wave) need not be symmetrical, but
the linearity of the waveform is important. The frequency of the saw tooth waveform is the
sampling rate for the signal.
 CHAPTER 6

SOFTWARE EXPLANATION

EMBEDDED

An embedded system is an application that contains at least one programmable computer

(typically in the form of a microcontroller, a microprocessor or digital signal processor chip)
and which is used by individuals who are, in the main, unaware that the system is computer-
based.

EMBEDDED C

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED C

Looking around, we find ourselves to be surrounded by various types of embedded systems.

Be it a digital camera or a mobile phone or a washing machine, all of them has some kind of
processor functioning inside it. Associated with each processor is the embedded software. If
hardware forms the body of an embedded system, embedded processor acts as the brain, and
embedded software forms its soul. It is the embedded software which primarily governs the
functioning of embedded systems.

During infancy years of microprocessor based systems, programs were developed using
assemblers and fused into the EPROMs. There used to be no mechanism to find what the
program was doing. LEDs, switches, etc. were used to check correct execution of the
program. Some ‘very fortunate’ developers had In-circuit Simulators but they were too costly
and were not quite reliable as well.

As time progressed, use of microprocessor-specific assembly-only as the programming

language reduced and embedded systems moved onto C as the embedded programming
language of choice. C is the most widely used programming language for embedded
processors/controllers. Assembly is also used but mainly to implement those portions of the
code where very high timing accuracy, code size efficiency, etc. are prime requirements.

Initially C was developed by Kernighan and Ritchie to fit into the space of 8K and to write
operating systems. Originally it was implemented on UNIX operating systems. As it was
intended for operating systems development, it can manipulate memory addresses. Also, it
allowed programmers to write very compact codes. This has given it the reputation as the
language of choice for hackers too.

As assembly language programs are specific to a processor, assembly language didn’t offer
portability across systems. To overcome this disadvantage, several high level languages,
including C, came up. Some other languages like PLM, Modula-2, Pascal, etc. also came but
couldn’t find wide acceptance. Amongst those, C got wide acceptance for not only embedded
systems, but also for desktop applications. Even though C might have lost its sheen as
mainstream language for general purpose applications, it still is having a strong-hold in
embedded programming. Due to the wide acceptance of C in the embedded systems, various
kinds of support tools like compilers & cross-compilers, ICE, etc. came up and all this
facilitated development of embedded systems using C.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS PROGRAMMING

Embedded systems programming is different from developing applications on a desktop

computers. Key characteristics of an embedded system, when compared to PCs, are as
follows:

· Embedded devices have resource constraints limited ROM, limited RAM, and limited
stack space, less processing power

· Components used in embedded system and PCs are different; embedded systems
typically uses smaller, less power consuming components. Embedded systems are more tied
to the hardware. Two salient features of Embedded Programming are code speed and code
size. Code speed is governed by the processing power, timing constraints, whereas code size
is governed by available program memory and use of programming language. Goal of
embedded system programming is to get maximum features in minimum space and minimum
time.

Embedded systems are programmed using different type of languages:

 Machine Code
 Low level language, i.e., assembly
 High level language like C, C++, Java, Ada, etc.
 Application level language like Visual Basic, scripts, Access, etc.
Assembly language maps mnemonic words with the binary machine codes that the processor
uses to code the instructions. Assembly language seems to be an obvious choice for
programming embedded devices. However, use of assembly language is restricted to
developing efficient codes in terms of size and speed. Also, assembly codes lead to higher
software development costs and code portability is not there. Developing small codes are not
much of a problem, but large programs/projects become increasingly difficult to manage in
assembly language. Finding good assembly programmers has also become difficult
nowadays. Hence high level languages are preferred for embedded systems programming.

Use of C in embedded systems is driven by following advantages

It is small and reasonably simpler to learn, understand, program and debug.

C Compilers are available for almost all embedded devices in use today, and
there is a large pool of experienced C programmers.
Unlike assembly, C has advantage of processor-independence and is not
specific to any particular microprocessor/ microcontroller or any system. This
makes it convenient for a user to develop programs that can run on most of the
systems.
As C combines functionality of assembly language and features of high level
languages, C is treated as a ‘middle-level computer language’ or ‘high level
assembly language’
It is fairly efficient
It supports access to I/O and provides ease of management of large embedded
projects.

Many of these advantages are offered by other languages also, but what sets C apart from
others like Pascal, FORTRAN, etc. is the fact that it is a middle level language; it provides
direct hardware control without sacrificing benefits of high level languages.

Compared to other high level languages, C offers more flexibility because C is relatively
small, structured language; it supports low-level bit-wise data manipulation.

Compared to assembly language, C Code written is more reliable and scalable, more portable
between different platforms. Moreover, programs developed in C are much easier to
understand, maintain and debug. Also, as they can be developed more quickly, codes written
in C offers better productivity. C is based on the philosophy ‘programmers know what they
are doing’; only the intentions are to be stated explicitly. It is easier to write good code in C
& convert it to an efficient assembly code rather than writing an efficient code in assembly
itself. Benefits of assembly language programming over C are negligible when we compare
the ease with which C programs are developed by programmers.

Objected oriented language, C++ is not apt for developing efficient programs in resource
constrained environments like embedded devices. Virtual functions & exception handling of
C++ are some specific features that are not efficient in terms of space and speed in embedded
systems. Sometimes C++ is used only with very few features, very much as C.

Ada, also an object-oriented language, is different than C++. Originally designed by the U.S.
DOD, it didn’t gain popularity despite being accepted as an international standard twice
(Ada83 and Ada95). However, Ada language has many features that would simplify
embedded software development.

Java is another language used for embedded systems programming. It primarily finds usage
in high-end mobile phones as it offers portability across systems and is also useful for
browsing applications. Java programs require Java Virtual Machine which consumes lot of
resources. Hence it is not used for smaller embedded devices.

Dynamic C and B# are some proprietary languages which are also being used in embedded
applications.

Efficient embedded C programs must be kept small and efficient; they must be optimized for
code speed and code size. Good understanding of processor architecture embedded C
programming and debugging tools facilitate this.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN C AND EMBEDDED C

Though C and embedded C appear different and are used in different contexts, they have
more similarities than the differences. Most of the constructs are same; the difference lies in
their applications.

C is used for desktop computers, while embedded C is for microcontroller based

applications. Accordingly, C has the luxury to use resources of a desktop PC like memory,
OS, etc. While programming on desktop systems, we need not bother about memory.
However, embedded C has to use with the limited resources on an embedded processor.
Thus, program code must fit into the available program memory. If code exceeds the limit,
the system is likely to crash.

Compilers for C typically generate OS dependant executables. Embedded C requires

compilers to create files to be downloaded to the microcontrollers/microprocessors where it
needs to run. Embedded compilers give access to all resources which is not provided in
compilers for desktop computer applications.

Embedded systems often have the real-time constraints, which is usually not there with
desktop computer applications.

Embedded systems often do not have a console, which is available in case of desktop
applications.

So, what basically is different while programming with embedded C is the mindset; for
embedded applications, we need to optimally use the resources, make the program code
efficient, and satisfy real time constraints, if any. All this is done using the basic constructs,
syntaxes, and function libraries of ‘C’.

KEIL C51 C COMPILERS

 Direct C51 to generate a listing file

 Define manifest constants on the command line

 Control the amount of information included in the object file

 Specify the level of optimization to use

 Specify the memory models

! Specify the memory space for variables. The Keil C51 C Compiler for the 8051
microcontroller is the most popular 8051 C compiler in the world. It provides more features
than any other 8051 C compiler available today.

The C51 Compiler allows you to write 8051 microcontroller applications in C that, once
compiled, have the efficiency and speed of assembly language. Language extensions in the
C51 Compiler give you full access to all resources of the 8051.
The C51 Compiler translates C source files into reloadable object modules which contain full
symbolic information for debugging with the µVision Debugger or an in-circuit emulator. In
addition to the object file, the compiler generates a listing file which may optionally include
symbol table and cross reference information.

FEATURES
 Nine basic data types, including 32-bit IEEE floating-point,
 Flexible variable allocation with bit, data, bdata, idata, xdata, and pdata memory types,
 Interrupt functions may be written in C,
 Full use of the 8051 register banks,
 Complete symbol and type information for source-level debugging,
 Use of AJMP and ACALL instructions,
 Bit-addressable data objects,
 Built-in interface for the RTX51 Real-Time Kernel,
 Support for dual data pointers on Atmel, AMD, Cypress, Dallas Semiconductor,
Infineon, Philips, and Triscend microcontrollers,
 Support for the Philips 8xC750, 8xC751, and 8xC752 limited instruction sets,
 Support for the Infineon 80C517 arithmetic unit.

MATLAB

MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a multi-paradigm numerical computing environment

and fourth-generation programming language. Developed by Math Works, MATLAB
allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms,
creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages,
including C, C++, Java, Fortran and Python. Although MATLAB is intended primarily for
numerical computing, an optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine, allowing access
to symbolic computing capabilities. An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multi-
domain simulation and Model-Based Design for dynamic and embedded systems. MATLAB
is a wonderful environment for serious numerical computations as well as for graphics. It is
replacing FORTRAN and other languages that have often been used for numerical scientific
computations.

GETTING HELP
MATLAB has several options for on-line assistance. MATLAB offers a tutorial, which can
be accessed from the Help menu or by typing ‘demo’ at the command prompt. It would be a
good idea to run through some of these demos to get an idea of how MATLAB does “stuff”!
The index of MATLAB help information can be accessed from Help -> MATLAB Help.
Here you can find information on getting started, using MATLAB, and implementing built-in
functions. Information on the built-in functions may also be obtained by using the commands
‘help’ and ‘look for’ in the command window. ‘Help function name’ provides help on the
function if you know its exact name. If you don’t know the exact name of the function, use
‘look for keyword’ to get a list of functions with string keyword in their description.

MATLAB PROGRAMS

A MATLAB program, called an M-file, is just a list of MATLAB commands, the same
commands that you can use interactively in the command window. You can write that list of
commands in a text file and then execute the program from the command window. To
create an M-file, start MATLAB and under the File menu select New and M-file. Type your
commands in the M-file window. Store the M-file with the same name as the function, and
with the suffix ".M" such as "Prog.M". The file can be stored and run from a floppy or the
hard disk. After you have changed an M-file, remember to save it before using the function or
script. MATLAB uses the saved version of the program, and not the version displayed in the
window.

MATLAB programs in M-files can be classified into two groups: script files and function
files. They differ in two things: (i) the way you execute them, and (ii) the type of
variables they involve.

SCRIPT FILES

Script files are M-files that can be executed by typing their names in the command window,
or calling them from other M-files. The variables they contain or define are global variables.
That is, after you execute a script file all variables involved would be in memory and usable
from the command window.

Using MATLAB
The best way to learn to use MATLAB is to sit down and try to use it. In this handout are a
few examples of basic MATLAB operations, but after you’ve gone through this tutorial you
will probably want to learn more. Check out the “Other Resources” listed at the end of this
handout.

The Beginning When you start MATLAB, the command prompt “>>” appears. You will tell
MATLAB what to do by typing commands at the prompt.

CREATING MATRICES
The basic data element in MATLAB is a matrix. A scalar in MATLAB is a 1x1 matrix, and a
vector is a 1xn (or nx1) matrix.

ADVANCED OPERATIONS
There’s a lot more that you can do with MATLAB than is listed in this handout. Check out
the MATLAB help or one of the “Other Resources” if you want to learn more about the
following more advanced tools:
• Numerical integration (quad)
• Discrete Fourier transforms (fft, ifft)
• Statistics (mean, median, std, var)
• Curve fitting (cftool)
• Signal processing (sptool)
• Numerical integration of systems of ODEs (ode45)

M-FILES AND FUNCTIONS

If you are doing a computation of any significant length in MATLAB, you will probably
want to make an m-file. Anything that you would type at the command prompt you can put in
the m-file (for example, “script.m”) and then run it all at once (by typing the name of the m-
file, e.g. “script”, at the command prompt). You can even add comments to your m-file, by
putting a “%” at the beginning of a comment line.
File I/O
MATLAB allows you to save matrices and read them in later. The simplest way to do this is
using the commands “save” and “load”. Typing in “save A” saves matrix A to a file called
A.mat. If you want to read in matrix A later, just type “load A”. You can also use the load
command to read in ASCII files, as long as they are formatted correctly. Formatted correctly
means that the number of columns in each line is the same and the columns are delimited
with a space.
The MATLAB System:
• Development Environment
• Mathematical Function Library
• MATLAB language
• Application Programming Language.

CREATING MATRICES:
• zeros(m, n): matrix with all zeros
• Ones (m, n): matrix with all ones.
• eye(m, n): the identity matrix
• rand(m, n): uniformly distributed random
• randn(m, n): normally distributed random
• magic(m): square matrix whose elements have the same sum, along the row, column
and diagonal.
THE MATLAB LANGUAGE
• A high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data
structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features.

THE MATLAB WORKING ENVIRONMENT

• the set of tools and facilities that you work with as the MATLAB user or programmer,
including tools for developing, managing, debugging, and profiling

HANDLE GRAPHICS
• The MATLAB graphics system. It includes high-level commands for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation,
and presentation graphics.

THE MATLAB FUNCTION LIBRARY

• A vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions like
sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix
inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms as well a
special image processing related functions
THE MATLAB APPLICATION PROGRAM INTERFACE (API)
• A library that allows you to write C and Fortran programs that interact with
MATLAB. It include facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking),
calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.
STARTING AND QUITTING MATLAB

To start MATLAB click on the MATLAB icon or type in MATLAB, followed by pressing
the enter or return key at the system prompt. The screen will produce the MATLAB prompt
>> (or EDU >>), which indicates that MATLAB is waiting for a command to be entered.
• In order to quit MATLAB, type quit or exit after the prompt, followed by pressing
the enter or return key.

DISPLAY WINDOWS
MATLAB has three display windows. They are
1. A Command Window which is used to enter commands and data to display plots and
graphs.
2. A Graphics Window which is used to display plots and graphs.
3. An Edit Window which is used to create and modify M-files. M-files are files that contain
a program or script of MATLAB commands.
ENTERING COMMANDS

Every command has to be followed by a carriage return <cr> (enter key) in order that the
command can be executed. MATLAB commands are case sensitive and lower case letters are
used throughout. To execute an M-file (such as Project_1.m), simply enter the name of the
file without its extension (as in Project_1).

MATLAB EXPO
In order to see some of the MATLAB capabilities, enter the demo command. This will
initiate the MATLAB EXPO. MATLAB EXPO is a graphical demonstration environment
that shows some of the different types of operations which can be conducted with MATLAB.

ABORT
In order to abort a command in MATLAB, hold down the control key and press c to generate
a local abort with MATLAB.

THE SEMICOLON (;)

If a semicolon (;) is typed at the end of a command, the output of the command is not
displayed.

CREATING AND SAVING A SCRIPT FILE

Any text editor can be used to create script files. In MATLAB, script files are created and
edited in the Editor/ Debugger Window. This window can be opened from the Command
Window. From the Command Window, select File, New and then M-file. Once the window is
open, the commands of the script file are typed line by line. The commands can also be typed
in any text editor or word processor program and then copied and pasted in the
Editor/Debugger Window. The second type of M-files is the function file. Function file
enables the user to extend the basic library functions by adding one’s own computational
procedures. Function M-files are expected to return one or more results. Script files and
function files may include reference to other MATLAB toolbox routines.

MATLAB function file begins with a header statement of the form:

• function (name of result or results) = name (argument list)

RUNNING A SCRIPT FILE

A script file can be executed either by typing its name in the Command Window and then
pressing the Enter key, directly from the Editor Window by clicking on the Run icon. The file
is assumed to be in the current directory, or in the search path

INPUT TO A SCRIPT FILE

There are three ways of assigning a value to a variable in a script file.
1. The variable is defined and assigned value in the script file.
2. The variable is defined and assigned value in the Command Window.
3. The variable is defined in the script file, but a specified value is entered in the Command
Window when the script file is executed.

OVERLAY PLOTS
There are three ways of generating overlay plots in MATLAB. They are:
(a) Plot command.
(b) Hold command.
(c) Line command.

(A) PLOT COMMAND

Example shows the use of plot command used with matrix argument, each column of the
second argument matrix plotted against the corresponding column of the first argument
matrix.

(B) HOLD COMMAND

Invoking hold on at any point during a session freezes the current plot in the graphics
window. All the next plots generated by the plot command are added to the exiting plot.
(C) LINE COMMAND
The line command takes a pair of vectors (or a triplet in 3-D) followed by a parameter
name/parameter value pairs as argument. For instance, the command: line (x data, y data,
parameter name, parameter value) add lines to the existing axes
MATLAB Expo
In order to see some of the MATLAB capabilities, enter the demo command. This will
initiate the MATLAB EXPO. MATLAB EXPO is a graphical demonstration environment
that shows some of the different types of operations which can be conducted with MATLAB.
ABORT
In order to abort a command in MATLAB, hold down the control key and press c to generate
a local abort with MATLAB.
THE SEMICOLON (;)
If a semicolon (;) is typed at the end of a command, the output of the command is not
displayed.
TYPING %
When per cent symbol (%) is typed in the beginning of a line, the line is designated as a
comment. When the enter key is pressed, the line is not executed.
THE CLC COMMAND
Typing clc command and pressing enter cleans the command window. Once the clc command
is executed, a clear window is displayed.
(iii) % using the line command
t = linspace(0, 2*pi, 100);
y1 = sin(t);
y2 = t;
y3 = t–(t.^3)/6 + (t.^5)/120 – (t.^7)/5040;
plot(t, y1)
line(t, y2, ‘linestyle’, ‘–’)
line(t, y3, ‘marker’, ‘o’)
axis([0 5 –1 5])
xlabel(‘t’)
ylabel(‘sin(t) approximation’)
title(‘sin(t) function’)
• legend(‘sin(t)’, ‘linear approx’, ‘7th order approx’)
IMPLEMENTATION

Simulink is a block diagram environment for multidomain simulation and Model-Based

Design. It supports system-level design, simulation, automatic code generation, and
continuous test and verification of embedded systems. Simulink provides a graphical editor,
customizable block libraries, and solvers for modelling and simulating dynamic systems.

Simulink Block Diagrams

 Learn the basics of Simulink.

Create a Simple Model

 Model a simple system in Simulink.

Explore Model Hierarchy

 Explore the hierarchy and connections in a system.

 Model-Based Design with Simulink

Use Simulink for Model-Based Design.

 STEP 1: System Definition and Layout

 STEP 2: Model and Validate a System
 STEP 3: Design a System in Simulink

Design and simulate your system before moving to hardware

Explore a wide design space and test your systems early with multidomain modeling and
simulation.

 Quickly evaluate multiple design ideas in one multidomain simulation environment

 Simulate large-scale system models with reusable components and libraries including
specialized, third-party modeling tools

 Deploy simulation models for desktop, real-time, and Hardware-in-the-Loop testing

 Run large simulations on multicore desktops, clusters, and the cloud

Create a Simple Model

 Start MATLAB. From the MATLAB toolstrip, click the Simulink button
 Click the Blank Model template.
 The Simulink Editor opens.
 From the Simulation tab, select Save > Save as. In the File name text box, enter a
name for your model. For example, simple_model. Click Save. The model is saved
with the file extension .slx.

Open Simulink Library Browser

Simulink provides a set of block libraries, organized by functionality in the Library Browser.
The following libraries are common to most workflows:

 Continuous — Blocks for systems with continuous states

 Discrete — Blocks for systems with discrete states
 Math Operations — Blocks that implement algebraic and logical equations
 Sinks — Blocks that store and show the signals that connect to them
 Sources — Blocks that generate the signal values that drive the model

From the Simulation tab, click the Library Browser button

Set the Library Browser to stay on top of the other desktop windows. On the Simulink
Library Browser toolbar, select the Stay on top button
To browse through the block libraries, select a category and then a functional area in the left
pane. To search all of the available block libraries, enter a search term.

For example, find the Pulse Generator block. In the search box on the browser toolbar, enter
pulse, and then press Enter. Simulink searches the libraries for blocks with pulse in their
name or description and then displays the blocks.

Get detailed information about a block. Right-click the Pulse Generator block and then
select Help for the Pulse Generator block. The Help browser opens with the reference page
for the block. Blocks typically have several parameters. You can access all block parameters
by double-clicking the block.

Add Blocks to a Model

To start building the model, browse the library and add the blocks.

From the Sources library, drag the Pulse Generator block to the Simulink Editor. A copy of
the Pulse Generator block appears in your model with a text box for the value of
the Amplitude parameter. Enter 1.
Parameter values are held throughout the simulation.

Add the following blocks to your model using the same approach.

Add a second Out port block by copying the existing one and pasting it at another point using
keyboard shortcuts. Your model now has the blocks you need.

Arrange the blocks by clicking and dragging each block. To resize a block, drag a corner.

Connect Blocks

Connect the blocks by creating lines between output ports and input ports.

Click the output port on the right side of the Pulse Generator block.

The output port and all input ports suitable for a connection are indicated by a blue chevron
symbol port hint symbol >.

Point to > port hint symbol to see the connection cue.

Click the cue. Simulink connects the blocks with a line and an arrow indicating the direction
of signal flow.

Connect the output port of the Gain block to the input port on the Integrator, Second-Order
block.

Connect the two outputs of the Integrator, Second-Order block to the two Out port blocks.

Save your model. In the Simulation tab, click Save.

Add Signal Viewer

To view simulation results, connect the first output to a Signal Viewer.

Click the signal. In the Simulation tab under Prepare, click Add Viewer. Select Scope. A
viewer icon appears on the signal and a scope window opens.

You can open the scope at any time by double-clicking the icon.

Run Simulation

After you define the configuration parameters, you are ready to simulate your model.

On the Simulation tab, set the simulation stop time by changing the value in the tool strip.
CONCLUSION

A new non-isolated high step-up multi-input converter is presented for hybrid energy system
applications with multiple power sources. This converter provides the capability to
independent control of the output voltage and input power, leading to the simplicity of the
control circuit. Output voltage regulation can be done via the switch of master input,
regardless of the status of other inputs just like a regular single-input DC-DC converter and
power absorbed from each slave input can also be controlled independent of other sources.
Due to providing soft switching condition, 95.9% total efficiency is achieved for a 300W
prototype with three input sources. This converter benefits from simple structure; no extra
components is needed to provide soft switching in case of adding extra inputs. However, it
lacks bidirectional port and like many existing multi-input topologies, a simple bidirectional
converter should be applied to be able to use storage system. Moreover, benefiting from
continues input current, independent power transmission, and high step-up voltage gain can
make this structure a suitable candidate for hybrid renewable energy systems.
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