Rahul Report

ELECTROMAGNETIC DISC BRAKE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Electromagnetic brakes have been used as supplementary retardation equipment in addition
to the regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles. We outline the general principles of regular brakes and
several alternative retardation techniques in this section. The working principle and characteristics of
electromagnetic brakes are then highlighted.
The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel. A
brake disc usually made of cast iron or ceramic composites is connected to the wheel and the axle. To
stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads is forced mechanically, hydraulically,
pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and
attached wheel to slow or stop. But in our project electromagnetic energy is used as the source of
power, due to high applied force and torque.
AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 1

1.2 COMPONENT LIST
1. 36 Gauge Magnet wire ,
2. DC Motor ,
3. Transformer ,
4. Iron Stand,
5. Wheel
6. Diode
7. Capacitor

1.3 Creating an Electromagnet
North South
Attach wire ends to your interface

Wrap magnet wire around the soft iron core (bolt ) -‘ve +‘ve
Figure 1 Creating an Electromagnet
Things to remember about electromagnets:
• The more coils you make, the stronger the magnet.
• Magnet wire works better, because it is thinner and more coils you can get.
• A soft iron core will make the magnet work better (a bolt).

1.4 General Principle of Brake System
The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of kinetic energy into
thermal energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force several
times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion and dissipates the associated kinetic energy
as heat. Brakes must be able to arrest the speed of a vehicle in a short periods of time regardless how
fast the speed is. As a result, the brakes are required to have the ability to generating high torque and
absorbing energy at extremely high rates for short periods of time. Brakes may be applied for a
prolonged periods of time in some applications such as a heavy vehicle descending a long gradient at
high speed. Brakes have to have the mechanism to keep the heat absorption capability for prolonged
periods of time.
FIGURE 2. General Principle of Brake System

1.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM
TRANSFORMER
RECTIFIER
CAPACITOR
ELECTROMAGNETIC
MOTOR DISK COIL
FIGURE 3. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC DISC BRAKE

1.6 Working Principle
The working principle of the electric retarder is based on the creation of eddy currents within a metal
disc rotating between two electromagnets, which sets up a force opposing the rotation of the disc. If
the electromagnet is not energized, the rotation of the disc is free and accelerates uniformly under the
action of the weight to which its shaft is connected. When the electromagnet is energized, the rotation
of the disc is retarded and the energy absorbed appears as heating of the disc. If the current exciting the
electromagnet is varied by a rheostat, the braking torque varies in direct proportion to the value of the
current. It was the Frenchman Raoul Sarazin who made the first vehicle application of eddy current
brakes. The development of this invention began when the French company Telma, associated with
Raoul Sarazin, developed and marketed several generations of electric brakes based on the functioning
principles described above (Reverdin, 1974).
A typical retarder consists of stator and rotor. The stator holds 16 induction
coils, energized separately in groups of four. The coils are made up of varnished aluminum wire
mounded in epoxy resin. . The rotor is made up of two discs, which provide the braking force when
subject to the electromagnetic influence when the coils are excited. Careful design of the fins, which
are integral to the disc, permit independent cooling of the arrangement.
1.7 Advantage of Electromagnetic Brakes (retarders) Installation

Location
Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy all the energy
requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the use of friction. Due to its specific
installation location (transmission line of rigid vehicles), electromagnetic brakes have better heat
dissipation capability to avoid problems that friction brakes face as we mentioned before. Typically,
electromagnetic brakes have been mounted in the transmission line of vehicles, The propeller shaft is
divided and fitted with a sliding universal joint and is connected to the coupling flange on the brake.
The brake is fitted into the chassis of the vehicle by means of anti-vibration mounting.

The practical location of the retarder within the vehicle prevents the direct impingement of air on the
retarder caused by the motion of the vehicle. Any air flow movement within the chassis of the vehicle
is found to have a relatively insignificant effect on the air flow around tire areas and hence on the
temperature of both front and rear discs. So the application of the retarder does not affect the
temperature of the regular brakes. In that way, the retarders help to extend the life span of the regular
brakes and keep the regular brakes cool for emergency situation.

CHAPTER 2
MAGNET
Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced by a bar magnet
Magnetic field lines of a solenoid which are similar to a bar magnet as illustrated above with the iron
filings
A magnet (from Greek μαγνήτης λίθος, "Magnesian stone") is a material or object that produces a
magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a
magnet: a force that pulls on other magnetic materials and attracts or repels other magnets. A
permanent magnet is one that stays magnetized, such as a magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator
door. Materials which can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are strongly attracted to a
magnet, are called ferromagnetic. These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some rare earth metals and some
of their alloys, and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. The other type of magnet is
an electromagnet, a coil of wire which acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it, but
stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often an electromagnet is wrapped around a core of
ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil. Permanent
magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials which are designed to stay magnetized, while
"soft" ferromagnetic materials like soft iron are attracted to a magnet but don't tend to stay magnetized.
Although ferromagnetic materials are the only ones strongly enough attracted to a magnet to be
commonly considered "magnetic", all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of
several other types of magnetism. Paramagnetic materials, such as aluminum and oxygen are weakly
attracted to a magnet. Diamagnetic materials, such as carbon and water, which include all substances
not having another type of magnetism, are weakly repelled by a magnet.

The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment, while the local strength of the
magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization.
2.1 Background on the physics of magnetism and magnets
FIGURE 5. The effects of magnetism.
2.1.1 Magnetic field

The magnetic field (usually denoted B) is called a field (physics) because it has a value at every
point in space. The magnetic field (at a given point) is specified by two properties: (1) its direction,
which is along the orientation of a compass needle; and (2) its magnitude (also called strength), which
is proportional to how strongly the compass needle orients along that direction. Direction and
magnitude makes B a vector, so B is a vector field. (B can also depend on time.) In SI units the
strength of the magnetic field is given in teslas
2.1.2 Magnetic moment

A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment, and usually
denoted μ) is a vector that characterizes the magnet's overall magnetic properties. For a
bar magnet, the direction of the magnetic moment points from the magnet's north pole to
its south pole, and the magnitude relates to how strong and how far apart these poles are.
In SI units the magnetic moment is specified in terms of A·m².
A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and it responds to magnetic fields. The strength of the
magnetic field it produces is at any given point proportional to the magnitude of its magnetic moment.
In addition, when the magnet is put into an "external" magnetic field produced by a different source, it
is subject to a torque tending to orient the magnetic moment parallel to the field. The amount of this
torque is proportional both to the magnetic moment and the "external" field. A magnet may also be
subject to a force driving it in one direction or another, according to the positions and orientations of
the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space the magnet is subject to no net force, although it
is subject to a torque.
A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying current I is a magnet, with a magnetic moment
of magnitude equal to IA.
2.1.3Magnetization
The magnetization of an object is the local value of its magnetic moment per unit volume, usually
denoted M, with units A/m. It is a vector field, rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment),
because the different sections of a bar magnet generally are magnetized with different directions and
strengths (for example, due to domains, see below). A good bar magnet may have a magnetic moment
of magnitude 0.1 A·m² and a volume of 1 cm³, or 0.000001 m³, and therefore an average
magnetization magnitude is 100,000 A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of around a million A/m.
Such a large value explains why magnets are so effective at producing magnetic fields.
2.2 Two models for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic currents
2.2.1 Magnetic pole model:
Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet as having distinct north and
south magnetic poles, the concept of poles should not be taken literally: it is merely a way of referring

to the two different ends of a magnet. The magnet does not have distinct "north" or "south" particles on
opposing sides. (No magnetic monopole has yet been observed.) If a bar magnet is broken in half, in
an attempt to separate the north and south poles, the result will be two bar magnets, each of which has
both a north and south pole.
The magnetic pole approach is used by professional magneticians to design permanent magnets. In this
approach, the pole surfaces of a permanent magnet are imagined to be covered with 'magnetic charge',
little 'North pole' particles on the North pole and 'South poles' on the south pole, that are the source of
the magnetic field lines. If the magnetic pole distribution is known, then outside the magnet the pole
model gives the magnetic field exactly. By simply supplementing the pole model field with a term
proportional to the magnetization (see Units and Calculations, below) the magnetic field within the
magnet is given exactly. This pole model is also called the "Gilbert model" of a magnetic dipole. [1]
Griffiths suggests (p. 258): "My advice is to use the Gilbert model, if you like, to get an intuitive "feel"
for a problem, but never rely on it for quantitative results."
2.2.2 Ampère model:
Another model is the "Ampère model", where all magnetization is due to the effect of
microscopic, or atomic, circular "bound currents", also called "Ampèrian currents" throughout the
material. For a uniformly magnetized bar magnet in the shape of a cylinder, the net effect of the
microscopic bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic sheet of electric
current flowing around the surface of the cylinder, with local flow direction normal to the cylinder
axis. (Since scraping off the outer layer of a magnet will not destroy its magnetic field, it can be seen
that this is just a model, and the tiny currents are actually distributed throughout the material). The
right-hand rule due to Ampère tells which direction the current flows. The Ampere model gives the
exact magnetic field both inside and outside the magnet. It is usually difficult to calculate the
Amperian currents on the surface of a magnet, whereas it is often easier to find the effective poles for
the same magnet.
2.2.3 Pole naming conventions

The north pole of the magnet is the pole which, when the magnet is freely suspended, points
towards the Earth's magnetic north pole in northern Canada. Since opposite poles (north and south)
attract whereas like poles (north and north, or south and south) repel, the Earth's present geographic

north is thus actually its magnetic south. Confounding the situation further, the Earth's magnetic field
has reversed itself many times in the distant past.
In order to avoid this confusion, the terms positive and negative poles are sometimes used instead of
north and south, respectively.
As a practical matter, in order to tell which pole of a magnet is north and which is south, it is not
necessary to use the earth's magnetic field at all. For example, one calibration method would be to
compare it to an electromagnet, whose poles can be identified via the right-hand rule.
2.4 Descriptions of magnetic behaviors
There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one of them. This section
describes, qualitatively, the primary types of magnetic behavior that materials can show. The physics
underlying each of these behaviors is described in the next section below, and can also be found in
more detail in their respective articles.
 Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought of as 'magnetic'; they
are attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials are the
only ones that can retain magnetization and become magnets; a common example is a
traditional refrigerator magnet. Ferrimagnetic materials, which include ferrites and the oldest
magnetic materials magnetite and lodestone, are similar to but weaker than ferromagnetics. The
difference between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to their microscopic structure,
as explained below.
 Paramagnetic substances such as platinum, aluminum, and oxygen are weakly attracted to a
magnet. This effect is hundreds of thousands of times weaker than ferromagnetic materials
attraction, so it can only be detected by using sensitive instruments, or using extremely strong
magnets. Magnetic ferrofluids, although they are made of tiny ferromagnetic particles
suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered paramagnetic since they can't be magnetized.
 Diamagnetic substances such as carbon, copper, water, and plastic are even more weakly
repelled by a magnet. All substances not possessing one of the other types of magnetism are
diamagnetic; this includes most substances. Although force on a diamagnetic object from an
ordinary magnet is far too weak to be felt, using extremely strong superconducting magnets

diamagnetic objects such as pieces of lead and even frogs can be levitated so they float in
midair. Superconductors repel magnetic fields from their interior and are strongly diamagnetic.
2.4.1 Physics of magnetic behaviors
Overview
Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:
 Electric currents, or more generally moving electric charges, create magnetic fields (see
Maxwell's Equations).
 Many particles have nonzero "intrinsic" (or "spin") magnetic moments. (Just as each particle,
by its nature, has a certain mass and charge, each has a certain magnetic moment, possibly
zero.)
In magnetic materials, the most important sources of magnetization are, more specifically, the
electrons' orbital angular motion around the nucleus, and the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment (see
Electron magnetic dipole moment). The other potential sources of magnetism are much less important:
For example, the nuclear magnetic moments of the nuclei in the material are typically thousands of
times smaller than the electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the context of the
magnetization of materials. (Nuclear magnetic moments are important in other contexts, particularly in
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).)
Ordinarily, the countless electrons in a material are arranged such that their magnetic moments (both
orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with
opposite intrinsic magnetic moments (as a result of the Pauli exclusion principle; see Electron
configuration), or combining into "filled subshells" with zero net orbital motion; in both cases, the
electron arrangement is so as to exactly cancel the magnetic moments from each electron. Moreover,
even when the electron configuration is such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled
subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute magnetic moments
that point in different, random directions, so that the material will not be magnetic.
However, sometimes (either spontaneously, or due to an applied external magnetic field) each of the
electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. Then the material can produce a net total
magnetic field, which can potentially be quite strong.

The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure (particularly its electron configuration,
for the reasons mentioned above), and also on the temperature (at high temperatures, random thermal
motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to maintain alignment).
2.4.2 Physics of paramagnetism
In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or molecular orbitals with
exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons are required by the Pauli exclusion principle to
have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic
fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic moment in any direction. When
an external magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the
same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.
2.4.3 Physics of diamagnetism

In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic
moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons'
orbital motions, which can be understood classically as follows:
When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in
addition to their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field.
Depending on which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force on
the electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away
from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic moments that were aligned
opposite the field, and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with Lenz's law).
This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the applied field.
Note that this description is meant only as an heuristic; a proper understanding requires a quantum-
mechanical description.
Note that all materials undergo this orbital response. However, in paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
substances, the diamagnetic effect is overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the
unpaired electrons.

2.4.4 Physics of ferromagnetism
A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons. However, in

addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moments wanting to be parallel to an applied field,
there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to want to be parallel to
each other. Thus, even when the applied field is removed, the electrons in the material can keep
each other continually pointed in the same direction.
Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the Curie temperature, or
Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is because the thermal tendency to
disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order.
2.4.5 Magnetic Domains
FIGURE 6 Magnetic domains in ferromagnetic material.
The magnetic moment of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to behave something like tiny
permanent magnets. They stick together and align themselves into small regions of more or less
uniform alignment called magnetic domains or Weiss domains. Magnetic domains can be observed
with a magnetic force microscope to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in
the sketch.There are many scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic fields.

FIURE 7.Effect of a magnet on the domains.
When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two domains
aligned in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably as shown at the right.
When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move so that the domains aligned with the
magnetic field grow and dominate the structure as shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is
removed, the domains may not return to a unmagnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic
material being magnetized, forming a permanent magnet.
When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others to result in only one
single domain, the material is magnetically saturated. When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is
heated to the Curie point temperature, the molecules are agitated to the point that the magnetic
domains lose the organization and the magnetic properties they cause cease. When the material is
cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how
a liquid can freeze into a crystalline solid.
Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM brakes) slow or stop motion
using electromagnetic force to apply mechanical resistance (friction). The original name was "electro-
mechanical brakes" but over the years the name changed to "electromagnetic brakes", referring to their
actuation method. Since becoming popular in the mid-20th century especially in trains and trolleys, the
variety of applications and brake designs has increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains
the same.
Both electromagnetic brakes and eddy current brakes use electromagnetic force but electromagnetic
brakes ultimately depend on friction and eddy current brakes use magnetic force directly.

2.5 Types
2.5.1Single face brake
FIGURE 8. A-3 Electromagentic brake
A friction-plate brake uses a single plate friction surface to engage the input and output members of
the clutch. Single face electromagnetic brakes make up approximately 80% of all of the power applied
brake applications.
2.5.2 Power off brake
FIGURE 9. Electormagnetic Power Off Brake Spring Set

Power off brakes stop or hold a load when electrical power is either accidentally lost or intentionally
disconnected. In the past, some companies have referred to these as "fail safe" brakes. These brakes
are typically used on or near an electric motor. Typical applications include robotics, holding brakes
for Z axis ball screws and servo motor brakes. Brakes are available in multiple voltages and can have
either standard backlash or zero backlash hubs. Multiple disks can also be used to increase brake
torque, without increasing brake diameter. There are 2 main types of holding brakes. The first is spring
applied brakes. The second is permanent magnet brakes.
2.5.3 Spring type - When no electricity is applied to the brake, a spring pushes against a
pressure plate, squeezing the friction disk between the inner pressure plate and the outer cover plate.
This frictional clamping force is transferred to the hub, which is mounted to a shaft.
2.5.4 Permanent magnet type – A permanent magnet holding brake looks very similar to a
standard power applied electromagnetic brake. Instead of squeezing a friction disk, via springs, it uses
permanent magnets to attract a single face armature. When the brake is engaged, the permanent
magnets create magnetic lines of flux, which can turn attract the armature to the brake housing. To
disengage the brake, power is applied to the coil which sets up an alternate magnetic field that cancels
out the magnetic flux of the permanent magnets.
Both power off brakes are considered to be engaged when no power is applied to them. They are
typically required to hold or to stop alone in the event of a loss of power or when power is not
available in a machine circuit. Permanent magnet brakes have a very high torque for their size, but also
require a constant current control to offset the permanent magnetic field. Spring applied brakes do not
require a constant current control, they can use a simple rectifier, but are larger in diameter or would
need stacked friction disks to increase the torque.

2.5.5 Particle brake
FIGURE 10. Magnetic Particle Brake
Magnetic particle brakes are unique in their design from other electro-mechanical brakes because of
the wide operating torque range available. Like an electro-mechanical brake, torque to voltage is
almost linear; however, in a magnetic particle brake, torque can be controlled very accurately (within
the operating RPM range of the unit). This makes these units ideally suited for tension control
applications, such as wire winding, foil, film, and tape tension control. Because of their fast response,
they can also be used in high cycle applications, such as magnetic card readers, sorting machines and
labeling equipment.
Magnetic particles (very similar to iron filings) are located in the powder cavity. When electricity is
applied to the coil, the resulting magnetic flux tries to bind the particles together, almost like a
magnetic particle slush. As the electric current is increased, the binding of the particles becomes
stronger. The brake rotor passes through these bound particles. The output of the housing is rigidly
attached to some portion of the machine. As the particles start to bind together, a resistant force is
created on the rotor, slowing, and eventually stopping the output shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the input is free to turn with the shaft. Since magnetic
particle powder is in the cavity, all magnetic particle units have some type of minimum drag associated
with them.

2.5.6 Hysteresis power brake
FIGURE 11. Electomagnetic Hysteresis Power Brake
Electrical hysteresis units have an extremely wide torque range. Since these units can be controlled
remotely, they are ideal for test stand applications where varying torque is required. Since drag torque
is minimal, these units offer the widest available torque range of any of the hysteresis products. Most
applications involving powered hysteresis units are in test stand requirements.
When electricity is applied to the field, it creates an internal magnetic flux. That flux is then
transferred into a hysteresis disk passing through the field. The hysteresis disk is attached to the brake
shaft. A magnetic drag on the hysteresis disk allows for a constant drag, or eventual stoppage of the
output shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the hysteresis disk is free to turn, and no relative force is
transmitted between either member. Therefore, the only torque seen between the input and the output
is bearing drag.

2.5.7 Multiple disk brake
FIGURE 12.Electromagnetic Multiple Disk Brake
Multiple disk brakes are used to deliver extremely high torque within a small space. These brakes can
be used either wet or dry, which makes them ideal to run in multi-speed gear box applications,
machine tool applications, or in off road equipment.
Electro-mechanical disk brakes operate via electrical actuation, but transmit torque mechanically.
When electricity is applied to the coil of an electromagnet, the magnetic flux attracts the armature to
the face of the brake. As it does so, it squeezes the inner and outer friction disks together. The hub is
normally mounted on the shaft that is rotating. The brake housing is mounted solidly to the machine
frame. As the disks are squeezed, torque is transmitted from the hub into the machine frame, stopping
and holding the shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the armature is free to turn with the shaft. Springs keep
the friction disk and armature away from each other. There is no contact between braking surfaces and
minimal drag.

CHAPTER 3
MOTOR
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO TYPES OF MOTORS
A motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current.
It commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils
supplied with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to
the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.
There are two main types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used. The first type is the
induction motor, which runs slightly slower than the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor
of this motor is created by an induced current. The second type is the synchronous motor, which does
not rely on induction and as a result, can rotate exactly at the supply frequency or a sub-multiple of the
supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either generated by current delivered through slip
rings or by a permanent magnet. Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and also AC/DC
mechanically commutated machines in which speed is dependent on voltage and winding connection.
Motor is a device that creates motion, not an engine; it usually refers to either an electrical motor or an
internal combustion engine. It may also refer to:
 Electric motor, a machine that converts electricity into a mechanical motion
o AC motor, an electric motor that is driven by alternating current
 Synchronous motor, an alternating current motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils
passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting magnetic field which
drives it
 Induction motor, also called a squirrel-cage motor, a type of asynchronous alternating current
motor where power is supplied to the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction
o DC motor, an electric motor that runs on direct current electricity

 Brushed DC electric motor, an internally commutated electric motor designed to be run from
a direct current power source
 Brushless DC motor, a synchronous electric motor which is powered by direct current

electricity and has an electronically controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical
commutation system based on brushes.
 Electrostatic motor, a type of electric motor based on the attraction and repulsion of electric
charge.
 Servo motor, an electric motor that operates a servo, commonly used in robotics.
 Internal fan-cooled electric motor, an electric motor that is self-cooled by a fan, typically
used for motors with a high energy density
Other uses:
 Actuator, a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system
 Hydraulic motor, a machine that converts the energy of pressurized liquid flow into mechanical
motion
 Rocket motor, usually refers to solid rocket engines
 Molecular motor, the agents of movement in living organisms
o Synthetic molecular motor, molecular machines capable of rotation under energy input
 Motor language, extinct since the 1840s, a Uralic language that was spoken in the northern
region of the Sayan Mountains in Siberia
 Motor system, the physiological system that is responsible for physical movement
o Motor neuron, neurons that originate in the spinal cord and synapse with muscle fibers
o Motor skill, the ability of an organism to use the motor system effectively
 Nanomotor, a molecular device capable of converting energy into movement
 Pneumatic motor, a machine that converts the energy of compressed air into mechanical motion

 The Motors, a British pub rock/punk band, formed in 1977 by Nick Garvey, Andy McMaster,
Ricky Slaughter and Rob Hendry, who was replaced by Bram Tchaikovsky the same year
FIGURE 13. ELECTRIC MOTOR

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically through the
interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process, producing
electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Many types of
electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa. For example a starter/generator for a gas
turbine or Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine
tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current (for
example a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating current from a central
electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size
motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power
for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such
compressors, with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of
electric power, by their internal construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give.
The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current and
a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were constructed
throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric motors on a large scale required
efficient electrical generators and electrical distribution networks.
Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although they generate some mechanical
power, are not generally referred to as electric motors, and are usually termed actuators and
transducers, respectively.
3.2 The principle

The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was
demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a
pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed. When a current was passed through the
wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a circular magnetic field
around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is
sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of devices called

homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These were demonstration devices only,
unsuited to practical applications due to their primitive construction.
FIGURE 14. Lightining magnetic self rotar
In 1827, Hungarian Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic rotating devices he
called "lightning-magnetic self-rotors". He used them for instructive purposes in universities, and in
1828 demonstrated the first device which contained the three main components of practical direct
current motors: the stator, rotor and commutator. Both the stationary and the revolving parts were
electromagnetic, employing no permanent magnets.Again, the devices had no practical application.
3.3 The first electric motors

The first commutator-type direct current electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by
the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832.Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-
current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by Americans Emily and
Thomas Davenport and patented in 1837. Their motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and
powered machine tools and a printing press. Due to the high cost of the zinc electrodes required by
primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and the Davenports went bankrupt.
Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same
cost issues with primary battery power. No electricity distribution had been developed at the time. Like
Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial market for these motors.
In 1855 Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his electromagnetic self-rotors
that was capable of useful work. He built a model electric motor-propelled vehicle that same year.
There is no evidence that this experimentation was communicated to the wider scientific world at that
time, or that it influenced the development of electric motors in the following decades.

The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Zénobe Gramme connected the
dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The Gramme machine was the
first electric motor that was successful in the industry. In 1886 Frank Julian Sprague invented the first
practical DC motor, a non-sparking motor capable of constant speed under variable loads. Other
Sprague electric inventions about this time greatly improved grid electric distribution [prior work done
while employed by Edison], allowed power from electric motors to be returned to the electric grid,
provided for electric distribution to trolleys via overhead wires and the trolley pole, and provided
controls systems for electric operations. This allowed Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first
electric trolley system in 1887-88 in Richmond VA, the electric elevator and control system in 1892,
and the electric subway with independently powered centrally controlled cars, which was first installed
in 1892 in Chicago by the South Side Elevated Railway where it became popularly known as the "L".
Sprague's motor and related inventions led to an explosion of interest and use in electric motors for
industry, while almost simultaneously another great inventor was developing its primary competitor,
which would become much more widespread.
In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase power
transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to follow at the
Westinghouse company.
The development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was delayed for several decades by failure
to recognize the extreme importance of a relatively-small air gap between rotor and stator. Early
motors, for some rotor positions, had comparatively huge air gaps which constituted a very high
reluctance magnetic circuit. They produced far-lower torque than an equivalent amount of power
would produce with efficient designs. The cause of the lack of understanding seems to be that early
designs were based on familiarity of distant attraction between a magnet and a piece of ferromagnetic
material, or between two electromagnets. Efficient designs, as this article describes, are based on a
rotor with a comparatively small air gap, and flux patterns that create torque.
Note that the armature bars are at some distance (unknown) from the field pole pieces when power is
fed to one of the field magnets; the air gap is likely to be considerable. The text tells of the inefficiency
of the design. (Electricity was created, as a practical matter, by consuming zinc in wet primary cells!)
In his workshops Froment had an electromotive engine of one-horse power. But, though an interesting
application of the transformation of energy, these machines will never be practically applied on the
large scale in manufactures, for the expense of the acids and the zinc which they use very far exceeds

that of the coal in steam-engines of the same force. [...] motors worked by electricity, independently of
any question as to the cost of construction, or of the cost of the acids, are at least sixty times as dear to
work as steam-engines.
Although Gramme's design was comparatively much more efficient, apparently the Froment motor
was still considered illustrative, years later. It is of some interest that the St. Louis motor, long used in
classrooms to illustrate motor principles, is extremely inefficient for the same reason, as well as
appearing nothing like a modern motor. Photo of a traditional form of the motor: [3] Note the
prominent bar magnets, and the huge air gap at the ends opposite the rotor. Even modern versions still
have big air gaps if the rotor poles are not aligned.
Application of electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes were no longer limited by
power transmission using shaft, belts, compressed air or hydraulic pressure. Instead every machine
could be equipped with its own electric motor, providing easy control at the point of use, and
improving power transmission efficiency. Electric motors applied in agriculture eliminated human and
animal muscle power from such tasks as handling grain or pumping water. Household uses of electric
motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher standards of convenience, comfort and
safety possible. Today, electric motors consume more than half of all electric energy produced.
3.4 Categorization of electric motors

The classic division of electric motors has been that of Alternating Current (AC) types vs Direct
Current (DC) types. This is more a de facto convention, rather than a rigid distinction. For example,
many classic DC motors run on AC power, these motors being referred to as universal motors.
Rated output power is also used to categorise motors, those of less than 746 Watts, for example, are
often referred to as fractional horsepower motors (FHP) in reference to the old imperial measurement.
The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern drivers have
moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits are relied
upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some approximation thereof. The two best examples
are: the brushless DC motor and the stepping motor, both being poly-phase AC motors requiring
external electronic control, although historically, stepping motors (such as for maritime and naval
gyrocompass repeaters) were driven from DC switched by contacts.

Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a moving magnetic
field and a moving current sheet for average torque production, there is a clearer distinction between
an asynchronous motor and synchronous types. An asynchronous motor requires slip between the
moving magnetic field and a winding set to induce current in the winding set by mutual inductance;
the most ubiquitous example being the common AC induction motor which must slip to generate
torque. In the synchronous types, induction (or slip) is not a requisite for magnetic field or current
production (e.g. permanent magnet motors, synchronous brush-less wound-rotor doubly-fed electric
machine).
3.5 Comparison of motor types

Comparison of motor types
Typical
Type Advantages Disadvantages Typical Application
Drive
Rotation slips from
AC Induction Least expensive Uni/Poly-
frequency Fans
(Shaded Pole) Long Life high power phase AC
Low starting torque
AC Induction
High power Rotation slips from Uni/Poly-
(split-phase Appliances
high starting torque frequency phase AC
capacitor)
Industrial motors
AC Rotation in-sync with freq Uni/Poly-
More expensive Clocks Audio
Synchronous long-life (alternator) phase AC
turntables tape drives
Precision positioning Positioning in printers

Stepper DC Requires a controller DC
High holding torque and floppy drives
Long lifespan Hard drives

High initial cost
Brushless DC low maintenance CD/DVD players DC
Requires a controller
High efficiency electric vehicles
High maintenance
Low initial cost Treadmill exercisers Direct DC or
Brushed DC (brushes)
Simple speed control automotive starters PWM
Low lifespan
Compact design Medium cost Office Equip Direct DC or

Pancake DC
Simple speed control Medium lifespan Fans/Pumps PWM

3.5.1 Servo motor

A servomechanism,or servo is an automatic device that uses error-sensing feedback to correct the
performance of a mechanism. The term correctly applies only to systems where the feedback or error-correction
signals help control mechanical position or other parameters. For example, an automotive power window
control is not a servomechanism, as there is no automatic feedback which controls position—the operator does
this by observation. By contrast the car's cruise control uses closed loop feedback, which classifies it as a
servomechanism.
3.5.2 Synchronous electric motor

A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils
passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting magnetic field which drives it.
Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this with
an induction motor, which must slip to produce torque. A synchronous motor is like an induction
motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used to conduct current to
rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed hence the name synchronous
motor.
3.5.3 Induction motor

An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is supplied to the
rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction. Another commonly used name is squirrel cage
motor because the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage (hamster wheel). An
electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part). There are
several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to the armature
directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in the rotating device. An
induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator (stationary part) is
essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side.
Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in
industrial drives.

3.5.4 Electrostatic motor (capacitor motor)

An electrostatic motor or capacitor motor is a type of electric motor based on the attraction and
repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based
motors. They typically require a high voltage power supply, although very small motors employ lower
voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require
high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by Benjamin
Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in micro-mechanical
(MEMS) systems where their drive voltages are below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates
are far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores. Also, the molecular machinery which runs living
cells is often based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.
3.6 DC Motors
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs are Michael
Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing motor, which is (so far) a
novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use
internal and external commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC
source—so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.
3.6.1 Brushed DC motors

The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor, or armature,
with a split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of one
or more coils of wire wound around a core on a shaft; an electrical power source is connected to the
rotor coil through the commutator and its brushes, causing current to flow in it, producing
electromagnetism. The commutator causes the current in the coils to be switched as the rotor turns,
keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator
field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does) but rather keeps rotating indefinitely
(as long as power is applied and is sufficient for the motor to overcome the shaft torque load and
internal losses due to friction, etc.)

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to press
against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in
maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the irre crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of
the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened, increasing the sparking
of the brushes.) This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will
overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in
combination with their resistivity, limits the output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric
contact also causes electrical noise, and the sparks additionally cause RFI. Brushes eventually wear out
and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger
motors) or replacement (on small motors). The commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly
element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually
permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.
Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output, but small brushes
are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without the brushes
excessively bouncing and sparking (comparable to the problem of "valve float" in internal combustion
engines). (Small brushes are also desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to
make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower
efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a
trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.
A: shunt
B: series
C: compound
f = field coil

There are five types of brushed DC motor:
A. DC shunt wound motor
B. DC series wound motor
C. DC compound motor (two configurations):
 Cumulative compound
 Differentially compounded
D. Permanent Magnet DC Motor (not shown)
E. Separately-excited (sepex) (not shown).
3.6.2 Brushless DC motors

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this
motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an external
electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient
or more (higher efficiency for a brushless electric motor of up to 96.5% were reported by researchers
at the Tokai University in Japan in 2009), whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75-80%
efficient.
Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the brushless DC motor.
Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use a permanent magnet external rotor,
three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall effect sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and the
associated drive electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics
as cued by the signals from either Hall effect sensors or from the back EMF (electromotive force) of
the undriven coils. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronous motors containing their own variable-
frequency drive electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF
feedback through the main phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and
velocity. These motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles. When configured
with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modellers as outrunner motors.
Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer
disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and

mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have several
advantages over conventional motors:
 Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much cooler
than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's
bearings.
 Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be significantly longer
compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a
great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may
be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.
 The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a convenient
tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the
tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal.
 The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise speed
control.
 Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better
suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone which
can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to occupants' health.
 Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally
used to get rid of unwanted heat.
 They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment that is
affected by vibrations.
Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger
brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use
in high-performance electric model aircraft.
3.6.3 Coreless or ironless DC motors

Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel) portions of the
rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of
this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor.

Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core.
The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only
the magnet wire and the bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically-
soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second
arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits
inside a magnetically-soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the motor, and likewise provides a
return path for the flux.
Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copper
windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a
mechanical time constant under 1 ms. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than
the heavier copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small
coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air.
Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the poles of high-flux
thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives.
3.6.4 Printed Armature or Pancake DC Motors

A rather unique motor design the pancake/printed armature motor has the windings shaped as a disc
running between arrays of high-flux magnets, arranged in a circle, facing the rotor and forming an
axial air gap. This design is commonly known the pancake motor because of its extremely flat profile,
although the technology has had many brand names since it's inception, such as ServoDisc.
The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a printed armature motor is made
from punched copper sheets that are laminated together using advanced composites to form a thin rigid
disc. The printed armature has a unique construction, in the brushed motor world, in that is does not
have a separate ring commutator. The brushes run directly on the armature surface making the whole
design very compact.
An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a central conventional
commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated
with electrical epoxy potting systems. These are filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and

a long gel time. They are highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm, and are typically UL 1446
recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180°C (Class H) (UL File No. E 210549).
The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no cogging (vibration caused by attraction
between the iron and the magnets) and parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the rotor as it is totally
ironless. This can greatly improve efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use a higher
switching rate (>40 kHz) or direct current because of the decreased electromagnetic induction.
These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives, in the
burgeoning computer industry. Pancake motors are still widely used in high-performance servo-
controlled systems, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation and medical devices. Due to the
variety of constructions now available the technology is used in applications from high temperature
military to low cost pump and basic servo applications.
3.6.5 Universal motors

A series-wound motor is referred to as a universal motor when it has been designed to operate on
either AC or DC power. The ability to operate on AC is because the current in both the field and the
armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) in synchronism, and
hence the resulting mechanical force will occur in a constant direction.
Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are very rarely larger than one kilowatt
(about 1.3 horsepower). Universal motors also form the basis of the traditional railway traction motor
in electric railways. In this application, to keep their electrical efficiency high, they were operated from
very low frequency AC supplies, with 25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation being common. Because they
are universal motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly capable of operating from a
third rail powered by DC.
An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have some
characteristics more common in DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design
if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused
by the commutator. As a result, such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and
power tools which are used only intermittently, and often have high starting-torque demands.
Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on AC is easily obtained by use of a thyristor
circuit, while (imprecise) stepped speed control can be accomplished using multiple taps on the field
coil. Household blenders that advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps

and a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave
rectified AC).
Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances such as blenders,
vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high RPM operation is desirable. They are also commonly
used in portable power tools, such as drills, circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics
work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM, while Dremel and
other similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.
Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in excess of design limits) if the
unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors, sudden loss of load is to be avoided, and
the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated into the motor's protection and control schemes.
In some smaller applications, a fan blade attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to limit the
motor speed to a safe value, as well as a means to circulate cooling airflow over the armature and field
windings.
3.7 AC motors
In 1882, Nikola Tesla discovered the rotating magnetic field, and pioneered the use of a rotary
field of force to operate machines. He exploited the principle to design a unique two-phase induction
motor in 1883. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently researched the concept. In 1888, Ferraris
published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.
Tesla had suggested that the commutators from a machine could be removed and the device could
operate on a rotary field of force. Professor Poeschel, his teacher, stated that would be akin to building
a perpetual motion machine. Tesla would later attain U.S. Patent 0,416,194, Electric Motor (December
1889), which resembles the motor seen in many of Tesla's photos. This classic alternating current
electro-magnetic motor was an induction motor.
Michail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky later invented a three-phase "cage-rotor" in 1890. This type of
motor is now used for the vast majority of commercial applications.

3.7.1 Components
A typical AC motor consists of two parts:
 An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a rotating
magnetic field, and;
 An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.
3.7.2 Torque motors

A torque motor (also known as a limited torque motor) is a specialized form of induction motor which
is capable of operating indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the rotor blocked from turning, without
incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor will apply a steady torque to the load (hence
the name).
A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape drive.
In this application, driven from a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a relatively-
constant light tension to be applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding tape past the tape
heads. Driven from a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the torque motors can also
achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any additional mechanics such as gears or
clutches. In the computer gaming world, torque motors are used in force feedback steering wheels.
Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion engine in
conjunction with an electronic governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to move
the throttle in accordance with the output of the governor. The latter monitors engine speed by
counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic pickup and, depending on the
speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current applied to the motor. If the engine starts to
slow down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the motor will develop more
torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the engine run too fast, the
governor will reduce the current being applied to the motor, causing the return spring to pull back and
close the throttle.

3.7.3 Slip ring

The slip ring is a component of the wound rotor motor as an induction machine (best
evidenced by the construction of the common automotive alternator), where the rotor comprises a set
of coils that are electrically terminated in slip rings. These are metal rings rigidly mounted on the rotor,
and combined with brushes (as used with commutators), provide continuous unswitched connection to
the rotor windings.
In the case of the wound-rotor induction motor, external impedances can be connected to the brushes.
The stator is excited similarly to the standard squirrel cage motor. By changing the impedance
connected to the rotor circuit, the speed/current and speed/torque curves can be altered.
(Slip rings are most-commonly used in automotive alternators as well as in synchro angular data-
transmission devices, among other applications.)
The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires a very high
starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the secondary
resistance or slip ring starter, the motor is able to produce maximum torque at a relatively low supply
current from zero speed to full speed. This type of motor also offers controllable speed.
Motor speed can be changed because the torque curve of the motor is effectively modified by the
amount of resistance connected to the rotor circuit. Increasing the value of resistance will move the
speed of maximum torque down. If the resistance connected to the rotor is increased beyond the point
where the maximum torque occurs at zero speed, the torque will be further reduced.
When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor will operate at the
speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load will
cause the motor to speed up, and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down until the load
and motor torque are equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary
resistors and can be very significant. The speed regulation and net efficiency is also very poor.
3.7.4 Stepper motors

Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors are stepper motors, where an internal
rotor containing permanent magnets or a magnetically-soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a
set of external magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a

cross between a DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor
aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous
motor, in its application, the stepper motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps" — starts and
then quickly stops again — from one position to the next as field windings are energized and de-
energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it
may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down arbitrarily at any time.
Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading the
rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions; more sophisticated drivers can proportionally control
the power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between the cog points and thereby
rotate extremely smoothly. This mode of operation is often called microstepping. Computer controlled
stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems, particularly when part of a
digital servo-controlled system.
Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease, and hence stepper motors
are used for read/write head positioning in computer floppy diskette drives. They were used for the
same purpose in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision and speed they offered
was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk drive. As drive density
increased, the precision and speed limitations of stepper motors made them obsolete for hard drives—
the precision limitation made them unusable, and the speed limitation made them uncompetitive—thus
newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this
connection is historic; it refers to the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker. This structure was
used for a while to position the heads. Modern drives have a pivoted coil mount; the coil swings back
and forth, something like a blade of a rotating fan. Nevertheless, like a voice coil, modern actuator coil
conductors (the magnet wire) move perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)
Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital
photocopiers to move the optical scanning element, the print head carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet
printers), and the platen. Likewise, many computer plotters (which since the early 1990s have been
replaced with large-format inkjet and laser printers) used rotary stepper motors for pen and platen
movement; the typical alternatives here were either linear stepper motors or servomotors with complex
closed-loop control systems.
So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace stepping motors; they have
one coil, draw very little power, and have a permanent-magnet rotor. The same kind of motor drives

battery-powered quartz clocks. Some of these watches, such as chronographs, contain more than one
stepping motor.
Stepper motors were upscaled to be used in electric vehicles under the term SRM (Switched
Reluctance Motor).
3.8 Linear motor

A linear motor is essentially an electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead of
producing a torque (rotation), it produces a straight-line force along its length by setting up a traveling
electromagnetic field.
Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. You can find a linear motor in
a maglev (Transrapid) train, where the train "flies" over the ground, and in many roller-coasters where
the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the rail. On a smaller scale, at least one letter-
size (8.5" x 11") computer graphics X-Y pen plotter made by Hewlett-Packard (in the late 1970s to
mid 1980's) used two linear stepper motors to move the pen along the two orthogonal axes.
3.8.1 Feeding and windings
Doubly-fed electric motor
Doubly-fed electric motors have two independent multiphase windings that actively
participate in the energy conversion process with at least one of the winding sets electronically
controlled for variable speed operation. Two is the most active multiphase winding sets possible
without duplicating singly-fed or doubly-fed categories in the same package. As a result, doubly-fed
electric motors are machines with an effective constant torque speed range that is twice synchronous
speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant torque speed range as singly-fed
electric machines, which have only one active winding set.
A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and slip
rings may offset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties with controlling speed
near synchronous speed limit applications.

Singly-fed electric motor

Singly-fed electric motors incorporate a single multiphase winding set that is connected to a
power supply. Singly-fed electric machines may be either induction or synchronous. The active
winding set can be electronically controlled. Induction machines develop starting torque at zero speed
and can operate as standalone machines. Synchronous machines must have auxiliary means for startup,
such as a starting induction squirrel-cage winding or an electronic controller. Singly-fed electric
machines have an effective constant torque speed range up to synchronous speed for a given excitation
frequency.
The induction (asynchronous) motors (i.e., squirrel cage rotor or wound rotor), synchronous motors
(i.e., field-excited, permanent magnet or brushless DC motors, reluctance motors, etc.), which are
discussed on this page, are examples of singly-fed motors. By far, singly-fed motors are the
predominantly installed type of motors.
Nanotube nanomotor
Researchers at University of California, Berkeley, recently developed rotational bearings
based upon multiwall carbon nanotubes. By attaching a gold plate (with dimensions of the order of
100 nm) to the outer shell of a suspended multiwall carbon nanotube (like nested carbon cylinders),
they are able to electrostatically rotate the outer shell relative to the inner core. These bearings are very
robust; devices have been oscillated thousands of times with no indication of wear. These
nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are the next step in miniaturization and may find their way
into commercial applications in the future.
See also:
 Molecular motors
 Electrostatic motor
Efficiency
To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by the electrical input power:

where η is energy conversion efficiency, Pe is electrical input power, and Pm is mechanical output
power.
In simplest case Pe = VI, and Pm = Tω, where V is input voltage, I is input current, T is output torque,
and ω is output angular velocity. It is possible to derive analytically the point of maximum efficiency.
It is typically at less than 1/2 the stall torque. Implications
Because a DC motor operates most efficiently at less than 1/2 its stall torque, an "oversized" motor
runs with the highest efficiency. IE: using a bigger motor than is necessary enables the motor to
operate closest to no load, or peak operating conditions.
Torque capability of motor types

When optimally designed for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair number,
excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and core flux density, all categories of electric motors
or generators will exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque)
within a given physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque
beyond the maximum operating torque, such as short bursts of torque to accelerate an electric vehicle
from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and
voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum operating torque differs significantly
between categories of electric motors or generators.
Note: Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with Field Weakening capability inherent
in fully electromagnetic electric machines (Permanent Magnet (PM) electric machine are excluded).
Field Weakening, which is not readily available with PM electric machines, allows an electric machine
to operate beyond the designed frequency of excitation without electrical damage.
Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as Field-Wound (i.e., electromagnet) or
Permanent Magnet (PM) Synchronous electric machines cannot realize bursts of torque higher than the
maximum designed torque without saturating the magnetic core and rendering any increase in current
as useless. Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PM synchronous electric machines can be
irreparably damaged, if bursts of torque exceeding the maximum operating torque rating are attempted.
Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as Induction (i.e., asynchronous) electric
machines, Induction Doubly-Fed electric machines, and Induction or Synchronous Wound-Rotor
Doubly-Fed (WRDF) electric machines, exhibit very high bursts of torque because the active current

(i.e., Magneto-Motive-Force or the product of current and winding-turns) induced on either side of the
transformer oppose each other and as a result, the active current contributes nothing to the transformer
coupled magnetic core flux density, which would otherwise lead to core saturation.
Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles short-circuit one port of the
transformer circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit becomes dominant
as slip increases, which limits the magnitude of active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts of torque that are
two to three times higher than the maximum design torque are realizable.
The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric machine with a truly dual ported
transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port). The
dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-
brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were
available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during motoring
or generating while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set (see Brushless
wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine), the active current of the Synchronous WRDF electric
machine would be independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of
torque significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far beyond the practical capability
of any other type of electric machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times
operating torque have been calculated.
3.8.2 Materials
There is an impending shortage of many rare raw materials used in the manufacture of hybrid and
electric cars (Nishiyama 2007) (Cox 2008). For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required
to fabricate many of the advanced electric motors used in hybrid cars (Cox 2008). However, over 95%
of the world's rare earth elements are mined in China (Haxel et al. 2005), and domestic Chinese
consumption is expected to consume China's entire supply by 2012 (Cox 2008).
While permanent magnet motors, favored in hybrids such as those made by Toyota, often use rare
earth materials in their magnets, AC traction motors used in production electric vehicles such as the
GM EV1, Toyota RAV4 EV and Tesla Roadster do not use permanent magnets or the associated rare
earth materials. AC motors typically use conventional copper wire for their stator coils and copper or
aluminum rods or bars for their rotor. AC motors do not significantly use rare earth materials.

3.8.3 Motor standards

The following are major design and manufacturing standards covering electric motors:
 International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60034 Rotating Electrical Machines
 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (USA): NEMA MG 1 Motors and Generators
 Underwriters Laboratories (USA): UL 1004 - Standard for Electric Motors
Uses
Electric motors are used in many, if not most, modern machines. Obvious uses would be in rotating
machines such as fans, turbines, drills, the wheels on electric cars, locomotives and conveyor belts.
Also, in many vibrating or oscillating machines, an electric motor spins an irregular figure with more
area on one side of the axle than the other, causing it to appear to be moving up and down.
Electric motors are also popular in robotics. They are used to turn the wheels of vehicular robots, and
servo motors are used to turn arms and legs in humanoid robots. In flying robots, along with
helicopters, a motor causes a propeller or wide, flat blades to spin and create lift force, allowing
vertical motion.
Electric motors are replacing hydraulic cylinders in airplanes and military equipment.
In industrial and manufacturing businesses, electric motors are used to turn saws and blades in cutting
and slicing processes, and to spin gears and mixers (the latter very common in food manufacturing).
Linear motors are often used to push products into containers horizontally.
Many kitchen appliances also use electric motors to accomplish various jobs. Food processors and
grinders spin blades to chop and break up foods. Blenders use electric motors to mix liquids, and
microwave ovens use motors to turn the tray food sits on. Toaster ovens also use electric motors to
turn a conveyor to move food over heating elements.

3.9 Applications
In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an electromagnetic braking component.
Trams and trains use electromagnetic track brakes where the braking element is pressed by magnetic
force to the rail. They are distinguished from mechanical track brakes, where the braking element is
mechanically pressed on the rail.
Electric motors in industrial and robotic applications also employ electromagnetic brakes.
Recent design innovations have led to the application of electromagnetic brakes to aircraft
applications.[1] In this application, a combination motor/generator is used first as a motor to spin the
tires up to speed prior to touchdown, thus reducing wear on the tires, and then as a generator to provide
regenerative braking.

CHAPTER 4
TRANSFORMERS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by magnetic
coupling without requiring relative motion between its parts. It usually comprises two or more coupled
windings, and, in most cases, a core to concentrate magnetic flux. A transformer operates from the
application of an alternating voltage to one winding, which creates a time-varying magnetic flux in the
core. This varying flux induces a voltage in the other windings. Varying the relative number of turns
between primary and secondary windings determines the ratio of the input and output voltages, thus
transforming the voltage by stepping it up or down between circuits.
4.1.1 Basic principle

The principles of the transformer are illustrated by consideration of a hypothetical ideal transformer
consisting of two windings of zero resistance around a core of negligible reluctance. A voltage applied
to the primary winding causes a current, which develops a magnetomotive force (MMF) in the core.
The current required to create the MMF is termed the magnetising current; in the ideal transformer it is
considered to be negligible. The MMF drives flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.
Figure 15 : The ideal transformer as a circuit element

An electromotive force (EMF) is induced across each winding, an effect known as mutual inductance.
The windings in the ideal transformer have no resistance and so the EMFs are equal in magnitude to
the measured terminal voltages. In accordance with Faraday's law of induction, they are proportional
to the rate of change of flux:
and
Equation 7: EMF induced in primary and secondary windings
where:
and are the induced EMFs across primary and secondary windings,
and are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary windings,
and are the time derivatives of the flux linking the primary and secondary windings.
In the ideal transformer, all flux produced by the primary winding also links the secondary, and so
, from which the well-known transformer equation follows:
Equation 8: Transformer Equation
The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is therefore the same as the ratio of the number of turns;
alternatively, that the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings. The conditions that determine
Transformer working in STEP UP or STEP DOWN mode are:
Ns > Np
Equation 9: Conditon for STEP UP
Ns < Np
Equation 10: Conditon for STEP DOWN

4.2 Rectifier
A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge circuit as shown below, that
provides the same polarity of output voltage for any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its
most common application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC)
output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier provides full wave rectification from a two
wire AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped transformer) but has two diode drops rather than one
reducing efficiency over a center tap based design for the same output voltage.
Figure 16: Schematic of a bridge rectifier
The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the voltage at the bridge input,
the polarity of the output is constant.
4.2.1 Basic Operation
When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with respect to the one
connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right along the upper colored path to the output,
and returns to the input supply via the lower one.
When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current flows along the upper
colored path and returns to the supply via the lower colored path.

Figure 17: AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals
In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lower right one. Since this is
true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces DC power when supplied with AC
power: it also can provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits
normal functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC input-power supply wiring "has its
wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage that might occur without this
circuit in place).
Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was always constructed from
discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal component containing the four diodes
connected in the bridge configuration became a standard commercial component and is now available
with various voltage and current ratings.

4.2.2 Output Smoothing
For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave bridge serves to convert
an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be important because the bridge alone
supplies an output voltage of fixed polarity but pulsating magnitude.
The function of this capacitor, known as a 'smoothing capacitor' (see also filter capacitor) is to lessen
the variation in (or 'smooth') the raw output voltage waveform from the bridge. One explanation of
'smoothing' is that the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the output,
reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any
drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be cancelled by loss of charge in the
capacitor. This charge flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of load current
and voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the capacitor. Increases of voltage
correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change in output voltage /
current.
The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant τ = RC where C and R are the
capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor is large enough so that this
time constant is much longer than the time of one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a
well smoothed DC voltage across the load resistance. In some designs, a series resistor at the load side
of the capacitor is added. The smoothing can then be improved by adding additional stages of
capacitor–resistor pairs, often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be
sensitive to supply voltage noise.
4.3 CAPACITOR
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors
separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential difference (voltage) exists across the conductors,
an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is measured in
farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between
them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The

conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field
strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the output of power supplies, and for
many other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency equipment to select
particular frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange)
reduces the field and increases the capacitance.
FIGURE 18 A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.The non-

conductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although this may also mean a vacuum or a
semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be
self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from an external electric field.
The conductors thus contain equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric
contains an electric field. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric
circuits.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge
±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them
Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a
voltage of one volt across the device.
4.3.1 Energy storage

Work must be done by an external influence to move charge between the conductors in a capacitor.
When the external influence is removed, the charge separation persists and energy is stored in the
electric field. If charge is later allowed to return to its equilibrium position, the energy is released. The
work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:

4.4 DIODE
4.4.1 ACTIVE COMPONENT-
Active component are those component for not any other component are used its
operation. I used in this project only function diode, these component description are described as
bellow.
4.4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE-

A PN junctions is known as a semiconductor or crystal diode.A crystal diode has two terminal
when it is connected in a circuit one thing is decide is weather a diode is forward or reversed biased.
There is a easy rule to ascertain it. If the external CKT is trying to push the conventional current in the
direction of error, the diode is forward biased. One the other hand if the conventional current is trying
is trying to flow opposite the error head, the diode is reversed biased putting in simple words.
1. If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive W.R.T Bar of the symbol, the diode is forward
biased.
2.The arrowhead of diode symbol is negative W.R.T bar , the diode is the reverse bias.
When we used crystal diode it is often necessary to know that which end is arrowhead and which
end is bar. So following method are available.
1.Some manufactures actually point the symbol on the body of the diode e. g By127 by 11 4
crystal diode manufacture by b e b.

2. Sometimes red and blue marks are on the body of the crystal diode. Red mark do not arrow
where’s blue mark indicates bar e .g oa80 crystal diode.
4.4.3 ZENER DIODE-
It has been already discussed that when the reverse bias on a crystal diode is increased a
critical voltage, called break down voltage. The break down or zener voltage depends upon the amount
of doping. If the diode is heavily doped depletion layer will be thin and consequently the break down
of he junction will occur at a lower reverse voltage. On the other hand, a lightly doped diode has a
higher break down voltage, it is called zener diode
A properly doped crystal diode, which has a sharped break down voltage, is known as a zenor diode.
In this project I used semiconducter diode for bridge rectifies, two-crystal diode.

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
The partial success of the experiments requires a separate work of validation of finite element results.
A complete instrumentation is required to:
- measure the precise magnitude and orientation of each magnet’s magnetization
- measure the temperature of the disc
- measure the flux density in the air gap
Access to these measurements will allow troubleshooting the experiment more easily for discrepancies
with the finite element simulations. A broad variety of rotors should be tested, including nonmagnetic
rotors (copper, aluminum) and ferromagnetic rotors of various thicknesses. These would allow
pointing at the parameter(s) causing the discrepancies.
The test bed should be reworked to reduce the friction torques to negligible values. Thrust bearings
and custom designed washers should be used to maintain the airgap without recourse to a sheet of
Teflon. Eliminating the Teflon will allow cooling the surface of the disc. Better cooling should be
provided on the surface of the disc. Rather than letting the disc bathe in water, this later should be
circulated by a pump from a large tank (plenum). Letting the brake in air will reduce the fluid friction
and eliminate the associated uncertainty.
An accurate thermal model is required that would model the conductive, convective, and radiant heat
transfer in the brake. The modeling of the gradients inside the brake may also be necessary for accurate
performance prediction, especially in heavy duty applications where the brake heats up significantly
and fast response is required. The results of this analysis should tell how important these gradients are
and whether they should be taken into account in integration analyses.
Finally, the analysis of the application of the integrated brake in automobiles and other vehicles should
be pushed furthermore by using complete dynamic models of the vehicles and actual driving
situations. This will give a precise understanding of the

dynamic operation of the integrated brake in anti-lock, traction, and dynamic stability control
applications and allow for a complete design of the integrated brake controller.
Means of estimating the braking force generated by each component of the brake need to be
investigated as this information is crucial to designing a controller that actuates the brake to take full
advantage of its abilities. Accurate knowledge or estimation of the state of the brake is important for
steady state operation (at the time scale of the deceleration), but is vital for dynamic operation (anti-
lock, traction, and dynamic stability control).

REFERENCES
[1] R. Limpert, Brake Design and Safety. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1999.
[2] Robert Bosch GmbH, Bosch Automotive Handbook. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers,
2004.
[3] Telma. (2004, December). Nos Produits. [Online]. Available: www.telma.com.
[4] H. Sakamoto, “Design of permanent magnet type compact ECB retarder,” Society of Automotive
Engineers #973228, pp. 19-25, 1997.
[5] H.P.R. Frederikse, “Properties of magnetic materials,” in CRC Handbook of Physics and Chemistry. New
York: CRC Press, 1996.
[6] Knorr-Bremse AG. (2005, March). Braking systems. [Online]. Available: http://www.knorr-bremse.com/.
[7] Alstom Transport. (2005, March). Passenger trains. [Online], Available:
http://www.transport.alstom.com/.
[8] Komatsu Ltd. (2005, March). Construction and mining equipment. [Online]. Available:
http://www.komatsu.com/.
[9] Kawasaki Motor Co. (2005, March). Motorcycles. [Online]. Available: http://www.kawasaki.com.
[10] American Suzuki Motor Co. (2005, March). Motorcycles. [Online]. Available:
http://www.suzukicycles.com/.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC DISC BRAKE

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 1

1.2 COMPONENT LIST

1. 36 Gauge Magnet wire ,

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 2

1.3 Creating an Electromagnet

Attach wire ends to your interface

Figure 1 Creating an Electromagnet

Things to remember about electromagnets:

• The more coils you make, the stronger the magnet.

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 3

1.4 General Principle of Brake System

FIGURE 2. General Principle of Brake System

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 4

1.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM

FIGURE 3. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC DISC BRAKE

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 5

1.6 Working Principle

1.7 Advantage of Electromagnetic Brakes (retarders) Installation

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 6

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 7

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 8

2.1 Background on the physics of magnetism and magnets

FIGURE 5. The effects of magnetism.

2.1.1 Magnetic field

2.1.2 Magnetic moment

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 9

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 10

2.2.2 Ampère model:

2.2.3 Pole naming conventions

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 11

2.4 Descriptions of magnetic behaviors

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 12

2.4.1 Physics of magnetic behaviors

Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 13

2.4.2 Physics of paramagnetism

2.4.3 Physics of diamagnetism

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 14

2.4.4 Physics of ferromagnetism

A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons. However, in

2.4.5 Magnetic Domains

FIGURE 6 Magnetic domains in ferromagnetic material.

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 15

FIURE 7.Effect of a magnet on the domains.

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 16

2.5.1Single face brake

FIGURE 8. A-3 Electromagentic brake

2.5.2 Power off brake

FIGURE 9. Electormagnetic Power Off Brake Spring Set

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 17

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 18

2.5.5 Particle brake

FIGURE 10. Magnetic Particle Brake

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 19

2.5.6 Hysteresis power brake

FIGURE 11. Electomagnetic Hysteresis Power Brake

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 20

2.5.7 Multiple disk brake

FIGURE 12.Electromagnetic Multiple Disk Brake

AITM ,LUCKNOW -286 Page 21

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO TYPES OF MOTORS

A motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current.