KTHT 21 - C8 - SE Requirement in SE

Chapter 7
Requirement in
System Engineering
Instructor: Dr. PHAN THỊ MAI HÀ
11 / 2021
Requirement in System Engineering
1. Design for Reliability
2. Design for Maintainability
3. Design for Usability (Human factors)
4. Design for Logistics and Supportability
5. Design for Producibility, Disposability & Sustainability
6. Design for Affordability (Life-cycle Costing)
SE – C8: Requirement in SE 2
1. Design for reliability
Definition:
ability of a system to perform its intended mission when
operating for a designated period of time, or through a
planned mission scenario, in a realistic operational
environment → satisfy all of the operational objectives
desired and specified in a true user’s environment
Need measures reliability—the reliability function, the failure
rate, & component relationships; Reliability analysis methods
Consider reliability in the system life cycle
Definition:
Reliability: probability that a system/ product accomplish its
designated mission in a satisfactory manner/ specifically for a
given period when used under specified operating conditions.
∞
The Reliability Function: 𝑅 𝑡 = 1 − 𝐹 𝑡 = න 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑡
With: F(t): probability that system will fail by time
: instantaneous failure rate
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝜆=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑠
Component Relationships:
Reliability – series network
R = (RA) (RB) (RC)
Reliability – parallel network
R = 1 - (1 - RA) (1 - RB) (1 - RC)
Reliability requirements: define

System performance & effectiveness factors, mission profile, & system
functional requirements (use conditions, duty cycles, how system is to be
operated).
Operational life cycle (anticipated time that system will be in the
inventory and in operational use).
Environment - system is expected to operate & be maintained
(temperature, humidity, shock and vibration, levels of noise and toxicity,
etc.) - a range of values as applicable & should cover all operational,
transportation & handling, maintenance & support, & storage modes.
Operational & supporting interfaces likely to impact the system as it
performs its mission(s) throughout its planned life cycle.
Reliability model
the functional analysis
lead to the development of
a reliability block diagram
and a model that can serve
as the basis for
accomplishing reliability
allocation, reliability
prediction, stress–strength
analysis, and subsequent
design analysis and
evaluation tasks.
Component Selection and Application

Selection of standardized components & materials depend on
physical characteristics, known reliabilities, and so on
The test and evaluation of all components and materials prior
to design acceptance: evaluation of component operating
features, physical tolerances, sensitivity to certain stresses,
physics-of-failure characteristics, & other specific ones of
component(s) related to its intended application..
Design Review and Evaluation – design review checklist
1. Have reliability quantitative & qualitative requirements for system been adequately defined from beginning?
2. Have these requirements been properly allocated to various subsystems (& downward) as applicable? Is there
a top-down/bottom-up “traceability” of these requirements?
3. Are reliability requirements realistic? Are they compatible with other system requirements?
4. Has system design complexity been minimized; for example, number of components/parts?
5. Have system failure modes and effects been identified?
6. Are system, subsystem, unit, and component-part failure rates known?
7. Are failure characteristics (i.e., physics of failure) known for each applicable component part?
8. Has the system or product wear out period been defined?
9. Have component parts with excessive failure rates been identified?
10. Have all critical-useful-life items been identified and eliminated where possible?
11. Have fail-safe characteristics been incorporated where applicable (i.e., protection against secondary
/dependent failures resulting from primary failures)?
12. Has the utilization of adjustable components been minimized (if not eliminated)?
13. Have cooling provisions been incorporated in design “hot-spot” areas?
14. Have all hazardous conditions been eliminated?
15. Have all system reliability requirements been met?
Reliability analysis methods

FMECA: Failure Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis
Define system (product or
process) requirements
Accomplish functional analysis Identify failure detection means
Accomplish requirements Rate failure mode severity
allocation Rate failure mode frequency
Identify failure modes. Rate failure mode detection
Determine causes of failure probability
Determine the effects of failure Analyze failure mode criticality
Initiate recommendations for
SE – C8: Requirement in SE
product/process improvement 12

FTA: Fault-tree analysis

Stress–Strength Analysis
❖ 1. For selected components, determine nominal stresses as a function of loads,
temperature, vibration, shock, physical properties, and time.
❖ 2. Identify factors affecting maximum stress, such as stress concentration
factors, static and dynamic load factors, stresses as a result of manufacturing
and heat treating, environmental stress factors, and so on.
❖ 3. Identify critical stress components and calculate critical mean stresses (e.g.,
maximum tensile stress and shear stress).
❖ 4. Determine critical stress distributions for the specified useful life. Analyze
the distribution parameters and identify component safety margins.
❖ 5. For those components that are critical and where the design safety margins
are inadequate, corrective action must be initiated. This may constitute
component-part substitution or a complete redesign of the system element in
question.

Reliability prediction:
Based on the analysis of similar equipment
Based on an estimate of active element groups
accomplished from an equipment parts count
based on a stress analysis (discussed earlier)
2. Design for maintainability
Definition:
Maintainability is a design characteristic (a design dependent
parameter) pertaining to ease, accuracy, safety, and economy
in the performance of maintenance functions
Maintainability, as a characteristic of design, can be expressed
in terms of maintenance times, maintenance frequency
factors, maintenance labor hours, and maintenance cost.
Considering:
Measures of maintainability—elapsed times, frequencies,
labor hours, and cost;
Availability and effectiveness factors;
Maintainability in life cycle — system requirements,
maintainability allocation, component selection and
application, design participation, and design review;
Maintainability analysis methods
Maintainability demonstration
Measures of maintainability:
Corrective maintenance: unscheduled maintenance
accomplished, as a result of failure, to restore a system or
product to a specified level of performance → initial detection
of failure(s), localization and fault isolation (diagnostics),
disassembly (access), removal and replacement (or repair) of
faulty component, reassembly, adjustment and/or alignment
(as required), and final checkout and verification of proper
system performance; that is, the corrective maintenance cycle.
Preventive maintenance.: Scheduled maintenance
accomplished to retain a system at a specified level of
performance by providing systematic inspection, detection,
servicing, or the prevention of impending failures through
periodic item replacements.
Mean corrective maintenance
time. a series of steps for
repair or restore system to its
full operational status: failure
detection, fault isolation,
disassembly to gain access to
the faulty item, repair,..
Mean preventive maintenance time: actions required to retain
a system at a specified level of performance. It may include
such functions as periodic inspection, servicing, scheduled
replacement of critical items, calibration, overhaul,…
Median active corrective maintenance time: value that divides
all of the downtime values so that 50% are equal to or less
than the median & 50% = or greater than the median.
Median active preventive maintenance time
Mean active maintenance time: mean or average elapsed time
required to perform scheduled (preventive) & unscheduled
(corrective) maintenance (logistics & administrative delay time)
Maximum active corrective maintenance time: value of

maintenance downtime below which a specified percentage of
all maintenance actions can be expected to be completed
Logistics Delay Time (LDT)
Administrative Delay Time (ADT).
Maintenance Downtime (MDT)
Maintenance labor hour factors:
Maintenance labor hour factors :

Maintenance labor hours per system operating hour (MLH/OH)
Maintenance labor hours per cycle of system operation
(MLH/cycle)
Maintenance labor hours per month (MLH/month)
Maintenance labor hours per maintenance action (MLH/MA)
Maintenance frequency factors:

Mean Time Between Maintenance (MTBM). MTBM is the mean
or average time between all maintenance actions (corrective
and preventive) and can be calculated as
With: MTBMu: mean interval of unscheduled maintenance

MTBMs: maintenance rates in terms of maintenance actions
per hour of system operation, approximate MTBF
Maintenance frequency factors:

Mean Time Between Replacement (MTBR) – factor of MTBM –
mean time between item replacements and is a major parameter
in determining spare part requirements.
Maintenance cost factors:

1. Cost per maintenance action ($/MA)
2. Maintenance cost per system operating hour ($/OH)
3. Maintenance cost per month ($>month)
4. Maintenance cost per mission or mission segment ($ mission)
5. The ratio of maintenance cost to total life-cycle cost
Related maintenance factors:

1. Supply responsiveness or the probability of having a spare part
available when needed, spare part demand rates, supply lead times for
given items, levels of inventory, and so on
2. Test and support equipment effectiveness (reliability and availability of
test equipment), test equipment use, system test thoroughness, and so on
3. Maintenance facility availability and use
4. Transportation modes, times between maintenance facilities, and
frequency
5. Maintenance organizational effectiveness and personnel efficiency
6. Data and information processing capacity, time, and frequency
Related maintenance factors:
Availability and effectiveness measures:

Availability: “the probability that a system or equipment, when
used under stated conditions in an ideal support environment
will operate satisfactorily at any point in time as required.”
Inherent availability (Ai): excludes preventive or scheduled
maintenance actions, logistics delay time, and administrative
delay time
Achieved availability (Aa): excludes logistics delay time and

administrative delay time

Operational availability (Ao): used under stated conditions in an
actual operational environment
System Effectiveness (SE): “Probability that a system can

successfully meet an overall operational demand within a given
time when operated under specified conditions” or “the ability
of a system to do the job for which it was intended.”

Cost-Effectiveness (CE) relates to measure of a system in terms
of mission fulfillment (system effectiveness) & total life-cycle
cost & can be expressed in various ways, depending on specific
mission or system parameters that one wishes to evaluate
Maintainability in the system life cycle:
Maintainability analysis methods:
Reliability And Maintainability Trade-Off Evaluation: trade-off
to satisfy the requirement (availability, MTBF, Mct) and cost
(R&D, investment, manufacturing, O&M)
Maintainability Prediction: early assessment of maintainability
characteristics → predict MTBM, Mct, Mpt, MLH/OH, …
Maintenance Resource Requirements (personnel & training
requirements, test & support equipment, supply support, transportation &
handling requirements, facilities, computer software, and data)
Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM): systematic approach
to developing a focused, effective, & cost-efficient preventive
maintenance program & control plan for a system or product.
Level-of-Repair Analysis (LORA): determine whether it is
economically feasible to repair certain assemblies or to discard
them when failures occur
Maintenance Task Analysis (MTA)
Identify the resources required for sustaining maintenance and support
Provide an assessment of the configuration relative to the incorporation
of maintainability characteristics in design
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM): integrated life-cycle
approach to maintenance & support of a manufacturing plant:
Maximize the overall effectiveness of manufacturing equipment and
processes.
Establish a life-cycle approach in the accomplishment of preventive
maintenance
Involve all operating departments/groups
Involve employees from the plant manager to the workers
Initiate a program based on the promotion of maintenance through
“motivation management” and the development of autonomous small-
group activities
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM):
Overall equipment effectiveness
(OEE) = (availability) (performance rate)(quality rate)
Content:
A definition of human factors and human systems integration;
The common measures in human factors;
Human factors in system life cycle—system requirements,
requirements allocation, design participation, & design review;
Human factors analysis methods—operator task analysis
(OTA), operational sequence diagrams (OSDs), error analysis,
and safety/hazard analysis;
Personnel training requirements; and
Personnel test and evaluation.
A definition and explanation of human factors:

Requirements for the human: (what – how)
Job operation: Completion of a function normally includes a
combination of duties and tasks.
Duty. Defined as a set of related tasks within a given job operation
Task - Subtask: Constitutes a composite of related activities
(informational, decision, & control activities) performed by an
individual in accomplishing a prescribed amount of work in a specified
environment
Task element. categorized as per the smallest logically definable facet
of activity (perceptions, decisions, & control actions) that requires
individual behavioral responses in completing a task or a subtask
A definition and explanation of human factors:

Human factors
Anthropometric factors: consider the physical dimensions of the
human body as weight, height, arm reach, hand size,… and workspace
dimensions
Human sensory factor: human–machine interface in system design →
vision, hearing, other senses (smell, feeling – touch, balance)
Physiological factors: Temperature extremes., Humidity, Vibration,
Noise, Other factors (cause stress on the body: radiation, gas or toxic
substances in the air, sand and dust, and so forth
Psychological factors: pertain to the human mind and the aggregate of
emotions, traits, & behavior patterns as they relate to job performance
Measures in human factors:

quantity of personnel required for operation, maintenance,
elapsed time to accomplish operation, maintenance
number of human errors committed by the operator per
mission, maintainer per maintenance action
Personnel training rate, quantity of personnel training days
per period of time
cost of operator personnel per hour or maintenance personnel
cost of training per individual, per organization, or per time
period
Human factors in the system life cycle:
Human factors analysis methods:

Operator Task Analysis (OTA):
Identify system operator functions
Determine specific information necessary for operator
each action, determine the adequacy of the information fed back to the
human as a result of control activations, operational sequences, …
Determine time requirements, frequency, accuracy requirements
Determine the impact of the environmental and personnel factors
Determine the human skill-level requirements
Task – subtask – action stimulus – required action – feedback – task
classification – potential errors – time (allowable, necessary) – work station –
skill level → timeline and workload analysis

Operational Sequence Diagram (OSD): evaluating the flow of
information

Error Analysis: error occurs when a human action exceeds
some limit of acceptability. Reason:
Inadequate workspace and work layout—poor workstation design
Inadequate design of facilities, equipment, and control panels for
human factors
Poor environmental conditions
Inadequate training, job aids, and procedures
Poor supervision—lack of communications, no feedback, and lack of
good planning resulting in overtime

Safety/Hazard Analysis:
Description of hazard
Cause of hazard
Identification of hazard effects
Hazard classification: negligible, marginal, critical, catastrophic
Anticipated probability of hazard occurrence
Corrective action or preventive measures
Personnel and training requirements: training entry-level

fundamentals of system operation - basic skill level
performance of operator & maintenance functions -
intermediate skill-level requirements
performance of operator and maintenance functions - high
skill-level requirements for the system.
Definition:
The logistics and supply chain activities associated with the
initial purchasing and acquisition, manufacture and/or
production, transportation and distribution, & installation of
system & its elements at appropriate customer (user)
operational site(s); and
The subsequent sustaining maintenance and support of the
system throughout its entire life cycle
Logistics in the system-of-system (SOS) environment:

Design a new system within the context of a SOS network:
specified logistics & maintenance support infrastructure for this new
system is both effective & efficient & is completely responsive to new
system requirements
newly developed maintenance and support infrastructure is
compatible and does not in any way degrade the equivalent
capabilities of the other systems with the same SOS configuration
Elements of logistics and system support

Resource: personnel, transportation (ground, sea, and/or air),
spares/repair parts & related inventories, test & support
equipment, facilities (maintenance, warehousing, utilities),
information/data (documentation), computer software, and
various combinations thereof
Elements of logistics and system support
Measures of logistics and supportability

Supply Chain Factors: capability, availability, quality
Quality: response time, total processing time, total cost of processing

an item through the logistics and maintenance support infrastructure,
process time for removing an obsolete item from the inventory, defect
rate in terms of products delivered

Purchasing and Material Flow Factors
Purchasing: time & process a order, quantity of order/time, quality of
purchasing process (delivered complete, delivered on time, complete &
accurate documentation of order, perfect condition and configuration)
Flow of material: quantity, time, quality, cost
Transportation and Packing factors

Transportation: route, capability, time, cost
Packing for transportability or mobility: desired strength-of-material
characteristics; stand rough handling and/or long-term storage;
adequate protection against environmental conditions; compatible
with existing transportation and handling methods; safety and security56
SE – C8: Requirement in SE

Warehousing and Distribution Factors
Time to ship a product (from the initial notification of a requirement).
Cost for product shipment (from storage to delivery at customer site).
Cost of inventory holding & management (for the warehouse overall).
Value of the products shipped/value of the overall inventory.
Percentage of space utilization and the cost per area of utilization.
Volume of products handled, or the total number of products
processed per year.

Maintenance Organization Factors
Direct maintenance labor time
Indirect labor time required to support system maintenance activities
Personnel attrition rate or turnover rate
personnel training rate or the worker-days of formal training per year
number of maintenance work orders processed per unit of time
average administrative delay time, or the average time from when an
item is initially received for maintenance to the point when active
maintenance on that item actually begins.

Spares, Repair Parts, and Related Inventory Factors
Probability of Success with Spares Availability Considerations
Probability of Mission Completion
Spare-Part Quantity Determination
Inventory System Considerations
Logistics and maintenance support in system life cycle
Introduction
Technological and Ecological Services:
Technological system: source of technological services – substitution of
energy for human effort (foods independent of season or local climate,
supplying potable water, modifying the climate in buildings,…)
Ecosystem services: functions of ecosystems that people desire,
including the maintenance of atmospheric balance, carbon storage,
flood control, production of food and fiber, and maintenance of air and
water quality.
Introduction
Factors Promoting Green Engineering:
objective of producers to continuously reduce environmental impact of
products, production operations, utilization, & disposal practices
Primary drivers encouraging “green”: Competitive differentiation,
Customer consciousness, Regulatory pressures, Profitability
improvement, International standards
Ecology-Based Manufacturing
eco-factory are low-energy consumption, limited use of scarce natural
resources, recycling, and reuse.
Producibility, disposability & sustainability in life cycle
Measures of producibility & production progress

Measures of Producibility:
Manufacturability Measures - manufacturing lead time (MLT): the time
needed for a product to be in the manufacturing process.
MLT = total (TSUi / QTOi + Toi + TNOi , i = 1 to nm
product process on nm machines for Q product/batch
TO: average operational time in machine i
TSU: set up time ; TNO: nonoperational time
Tp = [batch time/ machine / Q = TSU / Q + TO
Market Measures: (1) The time that it takes to move a product from the
source of manufacture to the ultimate customer and (2) The cost of
processing an item from the source of manufacture to the customer
Measures of producibility & production progress

Measures Manufacturing Progress: Production and related
operations require a coordinated and integrated set of activities
that are often repeated over time. This repetition makes
possible improvements in the production process such as a
reduction in the time to produce a unit, an increase in the rate
at which selected activities are performed with a corresponding
increase in the number of units produced, a reduction in
overall time in process, and a reduction in the cost per unit of
output → learning curve
Design for producibility

A Classification of Manufacturing Processes: 5 categories
Forming processes. Processes in which an original shape is created from
a molten or gaseous state, or from solid particles of an undefined shape.
Deforming processes. Processes that convert the original shape of solid
to another shape without changing its mass or material composition.
Removing processes. Processes in which material removal occurs during
the process itself.
Joining processes. Processes that unite individual workpieces to make
subassemblies or final products.
Material properties modification processes: change material properties
of a workpiece to achieve characteristics without changing its shape.

Manufacturability Principles:
Use gravity: easier to work with lighter components, with up & down
movements… → save human & natural energy.
Use fewer parts → decrease design and manufacturing cost; purchase,
assemble, & test
Design for ease of fabrication
Reduce nonstandard parts
Add more functionality per part

Manufacturability Principles: assembly for sustainability
Employ automatic inserters Assemble to a foundation
Employ “preoriented” parts Assemble from as few positions
Minimize sudden & frequent as possible
changes in assembly direction Make parts independently
Maximize process compliance replaceable
Maximize accessibility Order assembly so that most
Minimize handling reliable goes in first, with the
least reliable last
Assure commonality in design

Manufacturability and Demanufacturing Issue:
Design for disposability

Disposability, Sustainability, and Industrial Ecology:
Design for disposability

Manufacturing with Recycling Applications: Recycling of
products to obtain raw materials or reusable components is an
important means of reducing disposal costs and increasing
total product value.
Life cycle value cost diagram
Introduction to life-cycle costing

Cost growth resulting from engineering changes
Cost growth resulting from changing suppliers
Cost growth resulting from system production or
construction changes
Cost growth resulting from changes in the logistic support
capability
Cost growth resulting from initial estimating inaccuracies and
from changes in estimating procedures
Cost growth resulting from unforeseen problems
Cost considerations over the system life cycle
Generic life-cycle costing process

1. Define system requirements and TPMs: Define operational
requirements and the maintenance concept. Identify
applicable technical performance measures (TPMs) and
describe the system in functional terms, using a functional
analysis at the system level.
2. Specify the system life cycle & identify activities by phase.
Establish a baseline for development of a cost breakdown
structure (CBS) & for estimation of cost for each year of
projected life cycle, should involve all life-cycle activities.

3. Develop a cost breakdown structure. Provide a top-
down/bottom-up cost structure. Include all categories for the
initial allocation of costs (top-down) and the subsequent
collection and summary of costs (bottom-up).
4. Identify input data requirements. And all possible sources
of input data. The type and amount of data will depend on the
nature of the problem, the phase of the life cycle, and the
depth of analysis.

5. Establish costs for each category in the CBS. Develop the
appropriate cost-estimating relationships and estimate the
costs for each category in the CBS on a year-by-year basis over
the life cycle. Be sure all costs are included.
6. Select a cost model for analysis and evaluation. Select (or
develop) a mathematical or computer-based model to
facilitate the life-cycle costing process. The model must be
valid for and sensitive to the specific system being evaluated.

7. Develop a cost profile and summary. Construct a cost
profile showing the flow of costs over the life cycle. Provide a
summary identifying the cost for each category in CBS &
calculate the percentage contribution in terms of the total.
8. Identify high-cost contributors and establish cause-and-
effect relationships. Highlight those functions, system
elements, or segments of processes that should be
investigated for possible opportunities for design
improvement and/or cost reduction.

9. Conduct a sensitivity analysis. Evaluate the model input–
output data relationships and the results of the baseline
analysis to ensure that the overall LCC analysis process is
valid and that the model itself is well constructed and
sensitive.
10. Identify priorities for problem resolution. Construct a
Pareto diagram and conduct a Pareto analysis to identify
priorities for problem resolution (i.e., those problems that are
most important to remove in terms of their impact on value).

11. Identify additional alternatives. After developing an
approach for the LCC evaluation of a given baseline
configuration, it is then appropriate to extend the LCC
analysis to the evaluation of multiple design alternatives.
12. Evaluate feasible alternatives and select a preferred
approach. Develop a cost profile for each feasible design
alternative, compare the alternatives equivalently, perform a
break-even analysis, and select a preferred design approach.

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Chapter 7

2. Design for Maintainability

3. Design for Usability (Human factors)

4. Design for Logistics and Supportability

5. Design for Producibility, Disposability & Sustainability

6. Design for Affordability (Life-cycle Costing)

: instantaneous failure rate

Reliability requirements: define

Component Selection and Application

Reliability analysis methods

Reliability analysis methods

Reliability analysis methods

Reliability analysis methods

Median active preventive maintenance time

Maximum active corrective maintenance time: value of

Maintenance labor hour factors:

Maintenance labor hour factors :

Maintenance frequency factors:

With: MTBMu: mean interval of unscheduled maintenance

Maintenance frequency factors:

Maintenance cost factors:

Related maintenance factors:

Related maintenance factors:

Availability and effectiveness measures:

Achieved availability (Aa): excludes logistics delay time and

Availability and effectiveness measures:

System Effectiveness (SE): “Probability that a system can

Availability and effectiveness measures:

Maintainability in the system life cycle:

A definition and explanation of human factors:

A definition and explanation of human factors:

Measures in human factors:

Human factors in the system life cycle:

Human factors analysis methods:

Human factors analysis methods:

Human factors analysis methods:

Human factors analysis methods:

Human factors analysis methods:

Personnel and training requirements: training entry-level

Logistics in the system-of-system (SOS) environment:

Elements of logistics and system support

Elements of logistics and system support

Measures of logistics and supportability

Quality: response time, total processing time, total cost of processing

Measures of logistics and supportability

Transportation and Packing factors

Measures of logistics and supportability

Measures of logistics and supportability

Measures of logistics and supportability

Logistics and maintenance support in system life cycle

Producibility, disposability & sustainability in life cycle

Measures of producibility & production progress

Measures of producibility & production progress

Design for producibility

Design for producibility

Design for producibility

Design for producibility

Design for disposability