J3efe o

Minmal
Ma melaio9 howe Cai

POCess es

The ons have

PPopesties
dferent nd chemica

chohge dens:ty
Comlex-formsio
Oxidoon slakes
Toeiats peofor Severa Vtal
functiog h
apsolotcy essetil forhe ier xisteKe
fthe Ogonism
The se nelodes calcifio
Bone, blod Coagolation TEOTo w s u laSs
itab.tty acid base eqoiLibsium,flo:d bolance
oSnotc laion.

Calcio-
Calc ium
hmcst alwndomt
S
the mebet Ton
t h e body The Lotal
cooteot dp alciom
aduet S a beu easlw
As much as 397. i s resentD
the boaeS and teeth
Brohem fcal uncico
Develorrent of Bones and tee th
CalcUm and Phospak. is oTed fev the
amd Phasico senqt f
Sheleta9 swcde. booe esevicun af Ca
 MeeE COntvacs.
ts0po090 CO acbo Ca Ttesact
o
tCalcium tziqge muscie
the also
activates
activates Cootracion
Cosbracéion
3 Blood tevactiom between Apase
ATPase and
and cre
9nciease s
actiO amd mgostn
Coagulaii Ga Seveio osn
de penolent blocod
bloed
4 NeNe toaassm Ca t lotting oa
isgon' ca2t
Te b r a s e
***

Neve mpalse eLSSoSG -{o« the

yofluemces
---

amd
water amd -theSeveras amd_perpeabil:byi-
dembanc ocabi l;
Structorc
ca
6 ons
ACho
2mes aCrosss ransp
ActS as Lipasc Tpase SDH
Relea se acellvloSn nessen
af Hformones

Phosph orouS
Phocphos OUS
ass ocabon fotend moscle and
t h protetns blood To
Liprds. Te
vo9 oos oema1tng 1of.Casbohgertes ond
Coabohgdbcrtes amnd
is
Qbout chem}cas Comouwrds,deby
7+ drshiwt
d»sti*
yma bol preSept
Brochem calfunction
Phospharts is
escestSal
af boc and fos he developm
teeh.
plat a
cetsai r o ic
Ut t 2 a i fo the
fornatia
Phos phoate Compousds
 horvs

phosphoipids amd
phosphop*oiesas and als
Nucleic acids.
IE s a
esSeortial Com
Nudeo de Co-es2yKS Compoooa! povon!
f Seserl
Senserol
ca N ADT
NADP pLpP
Seveal PaoeTos amd
phosphory lation. en2yoes 09ie activord
phosphate bae Sckm s s mpors tanto he
urotgTance pH 0 h e blood aane
n e as
as s
a swel wetk
the c ells

laq)es fosn
Te adus t. bly
o (o9taas magmeg Uim
which
nSith Calcu S
-fund bones n
-

Und Comb inotn

ocCuOs Sof phosphosous he
Tematî 30
isso and bodg flords.

Bsochemicalfenctenst
Magmes om S eqsred the fos mai o9
cnes Ornd teeth
2 Ser ve as aCo--factoror SeterrR
edzmeS 9nequs 7ag ATP
hexokoaSe qvcotnase phosphof-uctosmg
adenild ayolose
3
oecescogfor the PoocoBoma i
ftsctios Low mg2t eselg Jead to
the e o m e e l a a iraitab:ty.
 Sdun
Sodim S
+he
w

ftoid Abou Soche cat ion an Ahe

flord bones, 401f boda Sadiu)extvaettole
sacettula is
the f he presal
Boches) icas extvacold
ematstng lo / t u les
ction: Sêft iss
i
asso ciaHon
Sodi wth chlos
unseqaloks
S olum he
de
bods actd
ac d andbicc9bosc
bcabosocde
S basc bolan
o Sotie
dnce Presse
be ma tane
Umd
De ces Soy flord
itab.Lit S the nornal nus ce
SodiUm nd cett emeabilitq
a vcoS ovolved he
S JL s lactose and
nsmal absaptio
ma AtaTo
ce
n
sSonv amno actds

beos Latng amo

PoLass iUm Potass ium
t the
Cation. is Cqnl
Prtcipad. Jotrocltlalon
ectracètlvls. lord or pos tant b e pos

Biochemicai ftncttoa s specifc fUnetions.

.specife juetens
P tas m
o}atatas otsa
PressuNe celLola aSmotic
cqorsed J
balance md tecqdtasiog
dalerCautotion of
Lo - h o ba
acd- ka
df acd-
oollc.
 he toiai Conicat o)
am adult bod
is 3 S 7 Abcu o/ h ' s occnS
Lhe
entroless7
myo glolAn
of tohch Preesl
Pso9
it S Co9sbtent o Senteras
C
Cs2nes roT and
ProT
bemoglobin, nyo qlobn, y aytckr
t c h OeS
opes
antAe ox rda
o
Se, CasalasC ypophaw Prdas
Cesta0 othes Pro-tetns COta
coo ta TOS
TOS O»
TDOD-besne
-herrne r3
)
omsfe»r, e.stn iesoSidiera
LCfons
a m r ex ests ts
the CoTmpomds \
Ehe fumchoo thro
whch iSpeSemt
Htmoclobin and noqlobm Ae scq o redd
fo the
tamsFot Ozand cos.
Cytochsomes and Cer tat on-bene Protetas e
ne te'scoAngr
OXda fo fr electron transpot eha t ad
phosphorylation.
Perox rdass
TCquc son mcal ion.
s.
asSoctocd L eece m mvae
Com pelemre of the bodg

The
CoPper
oy Con tas dbou loomg co
Coppe
dstibuted dtfeoet
Senreal pos aet fuacuns.
 icChenial fandias
Co P p e
e sSestal
Consttvent ef
Lysl ezymes okdase
CoPper s co
s o dequoes
Jes
ne
COPpO
cesd b eb e sy»thesir
hemolo br ALA Sq-tlase)
of

Looe e-
The-to
mos
tat boduContatns abou 3 m7
oft
go1 be.T
the roRod qland Prescot m

he Sq»thesis Ta&T4

Cobal
Cobalt s
oo ly mportaot as a
of Nlamt B12 cobalte
(angbtvent
is a bout Conlent fvt-B
47.

s
essen-bial eonstttuegl o Senleo
emzmeS al cohol
Phosphota s dchydrocenae, kalne
Tke Stoage ad SeGeakio) of osulco T7O7
B-ceus pancseas scqurcS 9
e cesSAN
ces 6oy to nas
ta 1) Lhe JesS
noo mal
 The Paesen+ oL beme
associ akton with
ut
th t-orgonic SuOfua
Su 4n ato
at
the Satus acms
the esides
Proteo, bot
These O
SutjuS (Ffe-s) Ceytes Tanfjre
Stmple troctoars o:th Sto Fe ctom
.
SSH eyhoops
Fe-s Cemteas t th co Eou
Fe Ceytes
hese. . ole also Called Ricsk
-Sulf
Pro-LeTns. oNc WoNiaios o Lhis
Oine Fe atom js.co-oidnocd b tuoo theme TO wh.ich
ALI Too S u l j Hs ve6?doe an
Psote9s han a

electson Poatici pae 9 o

Lramsfe m
hich one Ts 09 atem
Ofthe troy Sulfu closta is axidised
Nedoced.

s- cjs

RFe-2s
6gle fe-s Centess oTo
O t e n s may be
SuRfu
STmple as o : th a n g l e Fe
GuTondcd L.
 KOJJ
Metalo -emynes
al hove
howe
Mameg he Tntal fec onefeatue
wity mdal ion
jon is COmwwm
One
Jabile boud to
is bound
tbe prote
to the
S emzynes -the
co-Ordtnosios s:te AS
Site AS iith
th
Csuci shape af the active
actve site
the Ao colcd The Tmekas jon
site
is vsua!
the USvang
subs trake. a poce

whosc
**** Sape fS*
Canboí amhydKASL
This
emyn Teemzynethree
belongsto
to he
eS dve thce -Lhe
o-O1dnasm stidoe
class o mekal
with Presest
actve Sitc
Co H>o
Th > Hco3
Catalysty Gcaction
b qvite sloid m
fast abgence
s

droxide son absence

psesence
of
of the
fthe
CotoH Hco
Tke di on f
otoms pheric Ntvogen
Lheheakng
enon. nteas:ve ProcesS as
4he
ve Stabl i+3avolves
volves
is a

akoms.0 tipe bond beta

Tb:s belongs to
the class of
nlam molubd-ot melalLo enkn
The whch S ovolve3
radical Scavemtna mechan i s m . 1hi
ee
Cafalpe an cHie.cot funchin

OxidationMm)+o, M+ 0
Redocbion MtO ont Mt) +H,o
Cacions oGc called disodio
.Th:s
Tvolves both oxidIi on amd scdoc tion

Sopexoxide íons
af SelenitUsN otom
ohch Tota To
T6:s Crs 2ype

R o t ' s 9tel pot

ídaF..

oxidaSe i e or the
tochoae Co as &o
melaloeo2yoe it ContaTos

po9t afte co2yme.

otecn o ETC
ETC
S rovolved Tu
2re

Oo
 Metalo po
Covn Con
pound s
apbp ad fomed by combinotiona
a
Hemc, Heme metal
contas P example SS
Ft phyn alog with
ehloophyr POPhy m along ithb
Mgt meta
Haemoqlobry andnyogtoby ave
ContaT ma kg molecoloh
Protopor protms
sponsible phyr Tm [ units
mases
trancport
Tbeve ce
wh ch one voN:ous e
ons m
Tnercd T to bot6both ic
atoms f
Substate
ae dvectly
'ctd
Bhe e92y hyelroxy oups moleclc to

CalledO ox cataly2 m7 Such reqctions are

1aases ;

oXGenases Cotam Proto heme

alonq with co ese
P-45 ases Cled

2
tp-4Sosam on:
Coea2e bydroxqosioo
manyF
many d-ffereot Smds
sBevoi fa af shstvat
and ma kma themacids, certam neloting
ammo ac ds
ioter coluble
onoicbydroxylatim f droqs.
 todhroanes
ctochomes role ms oth Chosa cteristic
absorpion a f i s i e Ligh u e to t h e i
shronq
O9-Con-laT Heme

Mochondria ConLai 3 ciasscs af ytochvones

cesqvrated as a.b.C whih arc astngu'shed
dtferees m heir Ligbt-absorpt on

Spectyaa.
Cach +ype CytochrOmes Tot's redvced State

has three absorp-ti on eands fo the

isle sange.
¥he Lomgest waveength kand
is ne 6oo T

-Eqp a ytodvomes
Un tyre-b lona ave
length range 6onm
2 tyeC Longest wave length zang* Ssonm
he heme co actors 9f a ad b
tightl but o ctytochrome
Covaletl bopd tothen
assocjoled proteins.

TheThe bene -+ Ccytochrome are

covaleat
atached tyroogh ys esidocg
lochoosne ye. a and
aund b Some tye
of cne t e a i PTOteins
he me mitodondaiol membanc
 Homelyicfn
PHometie fissíon:
eaction ( procesS cach af
bon ng electsons a o aqpses
Fox
OEpre se ytedhomolt sS ian
b thescactio is

A
B) A:B
Te Product A t-B ccA+B
etpaed
etectsically
oiectroo
neutsa calledFeeudiad
and have ane
ässoindcd w:th them
Fve adicals e
af. the Cxtoomlyy cactve becausc
because
néd tendencg f thi electron to Leton
a
the cod est
seqventha CacLons h oPPosLoaity.
Con
ch
the tekoediode tühich Procael via
_plon takeplate votpidbg
foTmathn
f See adials

Homogbic cs ioo is 4he moSE

mode fissios Commos
he vapor pLase.
Helesobgtic
Jn ths PTo Ce sS ooe 2f-the ados
acqoCS both af the b ondmg
ele cksons
niheothe bond S
bsoke

A -B
. Jn 1 Cacios (1) S Oeeiectoo ncgetive
than A whch -thereby acg es oth
thc both boodrga eleetons aund becoES

Negedveh chaoqed.
J n zcactios
A is Shown Lo be

elecroneqosive -Uan B
o e ioas
he Prodocls af b e l c o t i c f r s si

Rcactio9s Whrch Tvólve bterolytic

takcplatc a meassable Tacs. Hetoolytc

fisso» occors nost

polan
ead
eadur
cosètS.
Polaa

Deacton termedofcs-
Hclolytie and homoytie bond s s ons
hesults 9 the to
onntno9 f shost lived
eots colled reacbon 5iermediates.

the 0pos taal e a c i oa; tmediods

Amon
cobanions co9bo
Canboo mons,
reeTadicod s and Costers.
cgasic ions
Ccboofom 3ors(Coaboca9ion): conbonckom
Lrohich Conrtat9 aa pas4ivel chongcd
Cobon.irooos ConboCions
oe Called

beterobybic bond fissa

hcy cnC .
medb
22
2 elichoneaatve a9om than Cob

IAENC
 ed: Eng. oeintCoat
Randossn segmina bn d
Encosporhionn ofadddeody
S4ond of y ueeleo&BAA iplhasphctio
dNTP d TP - @leenee oP a atDm a
RequoraS DNa
DNA
bothh
3Bra
KeQerOros ppme ase -

I
Uges
288 clonirq veoos
DN Loh niHal pñmed
Toiphospl.ate tlugoscent db at

-. **