1 s2.0 S2214509524001815 Main

Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e03030
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm
Case study
Compressive strength prediction of sustainable concrete

incorporating rice husk ash (RHA) using hybrid machine learning
algorithms and parametric analyses
Abul Kashem a, b, *, Rezaul Karim c, Pobithra Das a, Shuvo Dip Datta c,
Mohammad Alharthai d, e
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Leading University, Sylhet, Bangladesh
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh
c
Department of Building Engineering and Construction Management, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna 9203, Bangladesh
d
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran 66462, Saudi Arabia
e
Science and Engineering Research Center, Najran University, Najran 66462, Saudi Arabia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The construction industry is making efforts to reduce the environmental impact of cement pro
Rice husk ash duction in concrete by incorporating alternative and supplementary cementitious materials, as
Hybrid Machine learning well as lowering carbon emissions. One such material that has gained popularity in this context is
Compressive strength
rice husk ash (RHA) due to its pozzolanic reactions. This study aims to forecast the compressive
SHAP
PDP
strength (CS) of RHA-based concrete (RBC) by examining the effects of several factors such as
cement, RHA content, curing age, water usage, aggregate amount, and superplasticizer content.
To accomplish this, the study collected and analyzed data from literature, resulting in a dataset of
1404 observations. Several machine learning (ML) models, such as light gradient boosting (LGB),
extreme gradient boosting (XGB), and random forest (RF), as well as hybrid machine learning
(HML) approaches like XGB-LGB and XGB-RF were employed to thoroughly analyze these pa
rameters and assess their impact on strength. The dataset was split into training and testing
groups, and statistical analyses were performed to determine the relationships between the input
parameters and CS. Moreover, the performance of all the models was evaluated using various
statistical evaluation criteria, including mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), coefficient of
efficiency (CE), root mean square error (RMSE), and coefficient of determination (R2). The hybrid
XGB-LGB model was found to have higher precision (R2 = 0.95, and RMSE = 5.255 MPa) as
compared to other models. SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) analysis revealed that cement,
RHA, and superplasticizer had a positive effect on strength. Overall, the study’s findings suggest
that the hybrid XGB-LGB model with the identified input parameters can be used to accurately
predict the CS of RBC. The application of such technologies in the construction sector can
facilitate the rapid and low-cost identification of material qualities and the impact of input
parameters.
* Corresponding author at: Department of Civil Engineering, Leading University, Sylhet, Bangladesh.
E-mail addresses: abulkashem.ce@gmail.com (A. Kashem), 56rezaulkarim@gmail.com (R. Karim), pobithradas2247@gmail.com (P. Das), sd.
datta@becm.kuet.ac.bd (S.D. Datta), Maalharthai@nu.edu.sa (M. Alharthai).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e03030
Received 9 January 2024; Received in revised form 1 March 2024; Accepted 4 March 2024
Available online 5 March 2024
2214-5095/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
A. Kashem et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e03030
1. Introduction
Concrete is one of the most commonly used materials, and its annual production is anticipated to rise to 5.5 billion tons by 2050 [1].
Concrete has positive aspects like strength and durability, but its carbon dioxide emissions are critical. These emissions are directly
proportional to the volume of cement manufactured, causing significant ecological issues and hindering sustainable environments for
future generations [2]. Cement provides strength for concrete, but its forging process produces (almost 5–8% CO2, which causes a
significant environmental burden [3,4]. Therefore, reducing emissions and preserving energy are now common objectives in concrete
applications. Finding new supplemental cementitious materials (SCMs) to substitute cement components is an efficient solution to the
issue.
There are several alternative cementitious materials that are being employed as partial substitutes for Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC). Replacing cement with potential agricultural waste as a SCM is a smart option, as it reduces environmental damage induced by
the construction industry [5]. Typically, rice, sugarcane, wheat and cotton make up a substantial portion of worldwide agricultural
production. Among these agro-wastes, several studies revealed that rice husk can be effectively disposed of or used in the circular
economy and sustainability principles due to its broad availability in agricultural nations [6]. First of all, RHA is increasingly used as a
SCM due to its composition, smaller carbon footprint, and ability to replace cement with a more sustainable alternative [7,8]. Besides,
it contains more than 60% amorphous silica, which can provide pozzolanic properties by burning rice husk at 700◦ C [9,10]. Addi
tionally, earlier investigations showed that partial cement replacement with RHA enhances mechanical, hardening, and microstructure
properties [11].
Extensive lab experiments and testing are needed to determine the properties of the RHA-based concrete (RBC), which can be
laborious, costly and time-consuming [12]. In addition, due to certain limitations or factors, such as specific locations for curing and
storing concrete mixes, conducting comprehensive lab work can be difficult [13]. Moreover, several factors, such as curing age,
concrete mix, and aggregate materials, affect the strength of concrete, and analyzing all of these characteristics takes time [14,15]. In
recent times, several strategies were operated to estimate the compressive strength (CS) that used empirical formulae to enhance
computation efficiency and considered site constraints [16,17]. However, these empirical formulas struggle to convey the complex
nonlinear interaction between concrete features and strength precisely [18]. Therefore, more accurate and advanced estimation
formulations are needed to relate the input and output features of RHA concrete efficiently. In this context, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is
becoming more and more popular because of their ability to learn quickly, precisely represent mechanisms and phenomena, and
anticipate outcomes from a variety of inputs [19]. Numerous studies have endeavored to predict the mechanical properties of various
types of concrete with multiple ML algorithms [20–25],[8]. Barkhordari et al. [26] used ensemble deep neural networks to accurately
estimate the compressive strength of Fly ash concrete while reducing predictive model variance. Ashrafian et al. [27] found that
random forest (RF) was the best model for predicting the mechanical characteristics of roller-compacted concrete pavement, out
performing M5 rule model tree, M5 prime model tree, and chi-square automatic interaction detection. Naderpour et al. [28] developed
an artificial neural network (ANN) to predict recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) compressive strength. Meanwhile, Shaban et al. [29]
used a multi-objective metaheuristic algorithm to calculate the compressive strength of RAC incorporating pozzolanic materials.
Mohammed et al. [30] used different models, including linear regression, nonlinear regression, and quadratic and artificial neural
networks (ANN), to predict concrete compressive strength with ground-granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS). Emad et al. [31]
evaluated the effect of various mixture compositions on the compressive strength of Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete
(UHPFRC) using linear, pure quadratic, M5P-tree, and ANN models, aiming to identify the most reliable approach. Ahmed et al. [32]
proposed four different models, specifically linear regression, nonlinear regression, multi-logistic regression, and M5P-tree models, for
predicting the compressive strength of high-strength concrete (HSC) modified with a metakaolin admixture. Ahmed et al. [33] used
different models to predict the compression strength of polymer-containing concrete. The nonlinear regression, ANN, and M5P tree
models were the most reliable based on the training data set for this concrete. Piro et al. [34] utilized four different models, including
Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Full Quadratic model (FQ), Multi Logistic Regression model (MLR) and M5P-tree model for pre
dicting the compressive strength of normal strength concrete with steel slag aggregate replacement. In another study, Piro et al. [35]
proposed five different models, including the ANN, M5P tree, nonlinear regression (NLR), multilinear regression (MLR), and linear
Table 1
Previous studies using artificial intelligence to predict CS of RBC.
Materials Modelling techniques Data range References
RHA SOA–SVM, SOA–RF, ANN, ELM 192 [3]

RHA GEP, MEP 192 [53]
RHA DT, RF, GB, LR, SVM, ANN 462 [54]
RHA+FA GEP, ANN 310 [55]
RHA+FA ANN, XGB, GB 138 [8]
RHA ANN 324 [56]
RHA GEP 250 [57]
RHA ANN, ANFIS 192 [5]
RHA ANN, ANFIS, NLR 192 [58]
RHA- Rice Husk Ash, FA- Fly Ash, SOA- Seagull Optimization Algorithm, SVM- Support Vector Machines, GEP- Genetic Expression Programming,
MEP -Multi-Expression Programming, ANFIS- Artificial Neuro-Fuzzy Interface System, ANN- Artificial Neural Network, DT- Decision Tree, RF-
Random Forest, GB- Gradient Boosting, XGB- Extreme Gradient Boosting, LR- Linear Regression.
2
regression model (LR) to forecast the compressive strength of conventional concrete modified with carbon nanotubes. Mohammed
et al. [36] utilized two advanced techniques, namely particle swarm optimization (PSO) and imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA),
in combination with an already existing ANN model to enhance its performance in predicting the compressive strength of fly
ash-modified concrete. Jaf et al. [37] analyzed 236 datasets of fly ash-modified concrete from different sources and used four models
(FQ, NLR, MLR, and ANN) to predict compressive strength for different specimen sizes and geometries. Mohammed et al. [38]
investigated 455 concrete mixtures with different proportions of fly ash and GGBS. The study utilized various soft computing models,
such as LR, ANN, and Pure Quadratic models, to forecast the compressive strength of both normal-strength concrete (NSC) and
high-strength concrete (HSC). Yang et al. [39] achieved a high level of predictive accuracy (R=0.98) in estimating the strength of
carbon nanotube cement materials using the random forest (RF) method.
Table 1 provides a list of several AI techniques that have been used previously to anticipate and simulate the properties of RBC.
From the table, it is evident that most of the works employed individual ML models. However, ensemble machine learning methods
have gained popularity in recent years for their high speed and accuracy in evaluating concrete durability and strength [40,41]. Amin
et al. [42] utilized boosting-based algorithms, including GB, AdaBoost regressor, and XGB, to estimate the CS of RBC and found that
XGB outperformed the other two algorithms with an R2 value greater than 0.90. Previously, it was suggested that XGB and gradient
boosting regressors (GBR) were more effective in predicting CS and tensile strength than multilayer perceptron (MLP) and support
vector machine (SVM) [43]. Alyami et al. [13] used random forest (RF), light gradient boosting (LGB), ridge regression, and XGB to
predict the compressive strength of rice husk ash concrete and found that the LGB model outperformed other models while ridge
regression had lower accuracy. Alabdullah et al. [44] used the XGB model for forecasting the chloride resistivity of concrete incor
porated with metakaolin, where the optimal accuracy of the model was achieved at a 0.2 learning rate. Rahman et al. [45] used 11
machine learning models to predict the shear capacity of concrete beams, where XGB was the most accurate with a root mean squared
error of 1.346 and a mean absolute error of 0.704. Song et al. [46] discovered that the boosting method had a higher prediction
accuracy than ANN and DT in forecasting the strength of concrete containing fly ash. Khan et al. [47] predicted concrete CS with steel
fibre using RF and XGB models, where both models achieved R2 accuracy over 0.90. Amin et al. [48] found that XGB outperformed
SVM in predicting the CS of nano-silica-reinforced fiber concrete. Uddin et al. [49] found LGB more precise than XGB, SVR, and RF
models for estimating 3D-printed concrete strength. Alhakeem et al. [50] used gradient-boosting regression tree (GBRT) to predict
compressive strength of eco-friendly concrete and found it highly accurate. Shen et al. [51] found XGB to be highly accurate in
predicting CS of ultra-high strength concrete. Ahmad et al. [52] found ensemble machine learning methods such as boosting and
AdaBoost to perform better than individual methods. However, current research on machine learning algorithms for predicting the
strength of RHA-based concrete has two main gaps: a requirement for more robust and accurate HML algorithms, and the need for
parametric analysis (SHAP and PDP analysis). Moreover, the databases used in previous studies needed to be more comprehensive and
had relatively smaller data ranges.
This research attempted to address the gap in the existing literature by predicting the CS of RBC utilizing conventional ML and HML
models, namely, XGB-LGB, XGB-RF, and XGB, LGB, and RF algorithms. Besides this, the study used six important input parameters and
analyzed 1404 data points from previous literature, which significantly increased the accuracy of the CS prediction. In addition, the
models were validated by comparing predicted results with observed data samples and applying multiple statistical parameters for
performance evaluation across training, testing, and validation phases. The study also employed SHAP and PDP to assess the impact of
parameters on CS prediction. The SHAP and PDP analyses can yield valuable information that can be used to create a mix proportion
that will assist in achieving the desired CS in fewer trials. As a result, this can help to reduce the number of experiments required,
thereby saving time, labor, cost, and material wastage.
2. Methodology
2.1. Extreme gradient boosting (XGB) algorithm
The XGB algorithm was first presented by Chen and Guestrin, which is an optimized and developed form gradient boosting machine
algorithm [59]. This is a supervised machine learning (ML) method with significant development and broad application in the most
recent ML field due to its high accuracy, efficiency, and compliance [60,61]. Higher problem-solving ability and shorter learning times
have created XGB, a more reliable learning algorithm than other algorithms. Generally, the XGB algorithm is built on the boosting
method, which produces a strong learner by sequentially adding weak learners [62,63]. The final skilled learner that has a high level of
accuracy in forecasting can be generated by constantly reiterating based on the prior weak learner [64]. For improved prediction
precision, XGBoost applies the second-order Taylor expansion on the loss function and employs both first-order and second-order
derivatives in each iteration phase [65,66]. The approach estimates the negative gradient of the current model’s loss function dur
ing each iteration and subsequently adjusts the new model based on this gradient. The newly created algorithm is then included to the
previous approach, and the process continues whenever the required level of precision is obtained [59,67]. The XGB method in
corporates regularization to avoid overfitting, and the loss function can have a term of penalty added to it [68]. The typical function of
phase prediction expression of the XGBoost algorithm is displayed in Eq. (1).
∑l
(1)
1)
f pi = k=1
fk (xi ) = f (p−
i + fi (xi )
(p− 1)
Where the fp (xi ) acts as the learner at phase p, f pi , and f i act as the value of forecast at phase p, and p − 1, and xi acts as the input
3
variable.
XGB model builds up a system to calculate the “goodness” of the selected model [66], which precludes overfitting problems with no
compromise in the performance of data processing.
∑n ∑p
Obj(p) = k=1
l(yi , yi ) + k=1
σ(fi ) (2)
Where the l indicates the LF, n denotes the number of observations, and σ corresponds to the term of regularization, that is obtained
using the equation below:
1
σ(f) = γT + λ||ω||2 (3)
2
Here, ω acts as the vector scores in leaves, γ represents the lowest loss, which is used to divide the leaf node further, and λ cor
responds to the parameters of regularization. Additionally, Fig. 1 demonstrates the overall structure of implementing the XGB
regression model for the prediction.
2.2. Light gradient boosting machines (LGB) algorithm
LGB algorithm is a popular machine learning algorithm that incorporates decision tree-based learning methods for gradient
boosting [69,70]. Fig. 2 demonstrates the decision trees that LGB builds using a histogram-based method to discretize continuous data.
LGB algorithm may able to large-scale data and robust perdition accuracy for regression problems well. The advantages of the LGB
algorithm are high model training speed, high perdition accuracy, dependability, less memory consumption, and support for parallel
training [69,70]. LGB applied the leaf-wise growth technique to split the dataset at leaves and the most significant data advance in
order to build the tree leaf-by-leaf [65,66]. The LGB method’s outcome is calculated by a weighted average technique to combine the
predictions of each decision tree [69]. The gain of information is a predicted decrease in entropy that happens whenever nodes are split
according to attributes, and it may be calculated as
∑ |Cv|
IG(C, A) = Fn(C) − V ∈ Values(V) Fn(Cv) (4)
C
∑B
Fn(C) = b=1
− pblog2 pd (5)
Where (C) represents the collection of C’s entropy information, pb denotes the percentage of C belonging to class b, B indicates the
different classes, Cv represents the subgroup of C where the feature has value v, and v represents the attribute value V.
2.3. Random forest (RF) algorithm
RF algorithm was first developed by Breiman and is applied through the bagging method, adding two steps: bootstrapping and
aggregating [71]. This algorithm is widely used in the machine learning methods category that functions based on the bagging decision
trees principle [62]. It conducts parallel learning on these randomly built decision trees [72–74]. It comprises numerous hyper
parameters to control the structure and size of each tree with their level of randomness[75]. The original data sample is randomly split
Fig. 1. Graphical representation of XGB algorithm.
4
Fig. 2. Graphical representation of LGB algorithm.
into n sub-datasets based on bootstrap sampling, as shown in Fig. 3, which also represents the graphical view of the random forest
algorithm [62]. The RF method improves model accuracy by using a subset of features for each tree, preventing overfitting. In each
decision tree, the best feature is chosen from the all-input parameters performed on a node, the division of the subtree left and right,
which is significant to the model’s improved generalization capability [76]. The random forest regression algorithm’s overall predicted
result is the average of the outcomes of each decision tree [77].
2.4. Hybrid machine learning model
This research used a hybrid machine learning (ML) model that created multiple traditional ML algorithms and combined the
Fig. 3. Graphical representation of RF algorithm.
5
predictions from XGB, LGB, and RF models to produce two ensemble algorithms, XGB-LGB and XGB-RF. Also, stacking techniques were
used to create the hybrid models. The hybrid XGB-LGB model combines two gradient boosting algorithms to create a more accurate
predictive model, while the hybrid XGB-RF model leverages the strength of XGB and RF algorithms to handle complex data re
lationships and produce excellent predictive accuracy.
2.5. Hyperparameter tuning
The performance of the predictor is significantly influenced by hyperparameter tuning, and optimal hyperparameter selection is
critical for developing effective ML algorithms [76]. The scikit-learn library function’s GridSearchCV class was employed in this
research for automated hyperparameter adjustment of these ML models [78]. Hyperparameters plays an essential role in building high
accuracy ML algorithms. Before the training process, hyperparameters affect various aspects of ML algorithms, including complexity,
regularization strength, estimators, maximum depth, and learning rate [67]. Therefore, GridSearchCV is a highly efficient,
time-consuming task and reliable fine-tuning hyperparameter technique. This research investigated the hyperparameter for ML al
gorithms displayed in Table 2.
2.6. SHapley Additive exPlainations (SHAP)
The SHAP analysis is an explanation method proposed by Lundberg and Lee in 2017, which evaluates machine-learning algorithm
predictions based on game theory. SHAP values determine each participant’s contribution to a cooperative game [79,80]. For instance,
input variables are treated as participants in the game and prediction is referred to as a payout. The objective of SHAP is to estimate the
impact of input parameters on model predictions [64,69,81].
Besides, SHAP provides each characteristic with a value indicating its importance for a particular prediction [82]. SHAP expresses
the following model as a linear arrangement of the input parameters [79].
∑M
g(x’) = ϕo + i=1
(ϕi xi′) (6)
Here, the Shapley values ϕi are the coefficients of this linear arrangement, X’ is a generalized input vector of the actual input x
where the g is a model of explanation. The involvement of all predictor (variables) to a ML model is indicated by its Shapley values
[83], which can be determined using the following formula [79]
∑ |S|!(|F| − |S| − 1 )! ( )
ϕi = [f SU{i} xSU{i} − f s (xs ) (7)
S⊆F\{i}
|F|!
Here, F represents the input features’ (all) set, and S represents a subgroup of F where the parameters considering the index i is
suspended. In this research, SHAP was used to explain the predicted performance from the hybrid XGB-LGB algorithm output.
2.7. Partial dependence plots (PDP)
Friedman proposed partial dependence plots, which is a popular and global interpretable method to display the outputs of machine
learning [59]. PDP plots illustrate the connection between the predicted output variable and input variables, whether they exhibit a
Table 2
Hyperparameters considered for ML models.
Models Parameter Grid Search Range Optimal value
Number of estimators [100, 200, 500] 100

Learning rate [0.2, 0.1, 0.01] 0.1
Maximum depth [4, 5, 7] 4
XGB
lambda [0.1, 1, 10] 1
Gamma [0.001, 0.1, 1] 1
Sample leaf [2, 5, 10] 5
Number of estimators [100, 300, 500] 300
Maximum depth [4, 5, 7] 4
Learning rate [0.2, 0.1, 0.01] 0.1
LGB Num of leaves [5, 25, 31] 31
Boosting type [gbdt, rf, dart] gbdt
Number of leaves [16, 32, 64] 32
Colsample bytree [1, 2, 3] 1
Number of estimators [100,200,500] 100
bootstrap [True, False] TRUE
min_samples_leaf [1, 5, 10] 1
RF
min_samples_split [2, 5, 10] 2
Maximum depth [5, 10, 20, 50] 10
max_features [auto, sqrt, log2] sqrt
6
linear, monotonic, or intricate relationship. Conversely, the PDP function can illustrate how changes in one or more input parameters
might affect the predicted outcome value [59,84]. To be more specific, the impact of individual input features on the output feature is
analyzed through PDP plots. This process involves altering only one input feature for 1D-PDP or two input features for 2D-PDP while
keeping all other input feature values constant [63]. The impact of one input variable on the output variable, a separate conditional
expectation plot (PDP-1D), was conducted in this research [59,63,67]. The mean partial dependence function Fs , on a subgroup of
predictors KS is measured as follows:
Fig. 4. The methodology for constructing the AI models to predict the CS in RBC.
7
∫
Fs (Ks ) = ̂ (Ks , KC ) dP
F (KC ) (8)
⋃
Here, KS denotes the output variable of the input features; KC is the complement such that KC KS = S; dP(KC )is the narrow effect of
KC . For training dataset {Si , i = 1, 2, 3,…….n} the mean partial dependence function of regression in Eq. (9) can be defined as follows:
1 ∑
N
( )
Fs (Zs ) F Ks , Ki,C (9)
N i=1
Here N is the total number of samples; Ki,C define actual value of the i-th feature in the training data points.
2.8. Prediction performance assessment criteria
The prediction performance model’s efficiency was assessed using four statistical approaches across three subsets, such as the
training validation and testing stages. The statistical parameters included mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), root mean square
error (RMSE), coefficient of determination (R2) and coefficient of efficiency (CE). The average error of observed and predicted value
was evaluated utilizing the RMSE criteria, whereas the percentage error measured employing MAPE [85–87].
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
1∑ n
RMSE = (Oi − pi )2 (10)
n i=1
n ⃒ ⃒
1∑ ⃒Oi − Pi ⃒
MAPE = ⃒ ⃒ (11)
n i=1 ⃒ Pi ⃒
∑
n
(Oi − Pi )2
2
R = 1− i=1
∑n (12)
(Oi − μi )2
i=1
∑
n
(Oi − Pi )2
CE = 1 − i=1
∑n (13)
(Oi − Oi )2
i=1
Where, Oi defines actual data, Pi means predicted data, μi bar is the mean, Oi is average of observation value, and n is the number of
observations. The ideal and efficiency algorithm achieve when RMSE, MAPE, R2 and CE values 0, 0, 1, and 1, respectively. Fig. 4 il
lustrates the overall process of constructing these ML and hybrid ML models for predicting CS in RBC.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Dataset description and analysis
The conducting present research, comprehensive data sample of 1404 data points collected from literature [88–103]. Concrete
ingredients contain RHA, OPC, aggregates, superplasticizer (SP), and water. The input parameters include cement, RHA content,
curing age, water use, aggregate amount and SP content. Furthermore, Table 3 represents a summary of the input and output datasets,
along with their statistics. This table displays the statistical measurements for each parameter with minimum, maximum values,
standard deviation (SD), kurtosis, and skewness. When the SD is low for variables such as SP, CS, and Water, most values cluster around
the mean. However, when the SD increases for cement, RHA, and FA, the values are more spread out. Skewness measures the
asymmetry of a variable’s probability distribution around the mean and it may be zero, positive, negative, or undefinable [53]. Positive
skewness values indicate that the density of the data is on the left side, as seen in Fig. 5 for age, and SP. Negative skewness values show
that the data density is higher on the right side of the Fig. 5(f) for aggregate. Kurtosis, which can range from − 10 to +10, measures
Table 3
Statistical measures of the RBC data sets.
Variables Type Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Kurtosis Skewness
Age (days) Input 1 365 39.41 55.04 12.7O4 3.092

Cement (kg/m3 ) Input 144 783 390.67 89.64 2.676 0.748
RHA (kg/m3 ) Input 0 171 50.16 39.95 0.159 0.642
Water (kg/m3 ) Input 120 255 182.87 30.81 -0.964 0.126
SP (kg/m3 ) Input 0 72.60 3.47 7.38 22.083 4.227
Aggregate (kg/m3 ) Input 1040 2057.13 1737.54 169.36 2.973 -1.322
CS (MPa) Output 2.35 143.78 49.46 24.24 1.654 1.143
8
Fig. 5. Contour map of input and output variables.
9
whether the dataset is heavy-tailed or light-tailed compared to a standard normal distribution [104]. It provides information about the
shape of the probability distribution in the vertical direction. Table 3 shows a higher kurtosis value for SP due to the smaller quantity of
available data.
Fig. 5 shows correlation contour maps between CS values and mixing ingredients of RBC. The Seaborn library was applied to
produce the plots. Fig. 5(a) shows that for the CS value, most of the curing age was counted at 7 and 28 days, as early-age test results are
very popular. There is a substantial density of data between 300 and 400 kg/m3 for cement in Fig. 5(b). In Fig. 5(c), RHA data exhibit a
complex relation with the CS value as there is a variety of RHA content in different literature. Similar complexity can be noticed in
Fig. 5(d) for water absorption content. The frequency dispersal of water absorption was dispersed within the range of 120–250 kg/m3
and peaked at two distinct points. In Fig. 5(e), the data frequency for superplasticizer (SP) shows the slightest variation compared to
other input parameters as almost two-thirds of data displays a similar quantity below 10 kg/m3. A deep data popular range remains
between 1700 and 2000 kg/m3 for aggregate in Fig. 5(f).
The coefficient’s value range is between − 1 and 1. A value greater than 0 indicates a positive correlation between two features, and
vice versa. A larger absolute value of the coefficient indicates a stronger correlation. Fig. 6 shows the correlation coefficient values
between input and output parameters, which are typically in the R value range of − 0.40–0.51. This relationship was produced using
the Seaborn Python library. The heat map shows that the four input parameters have a positive correlation with the output parameter
CS, with the exception of water and aggregate. Cement has the strongest positive correlation (R= 0.51) with compressive strength,
which denotes a respectable degree of consistency with the strength value. Age and SP input parameters exhibit a similar relationship
with compressive strength (CS), with R values of 0.28 and 0.29, respectively. There is a moderately negative correlation between water
and CS, which means the strength value decreases with the water quantity increment. A similar correlation exists between aggregate
and CS. Other input parameters like curing age and superplasticizer exhibit a good positive linear relationship with CS, which indicates
that with the increment of curing age and SP in concrete, the strength value tends to increase up to a certain limit. RHA has a low
positive correlation with CS, which signifies that CS has a slight tendency to increase with the optimum increment of RHA content.
3.2. XGB model performance assessment
Fig. 7 demonstrates the outcomes of the XGB algorithm utilized to predict the CS of RBC. The line graph and scatter diagram in
Fig. 7(a) and Fig. 7(b) depicts the predicted and actual values for all of the training, testing, and validation phase data. The line graph
demonstrates that the XGB model’s error for training data is less than 5 Mpa; however, the error range for testing data is approximately
25 Mpa. In comparison to the testing phase, validation data showed a decreased range of error of roughly 15 Mpa. In Fig. 7(b), the
correlation between the actual results and the model’s predictions is displayed. The calculated R2 coefficients for the training, testing,
and validation data are 0.997, 0.928, and 0.913, respectively, indicating that the observed and projected results are closely aligned.
This suggests that the forecast model is well-trained and has good generalization potential.
3.3. LGB model performance assessment
Fig. 8(a) illustrates the results of training, testing, and validation stages for the LGB method. The highest error range in the LGB
model is about 10 Mpa for training data, roughly 25 Mpa for testing data, and about 20 Mpa for validation data. This model’s training
data has a greater range of error than the XGB model’s testing inputs, whereas testing and validation inputs are quite similar between
the two models. The R2 coefficients for the training, testing, and validation sets of data are shown in Fig. 8(b) with respective values of
0.985, 0.931, and 0.928. This model offers a more accurate fit for both the actual and predicted outcomes compared to XGB.
Fig. 6. Correlation matrix of the input and output variables of RBC.
10
Fig. 7. (a). CS relative error of XGB model using training, testing, and validation datasets (b). Correlation between predicted value vs observed
value in XGB model.
3.4. RF model performance assessment
The comparison of observed and predicted values by the RF model for compressive strength of RBC is shown in Fig. 9(a). There is a
moderate discordance among the observed and predicted outcomes for this model as the highest error range for testing and validation
data crossed 30 Mpa, which is greater than both the XGB and LGB models. Moreover, the R2 score for this is 0.986, 0.917, and 0.899,
respectively, shown in Fig. 9(b). Though these values represent a higher precision, this model exhibits the lowest prediction perfor
mance on fresh and gathered data among the three single models (XGB, LGB, and RF).
Among all the three traditional prediction models, all the model’s regression co-relation values are pretty close to each other, which
indicates the accuracy and data reliability. Also, it is noticeable that, in all traditional models, there is less variation between the testing
and validation inputs, which ensures no overfitting of data. The LGB model is the most suitable as it showed superior precision and
minimal variation between the forecasted and the actual data of the model, compared to the XGB and RF models.
11
Fig. 8. (a). CS relative error of LGB model using training, testing, and validation datasets.(b). Correlation between predicted value vs observed value
in LGB model.
3.5. Hybrid model’s performance assessment
Both of the hybrid model, XGB-LGB and XGB-RF, exhibited better performance than those single models. For the XGB-LGB model,
Fig. 10(a) demonstrates a lower percentage of error range, below 10 Mpa, for testing and validation as compared to the training data.
Almost similar deviation can be noticed in Fig. 11(a) for the XGB-RF model. The regression coefficients for both models showed greater
accuracy, as depicted in Figs. 10(b) and 11(b). It is interesting to note that almost 95% of predicted data in Fig. 10(b) for the XGB-LGB
model are adjacent to a linear fit 1:1 line. XGB-RF model also showed error ranges from − 10% to +10% in Fig. 11(b), which indicates a
smaller amount of data outside this range. In summary, among all instances of prediction models, XGB-LGB had notable forecasting
outcomes.
12
Fig. 9. (a). CS relative error of RF model using training, testing, and validation datasets. (b). Correlation between predicted value vs observed value
in RF model.
3.6. Performance comparison of the models
Several statistical methods, including the coefficient of determination (R2), the coefficient of efficiency (CE), the root mean square
error (RMSE), and the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) were employed in this study to assess the efficacy of AI models when
adjusted to the diverse data sets. Observational data and simulated data points were used to analyze the training, testing, and vali
dation datasets for each algorithm in order to assess the accuracy of the prediction models.
Fig. 12(a) displays the R2 values for both hybrid and ML algorithm models. Each model has a higher R2 score for the testing inputs,
which is very close to 1. According to earlier research, better accuracy is demonstrated by a model with higher R2 [105]. For the testing
and validation data, this regression coefficient experienced a slight decrease in each model. Among all the models, the XGB-LGB model
exhibits greater precision in the R2 value for testing and validation, whereas the single RF model has a lower R2 value. Notably, there is
the slightest deviation between testing and validation values for the LGB model. Hybrid XGB-LGB model also exhibits better perfor
mance in terms of co-efficient of efficiency (CE), shown in Fig. 12(b). Overall, CE values in all three phases of data for each model
13
Fig. 10. (a). CS relative error of hybrid XGB-LGB model using training, testing, and validation datasets. (b). Correlation between predicted value vs
observed value in XGB-LGB model.
display a similar pattern as R2.

The RMSE was also calculated for each model, as displayed in Fig. 12(c). The findings demonstrated that the XGB-LGB performed
more accurately than another hybrid XGB-RF model. It is to be noted that the standard deviation of the errors for testing and validation
data in the LGB model showed good performance over the hybrid XGB-RF model. For RMSE values, the range remained between 5 MPa
and 8 MPa, which defines the good accuracy of the models. Another tool, MAPE, was also used to compute the average percentage
difference between the anticipated and actual values. From Fig. 12(d), it can be observed that all the models performed well except the
RF model, as it exceeded the value of 10, which defines a higher difference between the predicted and actual values. XGB-RF and XGB
models displayed similar MAPE values for testing and validation data, while both XGB-LGB and LGB had minor differences in MAPE
values between those data. It suggests the well-generalization of those models and the reliability of these models on new data. Ac
cording to the findings presented in Table 4, all the models (including conventional and hybrid ML models) examined in this study
performed within an acceptable range compared to the traditional models used in previous research. Besides this, Table 5 provides a
detailed overview of the performance of each model for various strength ranges. These statistical values of the models demonstrated
14
Fig. 11. (a). CS relative error of hybrid XGB-RF model using training, testing, and validation datasets (b). Correlation between predicted value vs
observed value in XGB-RF model.
high accuracy and good predictive ability for each range which is also supported with the earlier studies results [1,106]. This indicates
that the hybrid models are a viable alternative to the conventional models and could potentially offer more accurate and reliable
results. Overall, the findings of this study highlight the importance of exploring new and innovative modeling techniques to improve
the accuracy and reliability of research findings.
The Taylor diagram is a tool to compare models in a system based on how well they match experimental data. It measures the
similarity between observed and predicted dispersion using factors like the standard deviation and correlation coefficient. An R value
of 1 indicates equal and parallel dispersion around their means. The placement of all the ML models (XGB, LGB, RF, XGB-LGB, and
XGB-RF) is seen closer to one another in Fig. 13(a-c). In the training, testing, and validation phases, these models have a high cor
relation coefficient. For all the models in the three separate stages, the standard deviation has medium-range values, which denotes
moderate variability between expected and actual results. The standard deviation (SD) values for each model are all close to or within
15
Fig. 12. (a). R-square values for ML and hybrid ML models, (b). CE values for ML and hybrid ML models., (c). RMSE values for ML and hybrid ML
models., (d). MAPE values for ML and hybrid ML models.
16
Table 4
Comparing the model’s performance with previously developed research models.
Models R2 RMSE (MPa) Reference
XGB-LGB 0.956 5.255

XGB -RF 0.938 6.471
XGB 0.928 6.919 This study
LGB 0.931 6.179
RF 0.917 7.641
DT 0.984 8.51
RF 0.947 7.47
[54]
XGB 0.922 5.95
ANN 0.851 8.87
ANN 0.857 7.63 [3]
XGB 0.841 3.27 [8]
LR 0.812 8.72
M5P 0.884 6.84 [31]
ANN 0.939 4.97
ANN 0.945 4.08
[30]
NLR 0.821 4.83
RF 0.976 -
AdaBoost 0.963 - [26]
GB 0.972 -
M5P 0.773 6.67
[32]
NLR 0.734 7.28
Table 5
Comparison of the models in different CS ranges.
Models CS ranges (MPa) No. of data R2 RMSE (MPa) MAPE (MPa)
20–60 1011 0.91 6.18 5.71

XGB-LGB 60–100 342 0.94 5.32 4.84
100–150 51 0.97 3.29 2.72
20–60 1011 0.88 7.33 6.27
XGB -RF 60–100 342 0.91 7.68 6.69
100–150 51 0.95 4.56 3.67
20–60 1011 0.86 7.73 6.78
XGB 60–100 342 0.90 8.39 7.24
100–150 51 0.97 3.46 2.98
20–60 1011 0.88 6.24 5.73
LGB 60–100 342 0.89 6.88 6.04
100–150 51 0.95 5.29 4.63
20–60 1011 0.84 7.27 6.69
RF 60–100 342 0.89 8.23 7.59
100–150 51 0.94 5.32 4.77
the range of 25. Similar SD value ranges were also shown in the RBC models for RF, ANN, GB, and DT [54]. These findings show how
these models could increase benefits and reduce restrictions when making CS predictions.
3.7. SHAP analysis
This study focused on using the SHAP method to examine the input parameters that lead to successful forecasting of the output CS
data of RBC. The hybrid XGB-LGB model was used to examine the average SHAP values of all input variables, along with their feature
significance, which can be found in Fig. 14.
The SHAP magnitudes were arranged in descending order from larger to smaller. The most crucial factor was cement content, and
practically, the improvement in compressive strength was mainly influenced by cement content. Ageing and water content were the
following crucial factors in improving CS, but ageing played a dominant role. Cement and age were the most significant factors
affecting RHA concrete, as revealed by a study by Amin et al. [53]. RHA content was the fourth important input, as it is used as an
additional ingredient in concrete to increase the microstructural stiffness of concrete mixes and improve strength. SP and aggregate
were regarded as the fifth and sixth most crucial criteria, respectively.
Fig. 15 shows each variable’s significance as a variety of colour points on the graph, with the y-axis denoting feature relevance and
the x-axis representing the SHAP level.
From Fig. 15, it is apparent that cement was the characteristic that had the most impact according to their level of influence. The
greater significance of cement in the CS prediction was apparent by the more significant cement content, which was represented by red
dots with a positive SHAP value increase, and a great deal of published research data strongly supports this [107]. The second essential
component was curing age, which causes higher strength for a longer curing period. According to the figure, the significance of the
17
Fig. 13. Taylor diagrams of ML and hybrid ML models performance.
18
Fig. 14. Feature significance based on mean values for SHAP.
Fig. 15. Analysis of feature significance using the SHAP.
feature increased with lower water levels and decreased with increasing water content. Remarkably, the prediction ability was
positively impacted by RHA concentration, and feature significance rises as RHA increases. Superplasticizer had less of an effect on CS,
indicating that a more minor concentration of SP had more of an influence than a more considerable concentration. The aggregate
displayed greater data concentration for small to medium aggregate sizes and was least important in forecasting the CS. Based on
previous interpretation analysis of the ensemble learner algorithms model’s input parameters, Barkhordari et al. [26] also found that
curing age, cement, and water had the greatest impact on outcome estimation using the SHAP method.
A SHAP heat map is a visual representation that is used to analyse the output of machine learning models. Fig. 16 displays the effect
of various characteristics on the CS predictions for RBC. From 0–800 instances in the heat map, the SHAP value for cement displayed a
reasonable level, which indicates a higher impact on the CS prediction. For the rest of the portion of instances (800–1404), it exhibited
a lower SHAP value for the cement. Both the age and water features also showed a good level of SHAP value for certain ranges. The
second higher impact feature, age, displayed greater SHAP magnitude for 0–400 and 1100–1404 data instances in the map. For the
third essential feature, water showed multiple ranges for good SHAP value. Though SP showed a reasonable SHAP magnitude for a
limited range, which was 0–100, maximum data occurrences exhibited a lighter representation in the heat map. RHA and aggregate
represented a complex nature, as displayed in the map, which indicated their lower impact. From the f(x) plot, it can be seen that
within the range of 200, the prediction is higher than the baseline due to the higher SHAP values of all the features in that range.
Fig. 16. SHAP heat mapping for all data points.
19
3.8. Analysis of SHAP interconnection plots
The relationships between the input variables and how they influence the CS of RBC are shown in Fig. 14. The potential relationship
between the curing age and water is illustrated in Fig. 17(a), which shows a stronger correlation with water as the curing age increases.
Fig. 17(b) demonstrates that cement with water exhibits a lesser impact pattern up to 400 kg/m3, after which the impact pattern looks
Fig. 17. Interaction plots for input parameters.
20
to be increasing up to a quantity of around 600 kg/m3. The RHA-cement interaction in Fig. 17(c) depicts a moderate correlation within
the range of 25–100 kg/m3, after which a higher impact pattern is noticed. A surge in water has a detrimental impact on the CS, as seen
in Fig. 17(d). According to this finding, water concentrations should be kept low, between 120 and 180 kg/m3, to get the greatest
strength. As shown in Fig. 17(e), using 10–40 kg/m3 SP with aggregate has a beneficial impact that helps to raise the CS. The optimal
aggregate amount with SP, as shown in Fig. 17(f), is between 1500 and 1700 kg/m3, over which an adverse effect has been noted. The
SHAP analysis results were consistent with the experimental findings reported in the literature by Li et al. [108]. The study described
the positive and negative effects of RHA on concrete strength, which were also observed in the present study.
3.9. PDP analysis
Specifically, Fig. 18 illustrates how the content of each input variable affects the CS of RBC. Cement content has a beneficial impact
on RBC’s CS (Fig. 18a), as there is an increase in CS value from 25 to 65 MPa with the rise in cement content from 250 to 550 kg/m3,
which represents about 160% of the rise. On the other hand, Fig. 18(b) shows that the water volume generally has an adverse effect on
CS. Concrete strength decreases from 60 to 30 MPa when water content rises from 160 to 250 kg/m3. The CS varies between 55 and
60 MPa for water amounts between 120 and 160 kg/m3. When the water content is between 170 and 180 kg/m3, the CS value drops
dramatically to 42 MPa. In order to acquire the highest values of the CS of RBC (i.e., with water contents in the region of 120–160 kg/
m3) or to change the water contents with the desired CS, this PDP discovery may, therefore, be helpful. The PDP curve for the specimen
age is portrayed in Fig. 18(c), demonstrating how it favourably influences the CS of RBC. The CS dramatically rises from 22 to 55 MPa
as the sample age ranges from 3 to 28 days and then steadily rises to 65 MPa when the specimen age gets to 90 days. Though the
concrete’s CS has escalated by an amount equal to 195% in 90 days, after this period, the PDP curve is nearly levelled off, which defines
little change in the concrete’s CS for a longer curing period. The overall increasing trend for RHA content in Fig. 18(d) demonstrates
the RHA’s positive impact on concrete strength. The RHA concentration increased from 25 to 175 kg/m3, accounting for around 65%
of the increase. The CS value gradually rises from 42 MPa to 55 MPa for RHA contents ranging from 25 to 90 kg/m3. Following this, the
strength value fluctuates between 55 and 50 MPa up to 115 kg/m3 RHA. The remaining segment (115–170 kg/m3 RHA) saw a sub
stantial rise in the CS, going from 50 to 70 MPa. The impact of aggregates on the CS of RBC is shown in Fig. 18(e). The results show that
this parameter has a very convoluted impact on the CS. In the range of aggregate values between 1000 and 1600 kg/m3, the CS
gradually rises (from 38 to 50 MPa); however, in the remaining range between 1600 and 2000 kg/m3, the CS varies between 55 and
45 MPa greatly. Finally, SP may be split into two ranges and has a mixed influence on RBC’s CS (Fig. 18f). The first range’s CS
fluctuates between 47.5 and 50 MPa for a minimal amount of SP (less than 8 kg/m3). In the second section, as SP rises (10–60 kg/m3),
the CS value steadily falls from 65 to 50 MPa.
4. Conclusion
Artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming increasingly popular in predicting the mechanical properties of concrete for construction
purposes. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the accuracy of AI techniques in predicting the compressive strength (CS) of RBC,
and to determine how the CS of RBC is affected by different raw materials. The study used five input variables for prediction and
analyzed their interaction. Based on the research findings, the following conclusions were drawn:
1. Overall, all of the five machine learning prediction models (XGB-LGB, XGB-RF, XGB, LGB and RF) exhibited better efficacy and
higher generalization capability. Each model achieved an R2 score of over 0.90, indicating that these were highly effective in
predicting the RBC strength and could be relied upon to make accurate predictions.
2. The hybrid models, including XGB-LGB and XGB-RF, achieved better performance than the XGB, LGB, and RF models.
3. The model’s performance was evaluated using statistical techniques such as RMSE, MAPE, and CE. Among all other models, XGB-
LGB has the best outcomes with a lower RMSE of 5.255, MAPE of 8.155, and CE of 0.95.
4. The hybrid XGB-LGB model outperformed the other four models (i.e. hybrid XGB-RF, XGB, LGB, and RF) in terms of both standard
deviation and correlation coefficient, as demonstrated in the Taylor diagram.
5. Based on the SHAP analysis, it was observed that cement, curing age, water, and RHA had the most significant impact on the
predicted CS of RBC. The feature interaction plot revealed that the RHA-cement content was the most positively impacting
parameter for the CS of RBC.
6. PDP analysis determined that the optimal mix design for higher RBC strength included 25–175 kg/m3 of RHA, which accounted for
an overall 65% of the strength increase.
The study suggests that the accuracy of predicting the CS of RBC can be significantly improved by using hybrid data-driven ap
proaches compared to traditional methods. This has significant implications for the construction industry, as accurate strength pre
diction is crucial to ensure the safety and structural integrity of buildings and infrastructure.
5. Limitations and further studies
It is important to note that other parameters such as chemical and physical properties of ingredients, temperature, corrosion, and
resistance to chloride and acid attacks may also affect the CS of RHA concrete. However, due to the limited availability of data, this
study has some limitations in analyzing the effects of these parameters on the strength of RHA concrete. Therefore, further studies are
21
Fig. 18. Analysis of stacking model using PDP for input parameters.
required to create a more comprehensive database with additional input parameters for developing Deep Learning based prediction
models. Future studies can also be conducted to assess the effectiveness of the suggested ML frameworks in predicting other significant
properties of RBC, such as flexural strength, tensile strength, durability, porosity, flowability, shrinkage, cost, and carbon footprint.
22
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Rezaul Karim: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Software, Investigation, Formal
analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Project administration. Pobithra Das: Writing –
review & editing, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization, Resources. Shuvo Dip
Datta: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Resources, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. Mohammad
Alharthai: Funding acquisition, Resources, Validation. Abul Kashem: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visuali
zation, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data
curation, Conceptualization.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
Authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Deputyship for Research and Innovation- Ministry of Education, Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia for this research through a grant (NU/IFC/2/SERC/-/10) under institutional Funding Committee at Najran University,
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
References
[1] C. Mostert, H. Sameer, D. Glanz, S. Bringezu, Climate and resource footprint assessment and visualization of recycled concrete for circular economy, Resour.
Conserv. Recycl. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105767.
[2] X. Chen, D. Shi, S. Guo, Experimental study on damage evaluation, pore structure and impact tensile behavior of 10-year-old concrete cores after exposure to
high temperatures, Int. J. Concr. Struct. Mater. (2020), https://doi.org/10.1186/s40069-020-0393-5.
[3] C. Li, X. Mei, D. Dias, Z. Cui, J. Zhou, Compressive strength prediction of rice husk ash concrete using a hybrid artificial neural network model, Materials 16
(2023), https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16083135.
[4] P. Friedlingstein, M.W. Jones, M. O’Sullivan, R.M. Andrew, D.C.E. Bakker, Global Carbon Budget 2021, raport Earth System Science Data, Earth Syst Sci Data
(2022).
[5] M.N. Amin, A. Iqtidar, K. Khan, M.F. Javed, F.I. Shalabi, M.G. Qadir, Comparison of machine learning approaches with traditional methods for predicting the
compressive strength of rice husk ash concrete, Crystals (Basel) 11 (2021), https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11070779.
[6] K.G. Santhosh, S.M. Subhani, A. Bahurudeen, Recycling of palm oil fuel ash and rice husk ash in the cleaner production of concrete, J. Clean. Prod. (2022),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131736.
[7] G. Ye, H. Huang, N. Van Tuan, Rice husk ash, Properties of Fresh and Hardened Concrete Containing Supplementary Cementitious Materials: State-of-the-Art
Report of the RILEM Technical Committee 238-SCM, Working Group 4 (2018) 283–302.
[8] R. Karim, H. Islam, S. Dip, A. Kashem, Synergistic effects of supplementary cementitious materials and compressive strength prediction of concrete using
machine learning algorithms with SHAP and PDP analyses, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 20 (2024) e02828, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02828.
[9] K. Abid, R. Gholami, G. Mutadir, A pozzolanic based methodology to reinforce Portland cement used for CO2 storage sites, J. Nat. Gas. Sci. Eng. (2020),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jngse.2019.103062.
[10] V. Jittin, A. Bahurudeen, S.D. Ajinkya, Utilisation of rice husk ash for cleaner production of different construction products, J. Clean. Prod. (2020), https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121578.
[11] K. Khan, M.F. Ullah, K. Shahzada, M.N. Amin, T. Bibi, N. Wahab, A. Aljaafari, Effective use of micro-silica extracted from rice husk ash for the production of
high-performance and sustainable cement mortar, Constr. Build. Mater. (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119589.
[12] X. Mei, C. Li, Q. Sheng, Z. Cui, J. Zhou, D. Dias, Development of a hybrid artificial intelligence model to predict the uniaxial compressive strength of a new
aseismic layer made of rubber-sand concrete, Mech. Adv. Mater. Struct. (2023), https://doi.org/10.1080/15376494.2022.2051780.
[13] M. Alyami, R.U.D. Nassar, M. Khan, A.W. Hammad, H. Alabduljabbar, R. Nawaz, M. Fawad, Y. Gamil, Estimating compressive strength of concrete containing
rice husk ash using interpretable machine learning-based models, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 20 (2024), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e02901.
[14] M. Shi, W. Hu, M. Li, J. Zhang, X. Song, W. Sun, Ensemble regression based on polynomial regression-based decision tree and its application in the in-situ data
of tunnel boring machine, Mech. Syst. Signal Process (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2022.110022.
[15] M.L. Shi, L. Lv, L. Xu, A multi-fidelity surrogate model based on extreme support vector regression: fusing different fidelity data for engineering design, Eng.
Comput. (Swansea, Wales) (2023), https://doi.org/10.1108/EC-10-2021-0583.
[16] C. Liu, W. Zhang, H. Liu, X. Lin, R. Zhang, A compressive strength prediction model based on the hydration reaction of cement paste by rice husk ash, Constr.
Build. Mater. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127841.
[17] M.N. Islam, M.F.Mohd Zain, M. Jamil, Prediction of strength and slump of rice husk ash incorporated high-performance concrete, J. Civ. Eng. Manag. (2012),
https://doi.org/10.3846/13923730.2012.698890.
[18] P. Hamidian, P. Alidoust, E.M. Golafshani, K.P. Niavol, A. Behnood, Introduction of a novel evolutionary neural network for evaluating the compressive
strength of concretes: a case of Rice Husk Ash concrete, J. Build. Eng. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105293.
[19] M. Iqbal, D. Zhang, F.E. Jalal, M. Faisal Javed, Computational AI prediction models for residual tensile strength of GFRP bars aged in the alkaline concrete
environment, Ocean Eng. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.109134.
[20] M. Castelli, L. Vanneschi, S. Silva, Prediction of high performance concrete strength using Genetic Programming with geometric semantic genetic operators,
Expert Syst. Appl. (2013), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.037.
[21] A. Kashem, R. Karim, S.C. Malo, P. Das, S.D. Datta, M. Alharthai, Hybrid data-driven approaches to predicting the compressive strength of ultra-high-
performance concrete using SHAP and PDP analyses, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. (2024) e02991, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e02991.
[22] A.R. Suleiman, M.L. Nehdi, Modeling self-healing of concrete using hybrid genetic algorithm-artificial neural network, Materials (2017), https://doi.org/
10.3390/ma10020135.
23
[23] J. Zhang, Y. Huang, F. Aslani, G. Ma, B. Nener, A hybrid intelligent system for designing optimal proportions of recycled aggregate concrete, J. Clean. Prod.
(2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122922.
[24] W.E. Elemam, A.H. Abdelraheem, M.G. Mahdy, A.M. Tahwia, Prediction and optimization of self-consolidating concrete properties, Acids Mater. J. (2022),
https://doi.org/10.14359/51733149.
[25] A. Marani, M.L. Nehdi, Machine learning prediction of compressive strength for phase change materials integrated cementitious composites, Constr. Build.
Mater. (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120286.
[26] M.S. Barkhordari, D.J. Armaghani, A.S. Mohammed, D.V. Ulrikh, Data-driven compressive strength prediction of fly ash concrete using ensemble learner
algorithms, Buildings (2022), https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12020132.
[27] A. Ashrafian, M.J. Taheri Amiri, P. Masoumi, M. Asadi-Shiadeh, M. Yaghoubi-Chenari, A. Mosavi, N. Nabipour, Classification-based regression models for
prediction of the mechanical properties of roller-compacted concrete pavement, Appl. Sci. (Switz.) (2020), https://doi.org/10.3390/app10113707.
[28] H. Naderpour, A.H. Rafiean, P. Fakharian, Compressive strength prediction of environmentally friendly concrete using artificial neural networks, J. Build. Eng.
(2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.01.007.
[29] W.M. Shaban, K. Elbaz, J. Yang, S.L. Shen, A multi-objective optimization algorithm for forecasting the compressive strength of RAC with pozzolanic materials,
J. Clean. Prod. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129355.
[30] A.K. Mohammed, A.M.T. Hassan, A.S. Mohammed, Predicting the compressive strength of green concrete at various temperature ranges using different soft
computing techniques, Sustainability (Switzerland) (2023), https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511907.
[31] W. Emad, A. Salih Mohammed, R. Kurda, K. Ghafor, L. Cavaleri, S. M.A.Qaidi, A.M.T. Hassan, P.G. Asteris, Prediction of concrete materials compressive
strength using surrogate models, Structures (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2022.11.002.
[32] H.U. Ahmed, A.A. Abdalla, A.S. Mohammed, A.A. Mohammed, Mathematical modeling techniques to predict the compressive strength of high-strength
concrete incorporated metakaolin with multiple mix proportions, Clean. Mater. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clema.2022.100132.
[33] A. Mohammed, L. Burhan, K. Ghafor, W. Sarwar, W. Mahmood, Artificial neural network (ANN), M5P-tree, and regression analyses to predict the early age
compression strength of concrete modified with DBC-21 and VK-98 polymers, Neural Comput. Appl. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-020-05525-y.
[34] N. Shakr Piro, A. Mohammed, S.M. Hamad, R. Kurda, Electrical resistivity-compressive strength predictions for normal strength concrete with waste steel slag
as a coarse aggregate replacement using various analytical models, Constr. Build. Mater. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127008.
[35] N.S. Piro, A. Salih, S.M. Hamad, R. Kurda, Comprehensive multiscale techniques to estimate the compressive strength of concrete incorporated with carbon
nanotubes at various curing times and mix proportions, J. Mater. Res. Technol. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.11.028.
[36] A. Mohammed, R. Kurda, D.J. Armaghani, M. Hasanipanah, Prediction of compressive strength of concrete modified with fly ash: applications of neuro-swarm
and neuro-imperialism models, Comput. Concr. (2021), https://doi.org/10.12989/cac.2021.27.5.489.
[37] D. Kakasor Ismael Jaf, P. Ismael Abdulrahman, A. Salih Mohammed, R. Kurda, S.M.A. Qaidi, P.G. Asteris, Machine learning techniques and multi-scale models
to evaluate the impact of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and calcium oxide (CaO) in fly ash on the compressive strength of green concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. (2023),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132604.
[38] H.X. Mohammed, A.S. Mohammed, A.M.T. Hassan, Soft computing models to evaluate the effect of fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) on
the compressive strength of concrete in normal and high strength ranges, Structures 58 (2023) 105459, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2023.105459.
[39] D. Yang, P. Xu, A. Zaman, T. Alomayri, M. Houda, A. Alaskar, M.F. Javed, Compressive strength prediction of concrete blended with carbon nanotubes using
gene expression programming and random forest: hyper-tuning and optimization, J. Mater. Res. Technol. (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.04.250.
[40] A. Ahmad, W. Ahmad, F. Aslam, P. Joyklad, Compressive strength prediction of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete via advanced machine learning techniques,
Case Stud. Constr. Mater. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00840.
[41] M. Liang, Z. Chang, Z. Wan, Y. Gan, E. Schlangen, B. Šavija, Interpretable Ensemble-Machine-Learning models for predicting creep behavior of concrete, Cem.
Concr. Compos (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104295.
[42] M.N. Amin, S.A. Khan, K. Khan, S. Nazar, A.M.A. Arab, A.F. Deifalla, Promoting the suitability of rice husk ash concrete in the building sector via contemporary
machine intelligence techniques, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02357.
[43] M. Nasir Amin, B. Iftikhar, K. Khan, M. Faisal Javed, A. Mohammad AbuArab, M. Faisal Rehman, Prediction model for rice husk ash concrete using AI
approach: boosting and bagging algorithms, Structures (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2023.02.080.
[44] A. Abdulalim Alabdullah, M. Iqbal, M. Zahid, K. Khan, M. Nasir Amin, F.E. Jalal, Prediction of rapid chloride penetration resistance of metakaolin based high
strength concrete using light GBM and XGBoost models by incorporating SHAP analysis, Constr. Build. Mater. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2022.128296.
[45] J. Rahman, K.S. Ahmed, N.I. Khan, K. Islam, S. Mangalathu, Data-driven shear strength prediction of steel fiber reinforced concrete beams using machine
learning approach, Eng. Struct. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111743.
[46] H. Song, A. Ahmad, F. Farooq, K.A. Ostrowski, M. Maślak, S. Czarnecki, F. Aslam, Predicting the compressive strength of concrete with fly ash admixture using
machine learning algorithms, Constr. Build. Mater. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125021.
[47] K. Khan, W. Ahmad, M.N. Amin, A. Ahmad, S. Nazar, A.A. Alabdullah, Compressive strength estimation of steel-fiber-reinforced concrete and raw material
interactions using advanced algorithms, Polymers (Basel) (2022), https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14153065.
[48] M.N. Amin, K. Khan, M. Sufian, Q.M.S. Al-Ahmad, A.F. Deifalla, F. Alsharari, Predicting parameters and sensitivity assessment of nano-silica-based fiber-
reinforced concrete: a sustainable construction material, J. Mater. Res. Technol. (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.02.021.
[49] M.N. Uddin, J. Ye, B. Deng, L. Zhi Li, K. Yu, Interpretable machine learning for predicting the strength of 3D printed fiber-reinforced concrete (3DP-FRC),
J. Build. Eng. (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106648.
[50] Z.M. Alhakeem, Y.M. Jebur, S.N. Henedy, H. Imran, L.F.A. Bernardo, H.M. Hussein, Prediction of ecofriendly concrete compressive strength using gradient
boosting regression tree combined with GridSearchCV hyperparameter-optimization techniques, Materials (2022), https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217432.
[51] Z. Shen, A.F. Deifalla, P. Kamiński, A. Dyczko, Compressive strength evaluation of ultra-high-strength concrete by machine learning, Materials (2022), https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma15103523.
[52] F. Farooq, W. Ahmed, A. Akbar, F. Aslam, R. Alyousef, Predictive modeling for sustainable high-performance concrete from industrial wastes: a comparison
and optimization of models using ensemble learners, J. Clean. Prod. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126032.
[53] M.N. Amin, W. Ahmad, K. Khan, A.F. Deifalla, Optimizing compressive strength prediction models for rice husk ash concrete with evolutionary machine
intelligence techniques, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 18 (2023) e02102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02102.
[54] A. Bassi, A. Manchanda, R. Singh, M. Patel, A comparative study of machine learning algorithms for the prediction of compressive strength of rice husk ash-
based concrete, Springe Neth. (2023), https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-05998-9.
[55] M.N. Al-hashem, M.N. Amin, M. Raheel, K. Khan, H.A. Alkadhim, M. Imran, S. Ullah, M. Iqbal, Predicting the compressive strength of concrete containing,
Materials (2022).
[56] J. Premalatha, K. Srinivasan, Prediction of compressive strength of concrete with rice husk ash (RHA) as partial replacement for cement using artificial neural
network (ANN) model, AIP Conf. Proc. 2446 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0110583.
[57] F. Aslam, M.A. Elkotb, A. Iqtidar, M.A. Khan, M.F. Javed, K.I. Usanova, M.I. Khan, S. Alamri, M.A. Musarat, Compressive strength prediction of rice husk ash
using multiphysics genetic expression programming, Ain Shams Eng. J. 13 (2022) 101593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2021.09.020.
[58] D.C. Feng, Z.T. Liu, X.D. Wang, Y. Chen, J.Q. Chang, D.F. Wei, Z.M. Jiang, Machine learning-based compressive strength prediction for concrete: an adaptive
boosting approach, Constr. Build. Mater. (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117000.
[59] V. Quan Tran, V. Quoc Dang, L. Si Ho, Evaluating compressive strength of concrete made with recycled concrete aggregates using machine learning approach,
Constr. Build. Mater. 323 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126578.
[60] N.H. Nguyen, J. Abellán-García, S. Lee, E. Garcia-Castano, T.P. Vo, Efficient estimating compressive strength of ultra-high performance concrete using XGBoost
model, J. Build. Eng. 52 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104302.
24
[61] A. Ahmed, W. Song, Y. Zhang, M.A. Haque, X. Liu, Hybrid BO-XGBoost and BO-RF models for the strength prediction of self-compacting mortars with
parametric analysis, Materials 16 (2023) 4366, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124366.
[62] Y. Liu, Y. Li, J. Mu, H. Li, J. Shen, Modeling and analysis of creep in concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials based on machine learning,
[63] H.V.T. Mai, M.H. Nguyen, S.H. Trinh, H.B. Ly, Toward improved prediction of recycled brick aggregate concrete compressive strength by designing ensemble
machine learning models, Constr. Build. Mater. 369 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130613.
[64] M.N. Amin, W. Ahmad, K. Khan, S. Nazar, A.M.A. Arab, A.F. Deifalla, Evaluating the relevance of eggshell and glass powder for cement-based materials using
machine learning and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 19 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02278.
[65] A. Abdulalim Alabdullah, M. Iqbal, M. Zahid, K. Khan, M. Nasir Amin, F.E. Jalal, Prediction of rapid chloride penetration resistance of metakaolin based high
strength concrete using light GBM and XGBoost models by incorporating SHAP analysis, Constr. Build. Mater. 345 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2022.128296.
[66] I.U. Ekanayake, D.P.P. Meddage, U. Rathnayake, A novel approach to explain the black-box nature of machine learning in compressive strength predictions of
concrete using Shapley additive explanations (SHAP), Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 16 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01059.
[67] Y. Li, J. Shen, H. Lin, H. Li, J. Lv, S. Feng, J. Ci, The data-driven research on bond strength between fly ash-based geopolymer concrete and reinforcing bars,
[68] M. Hosseinzadeh, M. Dehestani, A. Hosseinzadeh, Prediction of mechanical properties of recycled aggregate fly ash concrete employing machine learning
algorithms, J. Build. Eng. 76 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107006.
[69] B. Xi, E. Li, Y. Fissha, J. Zhou, P. Segarra, LGBM-based modeling scenarios to compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete with SHAP analysis, Mech.
Adv. Mater. Struct. (2023), https://doi.org/10.1080/15376494.2023.2224782.
[70] M. Hosseinzadeh, M. Dehestani, A. Hosseinzadeh, Prediction of mechanical properties of recycled aggregate fly ash concrete employing machine learning
algorithms, J. Build. Eng. 76 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107006.
[71] L. Breiman, Random Forests, 2001.
[72] Y. El Khessaimi, Y. El Hafiane, C. Peyratout, K. Tamine, S. Adly, M. Barkatou, A. Smith, Towards accelerating the development of calcined clay cements: data-
driven prediction of compressive strength exploiting machine learning algorithms, n.d. https://cnrs.hal.science/hal-03948449.
[73] Q. Han, C. Gui, J. Xu, G. Lacidogna, A generalized method to predict the compressive strength of high-performance concrete by improved random forest
algorithm, Constr. Build. Mater. 226 (2019) 734–742, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.315.
[74] F. Farooq, M.N. Amin, K. Khan, M.R. Sadiq, M.F. Javed, F. Aslam, R. Alyousef, A comparative study of random forest and genetic engineering programming for
the prediction of compressive strength of high strength concrete (HSC), Appl. Sci. (Switz.) 10 (2020) 1–18, https://doi.org/10.3390/app10207330.
[75] M.W. Ahmad, J. Reynolds, Y. Rezgui, Predictive modelling for solar thermal energy systems: a comparison of support vector regression, random forest, extra
trees and regression trees, J. Clean. Prod. 203 (2018) 810–821, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.207.
[76] D. Yang, P. Xu, A. Zaman, T. Alomayri, M. Houda, A. Alaskar, M.F. Javed, Compressive strength prediction of concrete blended with carbon nanotubes using
gene expression programming and random forest: hyper-tuning and optimization, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 24 (2023) 7198–7218, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmrt.2023.04.250.
[77] M.A. Haque, B. Chen, A. Kashem, T. Qureshi, A.A.M. Ahmed, Hybrid intelligence models for compressive strength prediction of MPC composites and
parametric analysis with SHAP algorithm, Mater. Today Commun. 35 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2023.105547.
[78] I.U. Ekanayake, D.P.P. Meddage, U. Rathnayake, A novel approach to explain the black-box nature of machine learning in compressive strength predictions of
concrete using Shapley additive explanations (SHAP), Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 16 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01059.
[79] C. Cakiroglu, Md Shahjalal, K. Islam, S.M.F. Mahmood, A.H.M.M. Billah, M.L. Nehdi, Explainable ensemble learning data-driven modeling of mechanical
properties of fiber-reinforced rubberized recycled aggregate concrete, J. Build. Eng. 76 (2023) 107279, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107279.
[80] P. Das, A. Kashem, Hybrid machine learning approach to prediction of the compressive and flexural strengths of UHPC and parametric analysis with shapley
additive explanations, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 20 (2024) e02723, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02723.
[81] M.A. Haque, B. Chen, A. Kashem, T. Qureshi, A.A.M. Ahmed, Hybrid intelligence models for compressive strength prediction of MPC composites and
parametric analysis with SHAP algorithm, Mater. Today Commun. 35 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2023.105547.
[82] S.M. Lundberg, P.G. Allen, S.-I. Lee, A Unified Approach to Interpreting Model Predictions, n.d. http://github.com/slundberg/shap.
[83] Z.M. Alhakeem, Y.M. Jebur, S.N. Henedy, H. Imran, L.F.A. Bernardo, H.M. Hussein, Prediction of ecofriendly concrete compressive strength using gradient
boosting regression tree combined with GridSearchCV hyperparameter-optimization techniques, Materials 15 (2022), https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217432.
[84] Y. Peng, C. Unluer, Modeling the mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete using hybrid machine learning algorithms, Resour. Conserv Recycl 190
(2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106812.
[85] A. Kashem, P. Das, Compressive strength prediction of high-strength concrete using hybrid machine learning approaches by incorporating SHAP analysis,
Asian J. Civ. Eng. (2023), https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-023-00707-0.
[86] S. Paul, P. Das, A. Kashem, N. Islam, Sustainable of rice husk ash concrete compressive strength prediction utilizing artificial intelligence techniques, Asian J.
Civ. Eng. (2023), https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-023-00847-3.
[87] A.R. Ghanizadeh, A. Tavana Amlashi, S. Dessouky, A novel hybrid adaptive boosting approach for evaluating properties of sustainable materials: a case of
concrete containing waste foundry sand, J. Build. Eng. 72 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106595.
[88] M.N. Amin, K. Khan, A.M. Abu Arab, F. Farooq, S.M. Eldin, M.F. Javed, Prediction of sustainable concrete utilizing rice husk ash (RHA) as supplementary
cementitious material (SCM): optimization and hyper-tuning, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 25 (2023) 1495–1536, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.06.006.
[89] D.D. Bui, J. Hu, P. Stroeven, Particle size effect on the strength of rice husk ash blended gap-graded Portland cement concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos. 27 (2005)
357–366, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2004.05.002.
[90] R. Kishore, V. Bhikshma, P.Jeevana Prakash, Study on strength characteristics of high strength Rice Husk Ash concrete, Procedia Eng. (2011) 2666–2672,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.07.335.
[91] M.N. Islam, M.F.Mohd Zain, M. Jamil, Prediction of strength and slump of rice husk ash incorporated high-performance concrete, J. Civ. Eng. Manag. 18
(2012) 310–317, https://doi.org/10.3846/13923730.2012.698890.
[92] H. Bin Mahmud, M. Fakhar Abdul Malik, R. Abdul Kahar, M. Fauzi Mohd Zain, S. Naidu Raman, Mechanical Properties and Durability of Normal and Water
Reduced High Strength Grade 60 Concrete Containing Rice Husk Ash, n.d.
[93] ACI-1996-RHA, (n.d.).
[94] N. Nisar, J.A. Bhat, Experimental investigation of Rice Husk Ash on compressive strength, carbonation and corrosion resistance of reinforced concrete, Aust. J.
Civ. Eng. 19 (2021) 155–163, https://doi.org/10.1080/14488353.2020.1838419.
[95] Y. Huang, Y. Lei, X. Luo, C. Fu, Prediction of compressive strength of rice husk ash concrete: a comparison of different metaheuristic algorithms for optimizing
support vector regression, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 18 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02201.
[96] M.N. Amin, W. Ahmad, K. Khan, A.F. Deifalla, Optimizing compressive strength prediction models for rice husk ash concrete with evolutionary machine
intelligence techniques, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 18 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02102.
[97] G.A. Habeeb, M.M. Fayyadh, Rice husk ash concrete: the effect of RHA average particle size on mechanical properties and drying shrinkage, Aust. J. Basic
Appl. Sci. 3 (2009) 1616–1622.
[98] S.A. Zareei, F. Ameri, F. Dorostkar, M. Ahmadi, Rice husk ash as a partial replacement of cement in high strength concrete containing micro silica: evaluating
durability and mechanical properties, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 7 (2017) 73–81, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2017.05.001.
[99] D. Chopra, R. Siddique, Kunal, Strength, permeability and microstructure of self-compacting concrete containing rice husk ash, Biosyst. Eng. 130 (2015)
72–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2014.12.005.
[100] M.N. Amin, S.A. Khan, K. Khan, S. Nazar, A.M.A. Arab, A.F. Deifalla, Promoting the suitability of rice husk ash concrete in the building sector via contemporary
machine intelligence techniques, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 19 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02357.
25
[101] M.N. Amin, K. Khan, A.M. Abu Arab, F. Farooq, S.M. Eldin, M.F. Javed, Prediction of sustainable concrete utilizing rice husk ash (RHA) as supplementary
cementitious material (SCM): optimization and hyper-tuning, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 25 (2023) 1495–1536, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.06.006.
[102] H. Chao-Lung, B.Le Anh-Tuan, C. Chun-Tsun, Effect of rice husk ash on the strength and durability characteristics of concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2011)
3768–3772, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.04.009.
[103] B. Iftikhar, S.C. Alih, M. Vafaei, M.A. Elkotb, M. Shutaywi, M.F. Javed, W. Deebani, M.I. Khan, F. Aslam, Predictive modeling of compressive strength of
sustainable rice husk ash concrete: ensemble learner optimization and comparison, J. Clean. Prod. 348 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2022.131285.
[104] M.K. Cain, Z. Zhang, K.H. Yuan, Univariate and multivariate skewness and kurtosis for measuring nonnormality: prevalence, influence and estimation, Behav.
Res Methods (2017), https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-016-0814-1.
[105] S. Nazar, J. Yang, X.E. Wang, K. Khan, M.N. Amin, M.F. Javed, F. Althoey, M. Ali, Estimation of strength, rheological parameters, and impact of raw
constituents of alkali-activated mortar using machine learning and SHapely Additive exPlanations (SHAP), Constr. Build. Mater. (2023), https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131014.
[106] R. Ali, M. Muayad, A.S. Mohammed, P.G. Asteris, Analysis and prediction of the effect of Nanosilica on the compressive strength of concrete with different mix
proportions and specimen sizes using various numerical approaches, Struct. Concr. (2023), https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.202200718.
[107] V. Quan Tran, V. Quoc Dang, L. Si Ho, Evaluating compressive strength of concrete made with recycled concrete aggregates using machine learning approach,
Constr. Build. Mater. 323 (2022) 126578, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126578.
[108] X. Li, D. Qin, Y. Hu, W. Ahmad, A. Ahmad, F. Aslam, P. Joyklad, A systematic review of waste materials in cement-based composites for construction
applications, J. Build. Eng. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103447.
26

1 s2.0 S2214509524001815 Main

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 s2.0 S2214509524001815 Main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e03030

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Case Studies in Construction Materials

Compressive strength prediction of sustainable concrete

RHA SOA–SVM, SOA–RF, ANN, ELM 192 [3]

2.1. Extreme gradient boosting (XGB) algorithm

2.2. Light gradient boosting machines (LGB) algorithm

2.3. Random forest (RF) algorithm

Fig. 1. Graphical representation of XGB algorithm.

Fig. 2. Graphical representation of LGB algorithm.

2.4. Hybrid machine learning model

Fig. 3. Graphical representation of RF algorithm.

2.5. Hyperparameter tuning

2.6. SHapley Additive exPlainations (SHAP)

2.7. Partial dependence plots (PDP)

Number of estimators [100, 200, 500] 100

2.8. Prediction performance assessment criteria

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Dataset description and analysis

Age (days) Input 1 365 39.41 55.04 12.7O4 3.092

Fig. 5. Contour map of input and output variables.

3.2. XGB model performance assessment

3.3. LGB model performance assessment

Fig. 6. Correlation matrix of the input and output variables of RBC.

3.4. RF model performance assessment

3.5. Hybrid model’s performance assessment

3.6. Performance comparison of the models

display a similar pattern as R2.

XGB-LGB 0.956 5.255

20–60 1011 0.91 6.18 5.71

3.7. SHAP analysis

Fig. 13. Taylor diagrams of ML and hybrid ML models performance.

Fig. 14. Feature significance based on mean values for SHAP.

Fig. 15. Analysis of feature significance using the SHAP.

Fig. 16. SHAP heat mapping for all data points.

3.8. Analysis of SHAP interconnection plots

Fig. 17. Interaction plots for input parameters.

3.9. PDP analysis

5. Limitations and further studies

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Declaration of Competing Interest

Data will be made available on request.

You might also like