Lecture 7:

Sentence meaning
DR. VUONG THI HAI YEN

Chapter 5+7: by Prof.Dr. Nguyen Hoa

 Objectives:
1. Introduction about the meaning of
the sentence.
2. Distinction between a proposition, a
sentence and an utterance.
3. Three features of sentence meaning:
Grammaticality, acceptability and
meaningfulness.
4. The principle of compositionality/
functionality
5.Variables in the function of sentence
meaning
5.1. Structural meaning
5.3. Interpersonal meaning
5.4. Textual meaning
6. Types of sentence meaning
6.1. The presentational meaning
6.2. The interpersonal meaning
6.3. The textual meaning
7. Types of meaning
7.1. Processes
7.2. Participants
7.3. Circumstances

5.2. Representational meaning

Contents
1. Introduction about the meaning of the sentence.
 A sentence is the largest unit of grammatical organization
within which parts of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adverbs,
adjectives…) and grammatical classes (e.g. word, phrase,
clause) are said to function. In English a sentence normally
contains one independent clause.
 The meaning of a sentence is not the sum of the meanings of
the words used in the sentence.
 It is more correct to regard it as a function of the meanings of
the words used in the sentence, modality, and structural
meaning signaled by the way words are organized into
sentences
2. Distinction between a proposition, a
sentence and an utterance.
a. Proposition
a.1) Definition of a proposition
✓ A PROPOSITION is that part of the meaning of utterance of
7
declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs.

✓ The state of affairs usually refers to a person or thing and the

situation or action mentioned by expression in a sentence.

✓ In uttering a declarative sentence a speaker usually asserts a

proposition. [according to Hurford and Heasley, 1984:19]
✓ eg: She is here.
✓ [ A PERSON(the speaker) BE (present time) IN CURRENT
LOCATION ]
 Propositions

Express the same proposition Express different propositions

1(a) : Hau took out the rubbish 2(a) : Pigs might fly
1(b) : Hau took the rubbish out 2(b) : I'm a Dutchman

The same propositional content Not the same propositional content

 Propositions

Express the same proposition Express different propositions

1(c) : Hau gave Vang a pen
2(c) : Jonny loves Hana
1(d) : Vang was given a pen by
2(d) : Hana loves Jonny
Hau

The same propositional content Not the same propositional content

 a.2) THE RULE :
The notion of truth can be used to decide if two sentences
can express different propositions.

So if there are any conceivable cases where one sentence is

true, while the other is false, we can be sure that they
express different propositions.

For example :
(a) John is the parent of James.
(b) James is the parent of John.
EXPLANATION :
(a) John is the parent of James.
(b) James is the parent of John.

A pair of sentence marked (a) and (b) is not related to

each other. In other words, they indicate different states
of affairs: (a) tells us about John, (b) tells us about
James.
=> different propositions
 LET'S PRACTICE!
Do the two following a pair of sentence
has the same proposition? Why?

1(a) The hunter bit the lion.

1(b) The lion bit the hunter
 Answer:
(1) The hunter bit the lion.
(2) The lion bit the hunter
No, they don’t. A pair of sentence marked (1) and (2) is not
related to each other.
In other words, they indicate different states of affairs: (1)
tells us about the hunter, and (2) tells
us about the lion.
=> different proposition
 LET'S PRACTICE!
Do the two following a pair of sentence has
the same proposition? Why?

(3) Mr Dindlay killed Janet.

(4) Mr Dindlay caused Janet to die.
 ANSWER:
(3) Mr. John killed Janet.
(4) Mr. John caused Janet to die.

=> No, they don’t. Killed somebody in (3) implies

[+intentionally]
whereas caused somebody to die in (4) implies [+accidentally].
=> The semantic feature [±intention] is crucial in distinguishing
the different propositions in (3-4).
 b. Distinction between a proposition
and a sentence
✓ " Proposition, unlike sentences, cannot be said to
belong to any particular language.
✓ Sentences in different languages can correspond to
the same proposition , if the two sentences are perfect
translations of each other . “
✓ [According to Hurford and Heasley,
1984:21-22]
 For example 1 :
English : I'm cold
French : J'ai froid
German : Mir ist kalt
Vietnamese : Tôi lạnh

=> Perfect translation of each

other => The same proposition
 For example 2 :
English :I love you
Korean : saranghaeyo
China : Wǒ ài nǐ
Vietnamese : Tôi yêu bạn

=> Perfect translation of each

other => The same proposition
• _____________is the meaning of a sentence
regardless of the context and situation in which it
may be used.

A. A Proposition

B. Sentence Meaning
 SENTENCE MEANING is the meaning
of a sentence regardless of the
B context and situation in which it may
be used.
 2. A PROPOSITION is a meaningful part of a
statement that describes some___________ .

A. state of affairs
B. situation
 A PROPOSITION is a meaningful
part of a statement that describes
A some state of affairs.
3. If there are any conceivable cases where one
sentence is true, while the other is false, we can be
sure that they express _______________

A. The same proposition

B. Different proposition
 If there are any conceivable cases
where one sentence is true, while
the other is false, we can be sure
B that they express different
propositions.
4. Sentences in different languages can correspond
to________________ , if the two sentences are
perfect translations of each other.

A. The same proposition

B. Different proposition
 Sentences in different languages
can correspond to the same
proposition , if the two sentences
A are perfect translations of each
other .
c. Distinction between
utterance and sentence
 c.1. An utterance

✓ The USE by a particular speaker, on a

particular occasion, of a piece of language,
such as a sequence of sentences, or a single
phrase, or even a single word. [Hurford and
Heasley, 1984:15]

Eg: 1. ‘Thao throws the rubbish’ (x3)

2. ‘Hi’ - ‘What’s up’ - ‘This is very interesting' → utterance
3. ‘afdjvnalifvajh’ → not utterance
Practice
Now decide whether the following could represent utterances.
Indicate your answer by circling Yes or No.
(1) ‘Hello’ Yes / No
(2) ‘Not much’ Yes / No
(3) ‘Utterances may consist of a single word, a single phrase
or a single sentence. They may also consist of a sequence
of sentences. It is not unusual to find utterances that
consist of one or more grammatically incomplete
sentence-fragments. In short, there is no simple relation of
correspondence between utterances and sentences’ Yes / No
(4) ‘Pxgotmgt’ Yes / No
 c.2. A sentence

Neither a physical event nor a physical object.

A sentence can be thought of as the IDEAL string of

words behind various realizations in utterances and
inscriptions.
It is, conceived (partial) abstractly a string of words put
together by the grammatical rules of a language.
[Hurford and Heasley, 1984:15]
Example:
- I would like a cup of coffee is a sentence.
- Coffee, please is not a sentence.

(1) ‘John’ NS
(2) ‘Who is there?’ S
(3) ‘Mine’ NS
(4) ‘It’s mine’ S
 c.3. Distinction between
utterance and sentence
• A sentence is written in italics
• An utterance is indicated by using two quotation marks
(single quotation) ‘...’

Example:
‘Help’ - an utterance.
The steeples have been struck by lightning- a sentence.
A sentence is an abstract theoretical entity defined
within a theory of grammar

An utterance is the issuance of a sentence

[Levinson, 198:18]
• Utterances of non-sentences eg: short phrases, single
words are used all the time in communication

• People do not converse wholly in a well-formed

sentence

• The abstract idea of a sentence is easy to

understand even those expressions- not a sentence
[Hurford and Heasley, 1984:18]
The meaning of non-sentence can be best analyzed by
considering to be abbreviations or incomplete versions of
whole sentences [Hurford and Heasley, 1984:18]

1/ Waiter: ‘Would you like tea or coffee?’

Guest: ‘Coffee, please’.- I would like coffee
2/ A: ‘Who won the battle of Waterloo?’
B: ‘Wellington’
The term ' utterance' can be used to refer to the
process of uttering or the product of that
process

The first sense is referred to as speech acts

The second sense is referred to as inscriptions

[Levinson, 198:18]
d. Distinction between a proposition,
a sentence and an utterance
 Family tree relationship between the three notions

PROPOSITION

SENTENCE SENTENCE SENTENCE

UTTERANCE UTTERANCE UTTERANCE

UTTERANCE UTTERANCE UTTERANCE

Example
Proposition: Thao takes out the rubbish

Sentence 1: Thao Sentence 2: The

takes out the rubbish is taken
rubbish out by Thao
• The same sentence can be realised by
different utterances on particular
occasions
• The same proposition can be expressed
by different sentences
(1)Fill in the following chart with "+" or "-"

+ - -
+ + -
+ + +
+ - -
+ + -
v

v
 CONCLUSION

PROPO- SENTENCE UTTERANCE

SITION

Can be Can be grammatical or not Can be loud or quiet

true or Can be true or false Can be grammatical or not
false In a particular language Can be true or false
In a particular regional accent
In a particular language
3. Three features of sentence meaning:
Grammaticality, acceptability and
meaningfulness.
 a. Grammaticality

 Grammaticality: A grammatical sentence is one which is

formed according to the rules of grammar.

 Grammatical sentence:

There are 20 students in the class.

 Ungrammatical sentence:

Do you angry?
 b. Meaningfulness
 The meaningfulness of a sentence is conditioned by how
well-informed that sentence is semantically.
 Meaningful sentence
eg: Scott is a lazy, stupid, disagreeable, stubborn guy.
 Meaningless sentence
eg: - Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
- Thursday is in bed with Friday
 Grammaticality vs. Meaningfulness 46
 Most sentences we produce are grammatical and meaningful

eg: Nothing is gonna change my love for you.

 A sentence which is grammatically correct is not necessarily

meaningful

eg: It asks a pile of rubbish to clean the ant.

 c. Acceptability 47

 c.1. In grammatical sense

 c.2. In semantic sense

 c.1. In grammatical sense 48

 Some sentences are unacceptable because it is not

grammatically possible.

e.g. I love speak but I think it is so difficult to get fluency.

 c.2. In semantic sense 49
➢ Suitability to social etiquette
Eg: - After the battle, the → Unacceptable
enemies all passed away.

- You are my dog. → Unacceptable in Greece

Acceptable in Britain
➢ Rationality/ logical coherence

Eg: She died even though she → Unacceptable

fell down from the 100th floor.
4. The principle of compositionality/
functionality
5.Variables in the function of sentence meaning

5.1. Structural meaning

5.2. Representational meaning
5.3. Interpersonal meaning
5.4. Textual meaning
 5.1. Structural meaning

 Structural meaning is the kind of meaning that results from

a particular arrangement of the parts of the sentence.
 E.g.:
- The mantte wernnted a yob
- My fueak liauded me to doen
 Representational, interpersonal 53
and textual meaning
 According to Halliday, the semantic structure of the sentence
incorporates three components: representational, interpersonal
and textual.
 He uses the term “semantic function” or just “function” to refer to
them.
 We understand that this is just another way of representing the
meaning of the sentence. Thus, “meaning” and “function” are
interchangeable in this context.
 5.2. Representational meaning 54

 Can be defined in terms of experiential and logical functions.

1. The experiential function: is to communicate ideas
 It is the main function by which a speaker expresses the
content elements of his utterance, by referring to people,
objects, states of affairs, events, qualities, places, actions and
circumstances, all of which are parts of the world we live in.
 E.g. John invited Susan to go to the cinema with him last night.
2. The logical function: relates ideas to each other on an
55
equal or subordinate basis
e.g. - The bus was crowded, and I had to stand
all the way. (equal)
- We all believe that working hard is the key to success.
 Notes: The representational meaning in Halliday’s
terminology correspond to a much used but
troublesome notion of “proposition” that we will
discuss in detail in another lecture
 5.3. Interpersonal function 56

1. To establish and maintain social relations. This function can

be manifested in various forms indicating functions such as:
- Good morning.
- Have a nice day.
- Thank you very much.
- I am sorry.
 5.3. Interpersonal function (cont) 57
2. To influence people behavior and get things done. This
function may be called the instrumental function, that is
influencing people’s behavior and getting things done.
For example:
- Could you pass me the wine? (Request)
- Why was she late? (Enquiry)
- Don’t do that again. (Warning)
- If you keep doing this, I’ll… (Threat)
5.3. Interpersonal function (cont) 58

3. To express the speaker’s feelings, attitudes and opinions

towards, or the assessment of the representational content
of the sentence via the use of modal verbs and adverbs.
For example:
- What she said may be right
- You must be feeling hunger by now
- This is probably right
 5.4. Textual function 59
 The textual function or meaning is to create texts. It is this
function that helps to give texts coherence and cohesion.
 For example:
 The healing power of maggots is not new. Human beings have
discovered it several times. The Maya are said to have used
maggots for therapeutic purposes 1000 years ago. As early as
the 16th century, European doctors noticed that soldiers with
maggots-infested wounds healed well.
 6. Types of sentence meaning

6.1. The presentational meaning

6.2. The interpersonal meaning
6.3. The textual meaning
 6.1. The presentational meaning

 According to Halliday, the experimental component of the

representational meaning provides an account of the
underlying content of a sentence or utterance. It handles
within its scope:
a. processes: actions, events, states, relations
b. Participating entities: persons, objects, abstractions
c. Circumstances: time, place, reasons, conditions, results …
which are associated with the process
 The relationship between processes, participants, and
their circumstances are expressed through what
Halliday terms “transitivity network”. Transitivity really
means “going through” or “extending to another
entity”.
E.g. Mary kicked the dog this morning
 The participant “Mary” performs a doing “kicking”,
which is directed at the goal “the dog” under the
circumstances “this morning”
 In terms of transitivity 63
 Clauses may be organized into two types
1. The transitivity (sentence) pattern: the most prominent roles
are “actor” and “goal”, which correspond to “agentive
subject” and “affected object” in traditional grammar.
e.g. The storm destroyed the house.
OR: “attributor” and “attributant” if the process is one of
ascription (attribution)
e.g. Bill is a successful businessman.
 In terms of transitivity (cont) 64
2. The ergative (sentences) pattern: the central roles are the
“causer” of the process, and the “affected”, i.e. the
participant affected by the process.
e.g. Everyone likes the play
= The play causes everyone to like it.
 In terms of complementation 65
1. Intensive sentences: are those concerned with ascription
(attribution)
e.g. John is smart
Mary is the most beautiful girl
2. Extensive transitive sentences: concerned with action process
a. Effective: the action is goal-directed or targeted at another
object called goal. This means that the sentence has to involve at
least two participants.
e.g. I bought a car
Some sentences may have three participants
e.g. I gave her a flower
In terms of complementation (cont) 66
b. Descriptive: involving a non-directed action since the
sentence is associated with just one participant.
e.g. The recruits marched
c. Nuclear: associated with either one or two participants.
e.g. John opened the door
The door opened
The door was opened by John
 6.2. The interpersonal meaning 67
 Halliday’s term “interpersonal” embraces largely what is
collectively expressed by a more common term “modality”
 Modality expresses the attitude and opinion of the speaker
toward the representational content of the sentence.
 However, “attitude” and “opinion” in this sense has little to do
with the emotional states that a person undergoes.
 In fact, the interpersonal meaning has to do with the function
of speech or “illocutionary force”
 Then the meaning of a sentence is the function of P
(Proposition) and F (illocutionary force)
6.3. The textual meaning
 7. Types of meaning

7.1. Processes
7.2. Participants
7.3. Circumstances
 7.1. Processes

 a. Definition:

 The concept of process represents the possible world as

consisting of goings-on such as doing, happening, feeling
and being.

 According to Halliday, in English, the processes are construed

by the transitivity system.
 b. Types of processes
b.1. Material processes: express our outer experiences
b.2. Mental processes: express our inner experiences
b.3. Relational processes: connect our experiences
b.4. Behavioral processes (between material processes and
mental processes): represent outer manifestations of our inner
workings
b.5. Verbal processes (between mental and relational
processes): represent symbolic relationship constructed in
human consciousness and enacted in the form of language.
b.6. Existential processes (between the material and relational
processes): concerning with existence
 b.1. Material processes
72
❖ Definition: Material processes are those that express our outer
experiences.
❖ Characteristics: Material processes may involve one or two entities:
an actor + a goal:
❖ If there is only one entity, it is the ACTOR.
e.g. - The lion sprang
- Jack fell down
- Jack got up
- Jack went home
❖ If there are two entities, they are the ACTOR and the
GOAL. In this case:
+ the actor can do something to the goal.
e.g. - John broke the glass
- The lion caught the tourist
- The mechanic repaired my car
+ the actor can create or bring about the goal
e.g. - He has built a fortune along the way.
- They are building a new school here
- Jane is writing a letter
- Material processes are not necessarily concrete, but can
be abstract
e.g. - The mayor resigned
- The president dissolved the Parliament
- We can ask about or “probe” material processes by using
the verb “do”
e.g. - What did the lion do?
- What is Jane doing?
- What did the mayor do?
 b.2. Mental processes
❖ Definition: Mental processes are those that express our inner
experiences. Mental processes involve two entities: a
SENSER (the conscious being that feels, sees or thinks) and a
PHENOMENON (that which is “sensed”, felt, thought or seen.
e.g. - Mary liked the gift
- No-one believed his story
❖ Characteristics:
1. In a clause of mental process, there is always one
participant who is human or human-like. This is the SENSER,
the one who senses, feels, thinks or perceives.
 On the contrary, in material process, no participant is
required to be human, and the distinction between
conscious and non-conscious beings simply plays no part.
2. With regards to the other main element, namely the one
that is felt, thought or perceived, it may be a person, a thing
or a fact.
e.g. - Jane saw the stars
- Jane saw that the stars had come out
3. The verb in a mental process clause is usually used in the
present simple tense.
e.g. - She likes the gift
- Do you know the city?
4. Mental processes can usually be realized in either
77
direction with either the senser or the phenomenon that
is being sensed being the subject.

Like type Please type

I like it It pleases me
I fear it It frightens me
I wonder at it It amazes me
I don’t understand it It puzzles me
I enjoy it It delights me
I mind it It upsets me
I admire it It impresses me
5. Mental processes are processes of feeling, thinking
and seeing. They are not kinds of doing, and cannot
be probed or substituted by “do”.
e.g. - What did John do? He ran away (material)
- What did Mary do with the gift? She sold it.
- John knew the answer.
(not: What John did was know the answer)
- Mary liked the gift.
(not: What did Mary do with the gift)
❖ Classification: Mental processes can be categorized into
three principle sub-types:
+ perception (seeing, hearing, noticing, etc.)
e.g: He notices it.
+ affection (liking, fearing, hating, etc.)
e.g: I fear that she would be soon corrupted.
+ cognition (thinking, knowing, realizing, believing etc.)
e.g: I knew it a long time ago.
 b.3. Relational processes

❖ Definition: Relational processes are those that connect our

experiences. They are processes of being.
❖ Characteristics: In a relational clause, there are two parts to the
“being”: something is being said to ‘be’ something else. In
other words, a relation is being set up between two entities.
e.g. - Jane is beautiful
- Tomorrow is my birthday
- Peter has a piano
 The English system of relational processes operates with
three main types
1. Intensive: “x is a”
2. Circumstantial: “x is at a” (where ‘is at’ stands for “is at,
in, on, for, with, about, along, etc.’)
3. Possessive: “x has a”
 Each of these comes in two distinct modes:
a. Attributive: “a is an attribute of x”
b. Identifying: “a is the identity of x”
 Mode Attribute Identifying
Type

Intensive Sarah is wise Tom is the leader

The leader is Tom

Circumstantial The fair is on a Mon. Tomorrow is the 10th

The 10th is tomorrow

possessive Peter has a piano The piano is Peter’s

Peter’s is the piano
 Intensive processes - Attribute 83
 In the attributive mode, an entity (the CARRIER) has some quality
(ATTRIBUTE) ascribed or attributed to it.
e.g. Today’s weather is going to be warm
The minister didn’t seem sure of himself
Your story sounds complete nonsense
Mice are timid creatures
 Verbs realizing the Process include: become, turn (into), grow
(into), get, go, remain, stay (as), keep, seem, appear, qualify as,
turn out, end up (as), look, sound, smell, fee, taste (like), be, feel.
 Intensive processes - Identifying 84
 In this identifying mode, something (the IDENTIFIED) has an identity
(IDENTIFIER) assigned to it.
The deadliest spider in Australia are the funnel webs
Today’s meeting represents the last chance for a compromise
Mr. Garrick played Hamlet
 Verbs realizing the Process include: play, act as, function as, serve
as, mean, indicate, suggest, imply, show, mark, reflect, equal, add
up to, make, comprise, feature, include, represent, constitute, form,
exemplify, illustrate, express, signify, realize, stand for, mean, spell,
be, become, remain.
 Circumstantial - Attribute 85
1. Circumstance as attribute: Here the Attribute is a prepositional
phrase and the circumstantial relation is expressed by the
preposition (about, in, like, with…)
e.g. My story is about a poor shepherd boy
Pussy’s in the well
2. Circumstance as process: Here the Attribute is a nominal group
and the circumstance is expressed by the verb (concern, last,
weigh, cost)
e.g. My story concerns a poor shepherd boy
The fair lasted a week
The fish weighs 2 pounds
Your ticket cost fifty dollars
 Circumstantial - Identifying 86
1. Circumstance as participants: In this type it is the participants
(identified and Identifier) that are circumstantial elements of time,
place and so on. The relation between the participants is simply one
of sameness.
e.g. Tomorrow is the tenth
The best way to go there is by train
The real reason is that you are scared
2. Circumstance as process: In this type, it is not the participants that
are the expression of time, place or others, but the Process:
e.g. The fair takes up the whole day
Applause followed her act
Fred accompanied his wife
 Possessive - Attribute 87
1. The possessive relationship may be encoded as the Attribute. In
this case the Attribute takes the form of a possessive nominal
group.
e.g. The piano is Peter’s
2. The possessive relationship may be encoded as the Process. In
this case, either the Possessor is the Carrier and the possessed is
the attribute as in
e.g. Peter has a piano
or the possessed is the carrier and the possessor is the attribute as
in
e.g. The piano belongs to Peter
 Possessive - Identifying 88

1. Possession as participants: Here the participants embody the

notion of possession, one signifying property of the possessor,
the other signifying the thing possessed.
e.g. The piano is Peter’s
2. Possession as process: Here the possession is encoded as a
process, typically realized by the verb “to own”
e.g. Peter owns the piano
 b.4. Behavioral processes 89
❖ Definition: Behavioral processes are those describing
physiological and psychological behavior like coughing,
breathing, smiling, dreaming, and staring. They are partly like the
material and partly like the mental processes.
❖ Characteristics:
The participant who is behaving, labelled BEHAVER, is typically a
conscious being, like the Senser, but the Process is
grammatically more like one of doing.
e.g. Jane is smiling
 Classification 90
a. Processes of consciousness (near mental processes):
represented as forms of behaviour: look, watch, stare, listen,
think, worry, dream
b. Verbal processes as behaviour (near verbal processes):
chatter, grumble, talk
c. Physiological processes manifesting states of consciousness:
cry, laugh, smile, frown, sigh, snarl, whine
d. Other physiological processes: breath, cough, faint, yarn,
sleep
e. Bodily postures and pastimes (near material processes):
sing, dance, lie down, sit (down/up)
 Verbal processes 91
❖ Definition: verbal processes are processes of saying. They
represent symbolic relationships constructed in human
consciousness and enacted in the form language.
❖ Characteristics:
 Verbal processes are Processes of saying (tell, insult, praise,
slander, abuse, flatter, promise, etc.)
 They involve four entities: a sayer, a verbiage, a target,
and a receiver.
 The RECEIVER 92

 The RECEIVER is the one to whom the saying is

directed.
e.g. Tell me the whole truth
Did you repeat that to your parents?
Describe to the court the scene of the accident.
 The VERBIAGE 93
 The VERBIAGE is the function that correspond to what is said. It
may be the content of what is said as in
e.g. Can you describe the apartment to me?
The manager will outline his plan of campaign
The mystery’s never been explained.
It may be the name of the saying as in:
e.g. Let me ask you a question
Now, don’t you say another word.
They were speaking Arabic
He made a statement
 The TARGET 94
 The Target is the entity that is targeted by the process of
saying.
e.g. She always praised him to her friends
Please don’t insult my intelligence
 Verbs that accept a Target include: praise, insult, abuse,
slander, flatter, blame, criticize.
 b.6. Existential processes
95
❖ Definition: existential processes are those that are
concerned with existence.
❖ Characteristics:
 Represents something that exists or happens
 Intermediate between material and relational processes
 Two entities: the EXISTENT and the process
e.g: - Once upon a time, there lived a King who had a
beautiful daughter.
- There comes a huge man
 Verbs that commonly occur in existential processes
include: exist, remain, arise, occur, come about,
happen, take place, follow, ensue, sit, stand, lie, hang,
rise, stretch, emerge, grow, erupt, flourish, prevail
 7.2. Participants 97
 The participant functions listed in the Table are those that
are directly involved in the process: the one that does,
behaves, senses, says, is or exists, together with the
complementary function where there is one - the one that
is done to, sensed etc.
 There are other participant functions in English clause, also
specific to each particular process type. However, it is
possible to group these together into two general functions
common to all clauses: The Beneficiary and the Range
 Beneficiary 98
 The beneficiary is the one two whom or for whom the process is said to
take place. It appears in material and verbal processes, and occasionally
in relational.
1. In a material process, the Beneficiary is either Recipient or Client. The
Recipient is one that goods are given to; the Client is one that services are
done for. The preposition is “to” with Recipient and “for” with Client.
e.g. She gave John the parcel
She gave the parcel to John
He painted John a picture
He painted a picture for John
 99
2. In a verbal process, the Beneficiary is the one who is being addressed
(the Receiver)
e.g. John told Mary a story
John asked Mary a question
John notifited Mary of the decision
3. There are also few relational processes (attribute) containing a
Beneficiary. We shall just refer to this as BENEFICIARY
e.g. She make him a good wife
It cost him a pretty penny
 Range 100
 The range is the element that specifies the range or scope of the
process.
e.g. Jane sang a song
Do you play croquet with the Queen today?
 This is the meaning behind the classical category of cognate
object (e.g. ‘song’ and ‘sing’). However, cognateness is not a
necessary feature. Most Range elements in English are not
cognate to the verb even if they are as close in meaning as, for
example: ‘game’ and ‘play’.
 A Range may occur in material, behavioural, mental and verbal
processes.
 Range in material or 101
behavioural processes
 The range either expresses the domain over which the
process take place or expresses the process itself.
1. The range indicates the domain over which the process
takes place. In this case it is an entity which exists
independently of the process.
e.g. Mary climbed the mountain
John played the piano
 Range in material or 102
behavioural processes
2. The range may not be an entity but rather another name for
the process.
e.g. John and Mary played tennis
John sang a song
John had a bath
John did some work
John made a mistake
John took a rest
John gave a smile
 Range in metal processes 103

 In mental processes the concept of Range helps to

understand the structure we have already identified, that of
Senser and Phenomenon. It is not an additional element,
but an interpretation of the Phenomenon in one of its
structural configurations.
e.g. I enjoyed the play very much
I understand your problems
John knows the answer
 Range in verbal processes 104
 In verbal processes, the range is the Verbiage.
e.g. Describe the apartment to me
She told a story
 7.3. The circumstances 105
 This component is related to the process. They can occur
in all types of processes. Most are realized by prepositional
phrases; however, they can be clauses as well. The main
types of circumstances are:
1. Time:
e.g. She arrived home at 9 o’clock
2. Place:
e.g. I met her at a small restaurant
3. Condition:
e.g. If she comes, I’ll go
 106
4. Concession:
e.g. In spite of her parents’ objection …
5. Result:
e.g. I was caught in a sudden shower, so I was soaked
6. Manner:
e.g. She beat her son with a ruler
7. Attending circumstances:
e.g. As everyone is here, let’s start
8. Cause:
e.g. Because of the rain, the train was late.
9. Purpose:
e.g. She is out for lunch now.
 Circumstantial in Halliday’s view
Type Specific categories (Sub-types)
1 Extent Distance, duration
2 Location Place, time
3 Manner Means, quality, comparison
4 Cause Reason, purpose, behalf
5 Contingency Condition, concession, default
6 Accompaniment Comitation, addition
7 Role Guise, product
8 Matter
9 Angle
1. and 2. Circumstantials of Extent and Location
108
Spatial Temporal

Extent, incl. Distance Duration

Interval Walk (for seven miles) Stay (for) two hours
Stop every 10 yards Pause every ten min’
Frequency
Knock three times

Location Place Time

Work in the kitchen Get up at six o’clock
 109
3. Manner. The circumstantial element of Manner comprises three
subcategories: means, quality, comparison
a. Means refers to the means whereby a process takes place. It is
typically expresses by a prepositional phrase with “by” or “with”.
e.g. The pig was beaten with a stick
b. Quality is typically expressed by an adverbial group with -ly
adverbs as Head
e.g. It was snowing heavily
c. Comparison is typically expressed by a prep phrase with “like” or
“unlike”
e.g. It went through my head like an earthquake
 110
4. Cause: The circumstantial element of Cause also comprises of
three subcategories: Reason, Purpose, Behalf.
a. Reason: represents the reason for which a process takes place,
what causes it.
e.g. I love her because she is rich
b. Purpose: represents the purpose for which an action takes
place, the intention behind it.
e.g. She went out for lunch
c. Behalf: represents the entity, typically a person, on whose behalf
or for whose sake the action is undertaken.
e.g. I am writing on behalf of Aunt Jane
5.
111
Contingency: Again there are three subtypes: Condition,
concession, Default
a. Condition: expresses the condition under which a process takes
place
e.g. In the event of a typhoon open all windows
b. Concession: expressed by in spite of, despite
e.g. Despite the rain, the excursion was a great
success.
c. Default: expressed by in the absence of, in default of
e.g. In the absence of further evidence, we shall give them the benefit of
doubt.
6. Accompaniment: This element represents the meanings of
“and”, “or”, “not” as circumstantial. 112
e.g. Fred came with/without Tom
Jane set out with her umbrella
Fred came instead of Tom
7. Role: This category includes the subcategories of Guise
and Product.
a. Guise: Corresponds to the interrogative “what as?”
e.g. I came here as a friend
They leave the place untidy by way of protest
b. Product: corresponds to the interrogative “what into?”
the meaning of “become”
e.g. Aren’t you growing into a big girl?
 113
8. Matter: Matter is related to verbal processes. It is the
circumstantial equivalent of Verbiage, ‘that which is
describe, referred to, narrated etc…’. The interrogative is
“What about?”
e.g. The company kept quiet on the subject
They talked of many things
9. Angle: is also related to verbal processes, but in this case to
the Sayer.
e.g. - According to a government spokesman, order has
now been restored.
- They are guilty in the eyes of the law.
 Modality in English 114
 English modality can be expressed either lexically or grammatically.
1. Lexicalization: Modality is expressed by means of lexical items like
modal verbs or modal adverbs or some lexical verbs: really, must,
certainly, can…)
e.g. She is certainly the best
You must finish the report by tomorrow.
1. Grammaticalization: Modality is expressed in the opposition of forms
(mood)
e.g. Come on in
If I were you, I’d …
It rained very hard last night.