Physiological Psychology - Midterms

PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS
LESSON 5: Visual System
❖ Light
➢ It is reflected into your eyes from the objects around you that
are the basis for your ability to see them.
➢ IF THERE’S NO LIGHT, THERE’S NO VISION.
➢ It is a form of energy.
➢ It is electromagnetic radiation.
➢ It travels in waves.
➢ It has two properties:
■ Wavelength
● It determines the color or hue.
● Pagitan sa dalawang wave.
■ Intensity
● It identifies the brightness.
● Lumens.
❖ Electromagnetic Spectrum
➢ It is the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation.
➢ The placing of electromagnetic radiation in the
electromagnetic spectrum is according to their wavelength.
➢ Pinakamaliit to pinakamalaki.
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❖ Shorter Wavelength
➢ It is higher in frequency and higher in energy.
❖ Longer Wavelength
➢ It is lower in frequency and lower in energy.
7 TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS:

1. Radio Rays
★ Your radio captures radio waves emitted by radio stations,
bringing your favorite tunes.
★ Radio waves are also emitted by stars and gases in space.
★ Pinakamalaking wave at hindi delikado.
2. Microwave
★ It will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes, but is also used
by astronomers to learn about the structure of nearby galaxies.
3. Infrared
★ Night vision goggles pick up the infrared light emitted by our
skin and objects with heat.
★ In space, infrared light helps us map the dust between stars.
★ Example ay ‘yung sa remote.
4. Visible Light
★ Our eyes detect light.
★ Fireflies, light bulbs, and stars all emit visible light.
★ Nasa paligid natin na nakikita natin.
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5. Ultraviolet
★ It is emitted by the Sun and is the reason skin tans and burns.
★ “Hot” objects in space emit UV radiation as well.
6. X-ray
★ A dentist uses X-rays to image your teeth, and the airport
security system uses them to see through your bag.
★ Hot gases in the Universe also emit X-rays.
7. Gamma Ray
★ Doctors use gamma-ray imaging to see inside your body.
★ The biggest gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe.
★ Hindi agad nakikita.
★ Dangerous sa katawan ng tao due to high level of energy.
❖ Wavelength
➢ It is the distance between 2 points on adjacent waves.
➢ The shorter the wavelength, the more the energy.
➢ The longer the wavelength, the lesser the energy.
➢ It is measured in nanometers (nm) which is equivalent to
0.000000001 meters or 1e-9 m.
➢ It identifies the color or hue that we see.
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❖ Intensity
➢ Determines the brightness of the light color.
➢ The higher the intensity, the brighter the color.
➢ The lower the intensity, the darker the color.
➢ It is measured in lumens (lm).
➢ Lumens– nasa bumbilya.
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THE VISUAL SYSTEM (EXTERNAL PARTS)
Eyelid– open and close ng eyes.

Eyelashes– protective layer to sweep away the debris from the
environment.
❖ Sclera
➢ It is the white visible portion.
➢ It is made up of dense connective tissue and protects the inner
parts.
❖ Iris
➢ It is the pigmented, coloured portion of the eye, visible
externally which the main function is to control the diameter of
the pupil according to the light source.
➢ Its muscles control the size of the pupil.
❖ Conjunctiva
➢ It lubricates the front surface of the eye.
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➢ It is a thin, transparent layer of tissue that lines the inner

surface of the eyelid and covers the white part of the eye.
➢ It also protects the eyes from debris, dust, and
infection-causing microorganisms.
➢ Mahapdi ang eyes kapag wala; ito ‘yung namamaga sa sore eyes
(conjunctivitis).
❖ Pupil
➢ It is the small aperture located in the center of the Iris that
allows light to enter and focus on the retina.
➢ Iris opening that changes size depending on the amount of
light in the environment.
➢ Aperture– opening or entry point.
❖ Eyebrows
➢ These are the first line of defense for your eyes, keeping
airborne dirt, dust, lint, and other debris from reaching the
delicate eye tissues.
THE VISUAL SYSTEM (INTERNAL PARTS)
❖ Cornea
★ It is the transparent, anterior or front part of our eye, which
covers the pupil and the iris that acts as an additional protective
layer for the eye.
★ It helps to focus light to produce a clear image on the retina.
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★ It bends light waves so the image can be focused on the retina.

★ Kapag hindi nakarating kay Retina, walang mapro-process.
★ Papalitan ‘yung cornea kapag nagkaproblema.
❖ Aqueous Humor
★ It is a watery substance that fills the eye.
★ It is made from blood plasma, using a special filtering process
that removes proteins and other impurities that may cloud
vision.
★ If the patient’s aqueous humor is not draining properly, they
can develop glaucoma.
★ It is a clear liquid that nourishes the eye.
★ To protect the eye from possible blindness.
★ It is split into two chambers:
○ Anterior Chamber
■ A small pocket of liquid that lies between the
cornea and the iris.
■ It helps the cornea and pupil to focus light.
■ Harap.
○ Posterior Chamber
■ It is an aqueous fluid-filled chamber behind the iris
and the pupil sits between the iris and the lens.
■ Completes the job of focusing light.
■ Likod; mas mafofocus ‘yung light papunta kay
Retina.
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❖ Lens
★ This is a clear layer that focuses the light the pupil takes in.
★ It is held in place by the ciliary muscles, which allow the lens to
change shape depending on the amount of light that hits it so it
can be properly focused.
★ It changes shape to bring objects into focus.
★ Nag-a-accomodate if we see far or near things.
★ Dito tumutubo ‘yung cataract– white part na nagcacause ng
blindness.
❖ Retina
★ The light focused by the lens will be transmitted onto the retina.
★ It is located in the back of the eye, and is connected to the optic
nerves that will transmit the images the eye sees to the brain so
they can be interpreted.
★ It contains photoreceptor cells.
★ Likod ng eyeballs.
★ Connected sa optic nerves– nakita ng mata mo– iproprocess sa
visual cortex– light energy to energy impulses– dadalhin ni
optic nerve kay occipital lobe.
★ 2 Layers of Retina:
○ Pigmented Layer
■ Outer layer of the retina.
■ It helps absorb light coming from the lens.
■ Violet and red.
■ Dito binabato ‘yung light energy from the pupil.
○ Neural Layer
■ Inner layer of the retina.
■ It contains neurons such as bipolar and ganglion
neurons used to collect data about light.
■ Mas makapal at mas maraming functions.
■ Photoreceptors– part of the system that receives
information; dito matatanggap ‘yung light energy.
■ Bipolar neurons– messenger between
photoreceptors and ganglion neurons; nacoconvert
‘yung light energy to impulses sa optic nerve.
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■ It has two photoreceptors:

● Rods
○ They only register colors of black and
white.
○ They cannot collect real color.
○ It can only provide details of shape and
lightness or darkness.
○ Unang nagrereceive.
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● Cones
○ It collects fine detail and color.
○ It can only be activated if there is a
highlight intensity.
○ According to Opponent-Process
Theory, a theory of color vision that
proposes 4 primary colors with cones
arranged in pairs:
■ Red and green
■ Blue and yellow
○ Colorblindness
■ It occurs when a mutation
prevents one or more types of
cone cells from working properly.
■ Often, these cone cells do
respond to light– but not at the
normal wavelength.
■ This can lead to gaps in color
perception.
■ It can sometimes be treated using
special glasses that filter out
wavelengths of color which may
confuse mutant cone cells,
causing different colors to look
the same.
■ It can be determined by the
Ishihara Color Test.
■ Nag-iiba ‘yung color na
naiinterpret niya.
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■ Nagkakaproblema sa mga cones

mo.
❖ Optic Nerve
★ It is a bundle of neural fibers that travel from the retina to the
brain.
★ Each of these encodes the image date recorded by the retina in
the form of neural signals that can be read by the brain.
★ It sends visual information to the brain.
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❖ Fovea
➢ It is the central area of the retina; greatest density of
photoreceptors.
❖ Blind Spot (Optic Disc)

➢ Where the optic nerve leaves the eye; there are no
photoreceptor cells here.
❖ Vitreous Humor
➢ It is a jelly-like liquid that nourishes and gives shape to the eye.
THE PROCESS OF VISION

1. Light reflects off the object we are looking at.
2. Light rays enter the eye through the cornea at the front of the eye.
3. The light passes through a watery fluid (aqueous humor), and enters
the pupil to reach the lens.
4. The lens can change in thickness to bend the light, which will focus it
onto the retina at the back of the eye.
5. On the way to the retina, the light passes through a thick, clear fluid
called a vitreous humor. The vitreous humor fills the eyeball and helps
maintain its round shape.
6. The light then reaches the back of the eye and hits the retina. The
retina translates the light into electrical impulses which are then
carried to the brain by the optic nerve.
7. Finally, the visual cortex (or centre) of the brain interprets these
impulses as what we see.
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LESSON 6: Hearing (or Auditory Systems)

❖ Sensation
➢ It is a process by which our senses such as vision, hearing,
smell, taste, and touch receive and relay outside stimuli or
signals from the receptors towards the brain.
❖ Receptors
➢ It will pick up information from the environment such as
physical energy and will convert it into nervous energy or
electrical signal, a process called transduction.
➢ Without transduction, hindi natin marerelay sa brain ‘yung
information from the environment.
➢ 3 Kinds of Receptors: (saan nanggagaling ‘yung information?)
1. Exteroceptor (external)
★ Responsible for receiving information outside the
body.
★ Some of this information is coming from our sense
of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.
★ Mga pinag-uusapan natin; included dito ang rods
and cones.
2. Interoceptor (internal)
★ Responsible for receiving information inside the
body.
★ Involves metabolism, changes in pH level, changes in
distention of organs.
3. Proprioceptor
★ Responsible for the movement of the body.
★ Involves muscle tension, balance, and force.
★ Hindi pasok kay exteroceptor at interoceptor.
➢ 5 Modalities of Receptors:
○ Type of sensation that is being picked up.
1. Chemoreceptor
★ Pick up information about changes in
chemicals.
★ Came from the word chemical.
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★ Involves:
○ Acidity or pH level in the body.
○ Ions such as sodium and potassium.
2. Thermal Receptor (temperature or thermometer)
★ Responsible for picking up information about
changes in temperature.
3. Mechanoreceptor
★ Pick up changes in physical distortion or
touch.
★ It involves pressure, vibration, fine touch, gross
touch.
4. Photoreceptor
★ It is located at the retina of the eye and
responsible for picking up light energy.
★ 2 types of photoreceptors are rods and cones.
5. Nociceptor
★ It picks up pain.
★ It can also pick up varying degrees of
chemical, temperature, and mechanical
changes.
★ It is a special receptor because it overlaps
with other modalities receptors when there is
pain.
★ Kapag may masakit na sa changes inside the
body.
● Vestibular Cortex– responsible for balance (temporal lobe).
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AUDITORY SYSTEM:
❖ 2 Functions of the Auditory System:
➢ To receive sound stimuli.
■ To process the sounds na napipick-up sa environment.
➢ To maintain balance or equilibrium.
■ Process of hearing and balancing.
❖ Sound
➢ From the environment, it creates waves through vibration.
➢ If there’s NO VIBRATION, there will be NO SOUND.
➢ Vibration
■ It causes air particles to vibrate which helps us interpret
the sound that we hear.
■ Every sound has different vibrations.
➢ 2 Components:
■ Frequency
● It determines the pitch of the sound.
◆ Pitch– taas at baba ng sound.
● The higher the pitch, the shorter the wavelength.
● The lower the pitch, the longer the wavelength.
◆ ‘Yung mga bass.
■ Amplitude
● It determines the loudness of the sound.
◆ ‘Yung taas ng wave.
● The higher the amplitude, the higher the volume.
● The lower the amplitude, the lower the volume.
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THE EAR
● Blue– outer ear; yellow– middle ear; violet- inner ear.
❖ Ear
➢ It is the organ responsible for hearing.
➢ It is divided into 3 major parts namely:
■ External Ear
● Only involved with hearing.
■ Middle Ear
● Only involved with hearing.
■ Inner Ear
● Key to both hearing and maintaining your
equilibrium.
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OUTER EAR
❖ Pinna (or Auricle)
➢ It is located on the side of the head, and is the visible part of the
ear externally.
➢ It collects sound waves and channels them down the external
ear canal.
➢ External Acoustic Meatus
■ Auditory canal.
❖ Ear Canal
➢ It is roughly 3 cm long in adults.
➢ Skin lines the canal, and contains glands that produce
secretions that mix with dead skin cells to produce cerumen
(earwax). – also known as tutuli.
■ Protective layer ng tenga natin kaya hindi recommended
na magtanggal araw-araw ng earwax.
MIDDLE EAR
★ It is separated from the ear canal of the outer ear by the tympanic
membrane (the eardrum).
★ Its function is to transfer the vibrations of the eardrum to the inner
ear fluid.
★ Kaya tayo nakakarinig at nakaka balance dahil sa fluid sa inner ear
natin.
○ Ang trabaho ni eardrum ay magtratransfer ng vibrations from
pinna to inner ear.
■ Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)
● It is about 1 cm in diameter and slightly concave
(curving inward) on its outer surface.
● It vibrates freely in response to sound.
● It is highly innervated, making it highly sensitive
to pain.
● Or it contains nerves.
● Kapag nadali or napoke, masakit.
■ Tympanic Cavity
● It amplifies the sound waves to make it more
stronger as they enter the inner ear.
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● It contains the body’s three smallest bones referred

to as auditory ossicles, and connect the eardrum to
the inner ear.
◆ Gagalaw lahat ng 3 smallest bones kapag
nakareceive ng information from the
environment.
● 3 smallest bones:
◆ Malleus
➢ It is attached to the eardrum.
◆ Incus
➢ It is connected to the malleus on the
side closer to the eardrum, and to the
stapes on the side close to the inner ear.
➢ Nasa gitna ng 2 buto.
◆ Stapes
➢ It has an arch and a footplate that is
held by a ringlike piece of tissue in an
opening called the oval window, which
is the entrance into the inner ear.
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INNER EAR
★ It is also known as the labyrinth.
★ Labyrinth
○ The movement from the middle ear leads to pressure waves that
make the fluid inside the ear move.
○ It has 2 main functions:
1. To convert sound energy into electric impulse that will be
transmitted to the brain for it to be able to interpret the
sound.
2. To maintain the balance or sense of equilibrium of an
individual.
➢ Vestibulocochlear Cranial Nerve (8)
○ It is at the end of the inner ear.
○ It is responsible for hearing and balance.
○ It has 2 layers:
■ Bony Labyrinth
● It is the outer or hardest part.
● It encloses the membranous labyrinth.
● It contains perilymph.
● Perilymph
○ It is a cushion fluid, which surrounds the
membranous labyrinth.
■ Membranous Labyrinth
● It is like a flesh-like tissue and the inner part.
● It is a network of fleshy tubes where a fluid called
endolymph is found.
○ Endolymph
■ It is the fluid inside the membranous
labyrinth.
■ It is responsible for processing the
balance and the sound.
● Perilymph and endolymph are involved in
regulating hair cells necessary for hearing.
● Nakalutang sa bony labyrinth with the help of the
fluid called perilymph.
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❖ Auditory Process
➢ Cochlea
■ It is the part of the whole ear that actually converts sound
vibrations to electrical impulses.
■ Dito nagkakaroon ng transduction.
■ Basilar Membrane
● It forms the base of the organ of Corti.
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● Movement of the basilar membrane in response to

sound vibration causes the hair cells in the organ of
Corti to be triggered.
● Dito gagalaw lahat ng mga parts ng inner ear from
endolymph.
● Dark blue– basilar membrane
● Blue sa gitna- organ of Corti
● Kamukha ni Plankton– hair cells
● Yellow- auditory nerve to auditory cortex.
■ Organ of Corti
● It is about the size of a pea.
● It is where the transduction takes place.
● It contains the hair cells.
■ Hair Cells
● These are sensory receptors of both the auditory
system and the vestibular system in the ears of all
vertebrates.
● Ito ang magcoconvert ng sounds to electrical
impulse papunta sa auditory cortex.
● Dumadaan sa cochlear nerve.
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PROCESS OF HEARING
1. The outer ear (the part that you can see) acts like a funnel that sends
sounds into your ear canal from the outside world.
2. The sound waves travel down the ear canal to your eardrum in the
middle ear.
3. Sound waves make your eardrum vibrate and move the 3 tiny bones in
your middle ear.
4. The movement from the middle ear leads to pressure waves that make
the fluid inside the cochlear move.
5. The movement of fluid in your inner ear makes the tiny hairs in the
cochlea bend and move.
6. The “dancing” hairs in the cochlea convert the movement from
sound waves into electrical signals.
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7. The electrical signals are sent to the brain through the hearing
(auditory) nerves. This makes a sound.
❖ Balance Process
➢ Vestibular Apparatus
■ It is a sensory apparatus of the inner ear that helps the
body maintain its postural equilibrium.
■ It is responsible for balancing.
➢ Semicircular Canals
■ It detects different kinds of head rotations.
➢ Utricle and Saccule

■ They use small stones and a viscous fluid to stimulate
hair cells to detect motion and orientation.
■ Hair cells will detect the motion of the fluid that will be
transmitted to the brain through the vestibular nerve.
■ Pinaka importante na part ng vestibular apparatus kasi
may fluid at hair cells din diyan.
■ Kaya ka mahihilo kapag umikot ikot ka kasi umiikot dito
‘yung fluid at maoout of balance ka.
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LESSON 7: Touch, Smell, & Taste
SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM
★ It is the part of the sensory system concerned with the conscious
perception of touch, pressure, pain, temperature, position, movement,
and vibration, which arise from the muscles, joints, skin, and fascia.
★ Pressure (kumirot or dumagan)
★ Cutaneous Receptor– sa skin nakikita; nasa dermis layer;
nagrereceive ng information.
★ Transduction– sa skin na mismo nangyayari, ‘pag binato sa neurons,
electric impulse na siya.
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❖ Pressure Sensitive (sense of pressure)

➢ Ruffini’s Endings/Corpuscles (stretching)
➢ Pacinian Corpuscles (vibration)
➢ Krause’s End Bulbs (pressure)
❖ Fine Touch (sense of touch)
➢ Meissner’s Corpuscle (gross touch)
➢ Merkel’s Disks (pressure)
➢ Root Hair Plexus (fine touch)
❖ Temperature and Pain
➢ Free Nerve Endings (pain, heat, and cold)
❖ Muscle Spindles (pain sa muscle lalo kapag nag-gy-gym)
➢ Muscle Stretching
❖ Cortical Homunculus
➢ It is the brain’s physical representation of the human body; it is
a neurological map of the anatomical divisions of the body.
➢ The surface area of the cortex dedicated to a body part
correlates with the amount of somatosensory input from that
area.
➢ Level of sensitivity ng somatosensory cortex.
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❖ 2 MAJOR SOMATOSENSORY PATHWAYS/TRACT

1. Dorsal-Column Medial Lemniscus System
★ It carries information about touch and proprioception from
mechanoreceptors and proprioceptors.
★ It involves:
○ Position
○ Vibration
○ Fine touch/Specific touch
○ Pressure
2. Spinothalamic Tract/Anterolateral System

★ It carries information about pain and temperature from
nociceptors and thermoreceptors.
★ It involves:
○ Pain
○ Temperature
○ Gross touch/Crude touch
★ Depende sa kung anong sensations.
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❖ Decussation
➢ It refers to the point at which fibers cross the midline that takes
place either.
➢ When the information is transferred from the left part to the
right part either from medulla oblongata or spinal cord.
➢ Saan nagtra-transfer ‘yung information?
➢ Dorsal– medulla oblongata
➢ Spinothalamic– spinal cord– dito nagdedecussate
❖ Spinal Neurons
➢ First order neurons.
➢ It is located in the spinal cord.
❖ Thalamic Neurons
➢ Second order neurons.
➢ It is located and going to the thalamus.
❖ Somatosensory Neurons
➢ Third order neurons.
➢ It is the one who will guide going to the somatosensory cortex.
❖ Medulla Oblongata
➢ It makes up the lower part of the brainstem responsible for
autonomic (involuntary) functions.
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❖ Process of Somatosensory System

➢ The somatosensory system is a 3-neuron system that relays
sensations detected in the periphery and conveys them via
pathways through the spinal cord, brainstem, and thalamic relay
nuclei to the sensory cortex in the parietal lobe.
A. Dorsal-Column Medial Lemniscus System

1. Information from the environment such as position, pressure,
vibration, and fine touch will be received by the cutaneous
receptors in the dermis layer of the skin.
2. Transduction will take place in the receptors upon receiving the
3. The electric impulse will travel through the nerves until it
reaches the first order neuron, neurons found at the spinal
cord.
4. The electric impulse will be carried by the first order neuron
going to the medulla where decussation will take place.
5. After the decussation, impulse will be brought by the second
order neuron into the thalamus.
6. In the thalamus, impulse will be relayed by the third order
neuron to the specific part of the brain that is responsible for a
certain part of the body as per the homunculus.
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B. Spinothalamic Tract/Anterolateral System

1. Information from the environment such as position, pressure,
vibration, and fine touch will be received by the cutaneous
receptors in the dermis layer of the skin.
2. Transduction will take place in the receptors upon receiving the
3. The electric impulse will travel through the nerves until it
reaches the first order neuron, neurons found at the spinal cord
where decussation will take place.
4. The electric impulse will be carried by the first order neuron
going to the medulla.
5. Impulse will be brought by the second order neuron into the
thalamus.
6. In the thalamus, impulse will be relayed by the third order
neuron to the specific part of the brain that is responsible for a
certain part of the body as per the homunculus.
OLFACTORY SYSTEM
★ Information from the environment such as smell and taste are
considered as chemical senses received by the chemoreceptors in the
nose and in the tongue.
★ It is the most thoroughly studied component of the chemosensory
triad and processes information about the identity, concentration, and
quality of a wide range of chemical stimuli called odorants.
★ Odorants– ito ‘yung narereceive sa environment.
❖ 9 Parts of the Olfactory System:
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1. Nose
★ Opening containing nasal passages that allows outside air to
flow into the nasal cavity.
★ It is where the molecules or particles of the odorants will enter.
2. Olfactory Epithelium
★ Specialized type of epithelial tissue
in nasal cavities that contains
millions of olfactory sensory
neurons.
★ These cells send impulses to the
olfactory bulb.
★ Andito lahat ng olfactory neurons.
3. Olfactory Sensory Neurons

★ It receives the odorant
molecules and will convert it
into olfactory impulse and will
send it to the glomerulus
located at the olfactory bulb.
★ Dito nangyayari ‘yung
transduction.
4. Ethmoid Bone
★ Olfactory nerve fibers extend
through the holes in the
ethmoid bone to reach the
olfactory bulbs.
★ Dito dadaan ‘yung neurons
papuntang olfactory bulb.
5. Olfactory Bulb
★ It sends olfactory information to
be further processed in the
olfactory cortex in the temporal
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lobe, amygdala, and the hippocampus where it plays a role in

emotion, memory, and learning.
★ Malapit sa amygdala (emotions) at hippocampus (memory) at
olfactory cortex, kaya may naaalala kang memories.
6. Glomerulus
★ A spherical structure located in
the olfactory bulb of the brain
where synapses form between the
terminals of the olfactory nerve
and the dendrites of mitral cells.
★ Nagcoconnect kay olfactory at
mitral cells.
7. Mitral Cells
★ It sends the olfactory signals to the
olfactory cortex in the temporal
lobe of the brain that will pass
through the olfactory tract.
★ Sa kanya dadaan ‘yung information
papuntang olfactory cortex.
8. Olfactory Tract
★ A bond of nerve fibers that extend from each olfactory bulb to
the olfactory cortex of the brain.
9. Olfactory Cortex
★ Area of the cerebral cortex that processes information about
odors and receives nerve signals from the olfactory bulbs.
❖ Sense of Smell and Emotions

➢ Olfactory Cortex
■ It has connections with other limbic system structures
such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.
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➢ Amygdala
■ It is involved in forming emotional responses
(particularly fear responses) and memories.
➢ Hippocampus
■ It indexes and stores memories.
➢ Hypothalamus
■ It regulates emotional responses.
➢ Limbic System
■ It is the one that connects senses, such as odors, to our
memories and emotions.
❖ Process of Olfactory System:

1. The odorant molecules will enter the nose.
2. Olfactory sensory neurons in the nose will receive the odorant
and will convert it to olfactory impulse.
3. Converted olfactory impulses will pass through the ethmoid
bone.
4. After passing through the ethmoid bone, olfactory impulse will
be sent to the glomerulus then to the mitral cells that are both
found in the olfactory bulb.
5. Mitral cells will send the signal to the olfactory tract which will
carry the information to the olfactory cortex in the brain and
the limbic system where the smell will be interpreted.
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GUSTATORY SYSTEM
★ It is the sensory system responsible for the perception of taste and
flavor.
★ In humans, it is comprised of taste cells in the mouth, several cranial
nerves, and gustatory cortex.
★ 5 taste modalities:
○ Salty
○ Sweet
○ Bitter
○ Sour
○ Umami
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❖ 6 Parts of the Gustatory System:
1. Tongue
★ Primary organ of the gustatory system.
★ The surface of the tongue, along with the rest of the oral cavity,
is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium.
★ It is where papillae are found which contains the taste buds.
2. Papillae
★ These are raised bumps found in the tongue.
★ It contains the structures for gustatory transduction.
★ 3 Types of Papillae:
○ Fungiform
■ It is a papillae located in the anterior part
containing approximately five taste buds.
○ Circumvallate Papillae
■ These are bigger and more posterior than the
previous ones.
○ Foliate Papillae
■ These are in the posterior edge of the tongue.
★ Papillae- plural; papilla- singular.
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3. Taste Buds
★ It contains specialized gustatory receptor
cells for the transduction of taste stimuli.
★ These receptor cells are sensitive to the
chemicals contained within foods that are
ingested.
★ Nasa gilid ng papillae; importanteng part.
★ Dito malalaman kung anong flavor.
4. Taste Receptor
★ It will receive the different
molecules from your food.
★ It has two types:
○ Basal Cells
■ It replaces the gustatory
cells every week
especially when it was
burnt upon eating a hot food or dish.
■ Nagreregenerate kapag kumain ng maanghang or
napaso.
■ Nagiging bagong gustatory cells.
○ Gustatory Cells
■ It is responsible for a particular flavor such as:
● Sweet
● Sour
● Salty
● Bitter
● Umami (savory)
■ Andito ‘yung different flavors.
■ Spicy– pain or sense of touch.
37
5. Taste Pore
★ It detects dissolved chemicals
ingested in food, leading to the
activation of receptor cells in the
taste buds and the sensation of taste.
6. Gustatory Hair
★ It is where transduction in the
gustatory system takes place.
★ It generates action potentials when
stimulated by chemicals that are
dissolved in the saliva.
38
LESSON 8: Sleep & Circadian Rhythms
❖ Consciousness
➢ It is the person’s awareness of everything that is going on
around him or her at any given moment.
➢ Kapag nakakatulog, walang consciousness.
➢ 2 Types of Consciousness:
■ Waking Consciousness
● It is the state in which thoughts, feelings, and
sensations are clear, organized, and the person feels
alert.
● Under working memory or short-term memory.
■ Altered State of Consciousness
● It is defined as a state in which the neurocognitive
background mechanisms of consciousness have an
increased tendency to produce misrepresentations
such as hallucinations, delusions, and memory
distortions.
● May distortion ‘yung reality.
● Distortion– it involves your senses.
● Alteration
◆ When your brain processes something pero
wala namang input from the environment.
39
● Hallucinations
◆ It is a common type of alteration.
◆ It involves alteration using one or more of the
senses.
● Delusions
◆ It involves one’s thought process or
alteration of thinking.
◆ Ina-alter ‘yung beliefs and reality mo.
❖ Circadian Rhythm
➢ It is a cycle of bodily rhythm that occurs over a 24-hour period.
➢ It comes from the Latin words circa which means about and
diem means day.
➢ 3 Examples of circadian rhythms:
■ Sleep-wake cycle
■ Body-temperature cycle
■ Cycles in which a number of hormones are secreted
➢ Routine ng katawan sa loob ng isang araw.
➢ Temperature– tumataas lagi pagkagising; to give energy sa tao.
SLEEP
❖ Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
➢ It is deep within the hypothalamus.
➢ It is the internal clock that tells people when to wake up and
when to fall asleep.
➢ Specific part of the brain that is responsible for sleep.
➢ Ito ‘yung tinatawag na body clock.
❖ Hypothalamus
➢ It is a tiny section of the brain that influences the glandular or
endocrine system.
➢ Controller sa lahat ng bagay sa brain natin.
❖ Endocrine System
➢ It is the collection of glands that produce hormones that
regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function,
sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other
things.
40
❖ Pineal Gland
➢ It produces melatonin.
➢ Ito ‘yung nag rerelease ng melatonin kaya inaantok tayo.
❖ Melatonin
➢ It is a hormone which modulates sleep patterns in both
circadian and seasonal cycles.
❖ 2 Theories of Sleep:
➢ Adaptive Theory
■ It proposes that animals and humans evolved sleep
patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators
are most active.
■ Humans– highest forms of animals.
➢ Restorative Theory
■ It proposes that sleep is necessary to the physical health
of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair
cellular damage.
■ Repairing cells and your body.
BRAIN WAVES
❖ Electroencephalogram (EEG)
➢ It allows scientists to see the brain wave activity as a person
passes through the various stages of sleep and to determine
what type of sleep the person has entered.
41
➢ Electrodes– mga bilog bilog sa machine; para malaman if saang

stage na ng sleep.
Beta– conscious pero naka focus sa isang bagay.

Alpha- conscious pero relaxed; hindi nag-iisip at hindi gumagalaw.
Theta- shifting of wake cycle to sleep cycle or vice versa; nananaginip na;
pagising or patulog.
Delta- totally unconscious na; walang maaalala ang mga tao during the
deep sleep.
STAGES OF SLEEP
❖ Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
➢ It is a stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the
eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream.
➢ Nananaginip and ready na magising at any moment.
42
❖ Non-Rapid Eye Movement (non-REM)

➢ It is any of the stages of sleep that do not include REM.
➢ Stable na ‘yung sleep.
1. Light Sleep (Non-REM)

★ This stage is the changeover from wakefulness to sleep.
★ During this short period (lasting for 10-15 minutes) of
relatively light sleep, your heartbeat, breathing, and eye
movements slow, and your muscles relax with occasional twitches.
★ Your brain waves begin to slow from their daytime wakefulness
patterns.
★ Hypnagogic Hallucinations
○ At this stage, they are imagining very realistic objects or
events right before falling asleep.
○ Tulog na pero mababaw pa rin ang tulog mo; babangon ka
pa once gumana ang isa sa mga senses mo.
★ Kapag tinapik, magigising agad.
★ Common ‘yung biglang gagalaw ‘yung kamay o paa.
2. Restful Sleep (Non-REM)

★ It is a period of light sleep before you enter deeper sleep.
★ Your heartbeat and breathing slow, and muscles relax even
further.
★ Your body temperature drops and eye movements stop.
★ Power nap at napahinga ‘yung katawan.
★ Enough para mag gain ka ng energy.
43
3. Deep Sleep (Non-REM)

★ It is the period of sleep that you need to feel refreshed in the
morning.
★ It occurs in longer periods during the first half of the night.
★ Your heartbeat and breathing slow to their lowest levels during
sleep.
★ This stage is also known as restorative sleep, slow-wave sleep,
or delta sleep.
★ Important stage of sleep.
★ Highly unconscious ang isang tao.
★ Kapag nagka night terror, hindi sila magigising.
4. Paradoxical Sleep (REM)

★ Your eyes move rapidly from side to side behind closed eyelids.
★ Mixed frequency brain wave activity becomes closer to that seen
in wakefulness.
★ Your breathing becomes faster and irregular, and your heart
rate and blood pressure increase to near waking levels.
★ Most of your dreaming occurs during REM sleep, although
some can also occur in non-REM sleep.
★ Your arm and leg muscles become temporarily paralyzed,
which prevents you from acting out your dreams.
★ Time na nananaginip na ‘yung tao at pagising na ‘yung tao.
★ Sleep Paralysis
○ Biglang nagising during panaginip kaso paralyzed ka.
○ Biglang nagising during deep sleep kaso lahat ng vitals
mo is mababa.
44
SLEEP DISORDERS (2 MAJOR CATEGORIES)

1. Dyssomnias
★ These are sleep disorders that cause trouble falling asleep or
staying asleep.
★ It’s either someone’s having too much or too little sleep.
★ Duration of sleep.
a. Insomnia
★ Difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep.
★ Early-morning awakening with inability to return to
sleep.
★ Sleep disturbance causes clinically significant distress or
impairment in one’s life.
★ The sleep difficulty occurs at least 3 nights per week.
★ The sleep difficulty is present for at least 3 months.
★ The sleep difficulty occurs despite adequate opportunity
for sleep.
★ Nahihirapang makatulog; nakakatulog pero
pagising-gising naman.
b. Hypersomnolence
★ A prolonged main sleep episode of more than 9 hours per
day that is non restorative or non beneficial.
★ Occurs at least three times per week, for at least 3 months.
★ Sobra sobra sa tulog at hindi umaabot sa deep sleep;
antukin.
★ Narcolepsy
○ Recurrent periods of an irrepressible need to sleep,
lapsing into sleep, or napping occurring within the
same day.
○ These must have been occurring at least three times
per week over the past 3 months.
○ Nakakatulog bigla bigla.
2. Parasomnias
★ Sleep disorders that make a person do abnormal activities
during sleep.
★ May ginagawang uncommon behaviors.
45
a. Nightmares
★ Unpleasant dreams that occur during REM or dream
sleep.
★ Naaalala mo.
b. Night Terror
★ Causing feelings of panic or dread typically occurring
during the first hours of stage 3 Non-REM sleep and
lasting for 1 to 10 minutes.
★ No part of the dream will be remembered.
★ Hindi mo naaalala.
★ Malalaman mo na lang kapag may nagsabi sa’yo.
c. Sleep Walking
★ Also known as somnambulism which results in walking
or performing other complex behaviors while still mostly
asleep.
★ Nahihirapang pag-aralan kung finafake ba or hindi.
LESSON 9: Hunger & Eating Disorders
BRAIN
❖ Hypothalamus
➢ It is part of the brain that is responsible for
signaling your body if you are either hungry
or full.
➢ It will determine if your body is high in
energy or poor in energy.
HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR HUNGER AND EATING

★ A person’s state of hunger and satiety can be defined by these levels
of hormones in the bloodstream of an individual.
★ Satiety– it is a feeling of fullness.
46
★ These hormones are:

1. Insulin
★ It is a peptide hormone secreted by the β cells of the pancreas.
★ It is secreted once your body consumes sugar (glucose).
★ It moves glucose from your bloodstream to your cells which will
give your body energy or fuel.
★ It will convert the glucose into fat sometimes when needed.
★ Without it, your body will not have the energy it needs to move.
★ It will also signal your hypothalamus to stop craving because
your body reached the state of satiety.
★ Linked to diabetes.
★ Nagcoconvert ng sugar into energy.
★ Dederetso ‘yung sugar sa bloodstream.
★ No insulin– nagsstuck lang siya sa bloodstream.
★ Symptoms: gaining of weight
★ Diabetes
○ If someone is suffering from diabetes, it means that their
body is not able to produce a very low level or no insulin
at all (Type I Diabetes), or your body doesn’t react to your
insulin normally (Type II Diabetes) also known as insulin
resistance.
○ 2 Kinds of Diabetes:
■ Hyperglycemia (mataas)
● Low level of insulin that will result in high
level of blood sugar.
● Complications include:
○ Vaginal and skin infections
○ Slow-healing cuts and sores
○ Worse vision
○ Stomach and intestinal problems such
as chronic constipation or diarrhea
○ Damage to your eyes, blood vessels, or
kidneys.
■ Hypoglycemia (mababa)
● It happens when there is too much insulin
sensitivity.
● Blood sugar (glucose) level is lower than
normal.
47
● Often related to diabetes treatment.

● Some drugs and a variety of conditions can
also cause low blood sugar in people who
don’t have diabetes.
● Cinoconvert agad sa fuel.
● Bumababa ‘yung sugar level.
● Symptoms include:
○ Sweating
○ Feeling tired
○ Dizziness
○ Feeling hungry
○ Tingling lips
○ Feeling shaky or trembling
○ A fast or pounding heartbeat
(palpitations)
○ Becoming easily irritated
○ Tearful
○ Anxious or moody
○ Turning pale
2. Leptin
★ A peptide hormone secreted by the adipose cells.
★ Once you eat fatty foods, it will increase lipids in the
bloodstream which will increase leptin secretion.
★ It will enter the CNS to signal the hypothalamus that your body
is in the state of satiety and will inhibit the feelings of hunger.
★ Effects of leptin secretion in the body includes:
○ Decrease in food intake
○ Increase in metabolic rate
■ Pag-digest ng food.
○ Increase in activity level (to burn the fats)
○ Increase in BBT
■ Basal Body Temperature
■ Para maburn ‘yung fats na kinain mo.
48
3. Ghrelin
★ Secreted by the cells in the fundus of the
stomach.
★ It signals the hypothalamus if the stomach is full
or empty.
★ The hypothalamus will either increase or
decrease our motivation to eat.
★ Anything na pa curve na parte ng katawan ng tao
(fundus).
★ Kapag puno na ‘yung stomach mo.
❖ Rich in Energy
➢ Full
➢ High Glucose
■ It releases insulin.
➢ High Lipids
■ It releases leptin.
➢ Full Stomach
■ It releases ghrelin.
❖ Poor in Energy
➢ Hungry
➢ Low glucose
➢ Low lipids
➢ Empty stomach
EATING DISORDERS
★ These are types of serious mental health conditions characterized by
severe disturbances in eating behaviors and related thoughts and
emotions.
★ Typically, people with ED develop an unhealthy preoccupation with
food and body size, weight, or shape that occurs for at least 3 months.
★ 3 months– kasi mamamatay ka kapag hindi ka kumain.
★ The most recent version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM-V) recognizes three sub-categories of eating
disorders:
49
1. Anorexia Nervosa (AN)

★ It means “nervous loss of appetite”.
★ Do not eat totally.
★ More successful in losing weight.
★ Obsessive preoccupation of being thin.
★ Hindi kakain kapag walang gana.
★ Kahit buto’t balat na, nakikita pa rin nila na mataba sila.
★ It has 2 subtypes:
○ Restricting Type
■ It limits calorie intake.
■ No food at all.
○ Bingeing-Purging Type
■ It involves a cycle of eating a relatively small
amount of food and purging.
■ Kakain pero may ibang ginagawa.
2. Bulimia Nervosa (BN)

★ It involves out of control eating episodes or binges followed by
self-induced vomiting (purging) or excessive use of laxatives.
★ Unduly influenced by body shape and weight.
★ They usually maintain their body weight compared to
individuals with anorexia nervosa.
★ Laxatives– pampatae.
★ Kumakain sila pero makakaramdam ng excessive guilt kaya
ilalabas nila ‘yung kinain nila.
★ Hindi nakikita physically.
★ Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)
○ Paretoke ng paretoke at hindi makuntento.
○ Ina-alter ‘yung katawan or mukha.
○ Appearance ‘yung problema.
3. Binge-Eating Disorder (BED)

★ Out of control eating large amount of food which involves:
○ Rapid eating
○ Eating until uncontrollably full
○ Eating if not hungry
○ Eating alone
50
○ Feeling too much distress and guilt after a bingeing

episode
★ Kain nang kain.
★ Aware sila na mali ‘yung ginagawa nila.
★ More on psychological disorders.
★ Hindi lahat ng obese ay may BED.
51

Physiological Psychology - Midterms

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PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS

LESSON 5: Visual System

7 TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS:

THE VISUAL SYSTEM (EXTERNAL PARTS)

Eyelid– open and close ng eyes.

➢ It is a thin, transparent layer of tissue that lines the inner

THE VISUAL SYSTEM (INTERNAL PARTS)

★ It bends light waves so the image can be focused on the retina.

■ It has two photoreceptors:

■ Nagkakaproblema sa mga cones

❖ Blind Spot (Optic Disc)

THE PROCESS OF VISION

LESSON 6: Hearing (or Auditory Systems)

● Vestibular Cortex– responsible for balance (temporal lobe).

● Blue– outer ear; yellow– middle ear; violet- inner ear.

● It contains the body’s three smallest bones referred

● Movement of the basilar membrane in response to

➢ Utricle and Saccule

LESSON 7: Touch, Smell, & Taste

❖ Pressure Sensitive (sense of pressure)

❖ 2 MAJOR SOMATOSENSORY PATHWAYS/TRACT

2. Spinothalamic Tract/Anterolateral System

❖ Process of Somatosensory System

A. Dorsal-Column Medial Lemniscus System

B. Spinothalamic Tract/Anterolateral System

❖ 9 Parts of the Olfactory System:

3. Olfactory Sensory Neurons

lobe, amygdala, and the hippocampus where it plays a role in

❖ Sense of Smell and Emotions

❖ Process of Olfactory System:

❖ 6 Parts of the Gustatory System:

LESSON 8: Sleep & Circadian Rhythms

➢ Electrodes– mga bilog bilog sa machine; para malaman if saang

Beta– conscious pero naka focus sa isang bagay.

❖ Non-Rapid Eye Movement (non-REM)

1. Light Sleep (Non-REM)

2. Restful Sleep (Non-REM)

3. Deep Sleep (Non-REM)

4. Paradoxical Sleep (REM)

SLEEP DISORDERS (2 MAJOR CATEGORIES)

LESSON 9: Hunger & Eating Disorders

HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR HUNGER AND EATING

★ These hormones are:

● Often related to diabetes treatment.

1. Anorexia Nervosa (AN)

2. Bulimia Nervosa (BN)

3. Binge-Eating Disorder (BED)

○ Feeling too much distress and guilt after a bingeing

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