Experiment 1 5

. :
 Unit 1, Section 5: Solids under Stress
Determination of the Young Modulus of the Material of a Wire

The apparatus is shown below.

Measurements:

• Use a micrometer to measure the diameter of wire at different positions along its length and then find a mean.
• Use a metre rule to measure the original length of wire (i.e. the unloaded length).
• Use the mm scale to find the position of the marker for each known load or mass.

Calculations:

• Force applied = "#$$×&

• Extension = scale reading with load – scale reading without load
MN O
• Cross sectional area of wire = , where + is the diameter
P
∆6
• Strain, , = , where ∆0 is the extension and 0R is the original length
67
2
• Stress, 2 = , where 5 is the force and 6 is the cross sectional area.
3

Analysis:

• Plot a graph of stress against strain

• This should give a straight line that passes

through the origin, provided that the limit of
proportionality has not been exceeded.

• The gradient of the graph is equal to the Young

modulus of the material.

Unit 1.5 Solids under Stress – © Dr Hanbury 01/2019 6

 Unit 2, Section 5: Wave Properties
Young’s Double Slit Experiment

Young’s double slit experiment was key in demonstrating that light was in fact, a wave. The apparatus below, is the
modern day equivalent, making use of a laser. A laser illuminates two very narrow slits close together, which produces
an interference pattern on a screen placed directly in front. This interference pattern demonstrates constructive and
destructive interference, and so, verifying the wave nature of light. The narrow slits act as point sources of light.

The bright regions on the screen are known as fringes, and these are a result of the two waves from each slit arriving at
the screen in phase, resulting in constructive interference. The dark regions on the screen are a result of the two waves
from each slit arriving at the screen in anti-phase, resulting in destructive interference.

If we know the slit separation, a, the distance between the slits, D, and the screen, along with the fringe separation, y,
B]
then we can determine the wavelength of the light used. ! = . This formula is only a good approximation if
1
& ≪ ( and ) ≪ (.

Derivation of Young’s Formula (Extension)

Consider the above diagram, where the double slit has been highlighted and magnified. The diagram represents the
two waves leaving each slit and meeting at point P on the distant screen. By inspection, it can be seen that the two rays
coming from each slit are parallel, and that there exists a path difference between them. It is valid to assume that the
two waves will arrive at P parallel, owing to the screen being a large distance from the double slit.

In order for constructive interference to occur at point P, the path difference must be one wavelength. *+ = !. The
path difference can be expressed as *+ = &,-./ from simple trigonometry. Therefore, ! = &,-./. Note, maximum
path difference is equal to slit separation.

Owing to ) ≪ (, the diffracted beam angle, /, is small. Therefore, we can write ,-./ ≈ 1&./ where / is measured
] B]
in radians. Therefore, ! ≈ &1&./. By inspection of the above diagram, we can see that 1&./ = , and so, ! ≈ .
1 1

Notice, that the formula is only an approximation. However, it is extremely accurate provided the assumed conditions
are met. Note, the fringe separation is measured between the centers of two consecutive fringes.

Unit 2.5 Wave Properties – © Dr Hanbury 01/2019 18

 Unit 2, Section 5: Wave Properties
Intensity Distribution of Young’s Fringes

In reality, the central fringe is the brightest, with the surrounding

fringes becoming dimmer as they move further from the centre.

The diagram on the right shows how the intensity of the interference
pattern changes across the screen.

The dotted curve shows the modulating envelope, which is

responsible for the diminishing intensity.

The modulating envelope is due to the diffraction of waves at a single slit. The reason for this is beyond the scope of A
level physics. The narrower the slit, the wider the envelope becomes, and further distant maxima become more visible.

Diffraction Gratings
Young’s double slit experiment can be used to determine the
wavelength of visible light. However, this method is not accurate as
the determination of fringe separation has relatively large percentage
uncertainties owing to the centre of fringes being difficult to
determine. See fringe pattern above. Diffraction gratings provide a
much more accurate determination of wavelength.

The diagram on the right, represents a diffraction grating. Instead of

just two slits, the grating will have hundreds. In the example, four
slits are shown, with the understanding that there are many more.
Exactly as with Young’s double slit, the path difference between two
successive waves is given by "#$%!, where d, represents the slit
separation. In order for these waves to constructively interfere, the
path difference must be an integer number of wavelengths, and so,
%& = "#$%!. This is known as the diffraction grating formula. Here
though, if two successive waves constructively interfere, then all of
the waves emitted by each slit will constructively interfere, as they are
parallel. This of course, assumes the screen is far away from the
grating.

It is the angular displacement of the fringes, !, that is measured, and not the fringe separation. When dealing with
gratings, we refer to principle maxima instead of fringes. The term n, refers to the integer number of wavelengths, and
is referred to as “the order” of the principle maxima.

The diagram on the right shows the intensity

distribution of the principle maxima. As can be
seen, the maxima are brighter and sharper than
Young’s fringes. Compare with above. In addition,
they are also further apart from each other.

They are brighter because there are more wave sources, and further apart, because in order to pack a great many slits
into a small region, the slit separation must be smaller. As there are more wave sources, there are a greater number of
waves able to destructively interfere, and so, darker regions are extended, while maxima become more narrow.

Unit 2.5 Wave Properties – © Dr Hanbury 01/2019 26

 Unit 2, Section 5: Wave Properties
Measuring Wavelength and Reducing Uncertainty

The diagram on the right, represents a grating that

displays up to the 3rd order principle maxima. We can
use +! = 678+" to determine the wavelength, !, of
the incident laser light.

The slit separation, d, can be determined from the

labelling on the grating. The label will state the number
of lines (slits) per cm/mm. From this, we can determine
#
the number of lines/m, N. Therefore, 6 = g.

?A@Cc
!= C can then be used with suitable values of "
and +.

In order to minimise the percentage uncertainty in !, we need to measure the diffracted beam angle, ", of the highest
order principle maxima. By measuring this angle, we reduce the percentage uncertainty in ", and hence, !. Using the
?A@Ccd
example above, we would use ! = . We can make a further reduction by making use of the symmetry of the
e
diffracted beams. The 3rd order beam has a corresponding beam at the the same angle below the horizontal. We can
measure the angle between the two and divide by 2. The mean value can then be substituted into the grating formula.

How to Determine the Maximum Number of Orders

?A@Cc
Re-arranging the grating formula, we can state + = . To find the highest order maxima, +FB2 , we must use the
3
?
maximum diffraction angle when " = 90∘ , and therefore, +FB2 = . Since + is an integer value, we must always
3
round down. The maximum number of orders is then 2+FB2 + 1 due to symmetry. The “+1” makes sure we do not
forget the central maxima (zero order).

Question 11
The diagram on the right shows two sets of maxima
obtained by illuminating a diffraction grating with light
from a blue laser and a red laser.

Explain the difference between the two images

laser red is
Distance between the fringes for
for
for distance
between the fines ea larger
greater order n , since is

light for .given

a
than blue ,
wavelength than blue highe [PLEASE TURN OVER]
for red hight
greater

Unit 2.5 Wave Properties – © Dr Hanbury 01/2019 27

 Young's Double She Experiments (key way to demonstrate light is a wave

produces an interference
a screen placed
=> demonstrate constructive >
-

fringe sparing
pattern destructive "reference
on

directly in from

↑ >
- the narrow she acts like she
separation
point sources oflight ↑
↓
illuminates
to
fringes I bright light
regions > two from
-

waves
narrow
2
very each shot arrives in phase
shts close ↓

when
constructive
together interference
to waves anres

↓
anti-phase
↓
destructive interference

double-she
to
determine
use Young's Shte to X
screen
spacing
* Independent variable D
of Formula Given
* Dependent ↓
* Graph M a DY
x =

& Iwavelength] D
D
* How to get X by graph
y = mx +e
↓ ↓
= D
* works better for large distance

to principle maxima instead

> refus
- of fringes
Diffraction Gratings > flat
=
opaque plate, with multiple parallel equally spaced shits
>
- instead of just two slits , the will have hundred
grating

>
-
>
- all emitted by
if two successive waves
constructively interfere then of the waves each

she will -> they are parallel

constructively interfere

Highlandclacement
, of the
fringes O is measured : NOT the FRINGE
SEPERATION

- hunterforThesenever custmlynfue
,
the
,
Path difference
↓ separati
↑ > angular
-
nx = &sinO= Diffraction Grating formula
Y ↓
↓ she separation

interger numbers of wavelengths

nX
&
=

↓ asind "The order" of the principle maxima

> shie
-
separation
Derivation of diffraction equation
grating
i

!
sin)
3
n=

>
-
-

-
0 =

=
di
i angular
separation since =
nX AsinO
she
-
n =1
separation ↑
m = SMO-d => =

-
no
~
nX
-
n= 1
n path difference links
>

to a bright shit
D
-
n= 2
constructive interfere

-
n =3
i

grating screen
 Measuring Wavelength x Reducing uncertainty
3rd
represents a
grating that displays up to order
principle maxima
8. use nX =
Using to determine the wavelength x of incident laser light
②she separationd can be determined from the
labelling on the grating
↳ the number of Lines [shis] animm
per

Using
D
/m N
x = = determine the
↓
numbers of lines .,

d=
order of Principle maxima

s it's hard to measure angle & .

in order to minimise the percentage
uncertainty in X ,
need to measure the diffrented
during lab hence, we measure the D & beam
angle O of the highest order principle maxima

N max(x) ↳ by uncertainty in 0x X
measuring this andle ,-reduce the
percentage
10 hegi X =
dsincs > further reduced > -
use
symmetry
of the diffracted
use
tanfo = the sid order has beam
↓
measure
corresponding a
angle between the 2 E beam at the same angle
then divide by 2 below the horizontal
Using = nx
K
mean value can then be substituted into grating formula

How to determine the maximum number of orders

Rearrange the grating equation from nx Using = to
n= sind => find highest order maxima Umax > must use the
-

maximum diffraction
always round down angle when 0 goo
=
must

the maximum number = max =***

of orders is the Inmax +
due to symmetry don't forget the central maxima (zero order

Determination of speed of sound using Stationary Waves

Used to determine the speed of sound in Air by
using stationary waves
STEPS of Experiments :

&
glass filled completely with water St

②
.
Slowly lower the water level while listening to the tone of the sound generated by the

speaker until the volume of the sound reaches a maximum (resonance(

↳
standing wave is formed at this point a
corresponds to the fundamental mode

mode
②. a is formed at the water surface where reflection occurs &
antinodes at the open end
in
practice the antinode forms a

un
small distance above the opened (e)

buspetdement
able
are

be
to

adjusted
e

speed of sound
&
subf = He i x= = -t = He - = He = L =
(F -

e
↓ with
gradient equating y = mete

V= 4 . m =>
gradientim) = =>
-
L =
E) * Esy-intercept
-

↓
dependent
edent variable
a
① different values
by measuring the length of the air column at resonance
using ruler for
of frequencies (determined via signal generative
8 determine the speed of sound in air
* between each change in cube must be refilled so that the water level is
frequency the , , at the top of the
Tube by this I can be determined once resonance is achieved > ensures that
only only the fundamental
-
,
, .

mode is
being investigated
 -
Alternative Method
used to produce
frequency D started with water level at the top
sing"That
.

· ② lowered the water level until resonance is x record

archieved the length L
m
.

generator ② continue to lower the water level until the resonance is archieved again
a record the length 12
① then express (2-h * => as distance between
=
2 consecutive mode is
⑤ use X Fisubl-h = into -h
=

=
& nerve V=
zfilz-4)
I DON'T NEED To start from water level at the
top
& find the difference in length as L between I consecutive points of resonance x nice V = 2 for
 Unit 2, Section 5: Wave Properties
Determination of Speed of Sound using Stationary Waves

The setup on the right can be used to determine the speed of sound in
air by making use of stationary waves. Diagram A, shows a loud
speaker placed above a glass cylinder connected to a signal generator.
The water level in the cylinder can be adjusted.

Start off with the glass tube filled completely with water. Slowly lower
the water level (by some mechanism of your choice) while listing to the
tone of the sound generated by the speaker until the volume of the
sound reaches a maximum (resonance). At this point, a standing wave
is formed as shown, and corresponds to the fundamental mode. A node
is formed at the water surface where reflection occurs, and an antinode
at the open end. In practice, the antinode forms a small distance above
the open end by an amount known as the end correction, e. The
explanation of the end correction is beyond the scope of A level physics.
3
By inspecting the fundamental in diagram A, we can write - = ! + 0,
remembering that the antinode is formed a short distance, 0, above the tube.
Using * = ,', where *, represents the speed of sound in air and f, being the
frequency of of the sound wave, which can be determined from the setting on the
k
signal generator. Re-expressing * = ,' as ' = l and substituting into
3 k k #
-
= ! + 0, gives -l = ! + 0. For convenience, we write ! = Z-\ l − 0.
Equating this with 3 = 45 + 6, we can see that the gradient, m, is given by
k
4 = -, and the intercept, 6, given by 6 = −0. Therefore, the speed of sound in
air is given by * = 44. By measuring the length of the air column at resonance
using a ruler for different values of frequency, which can be determined from the
setting on the signal generator, we can determine the speed of sound.

Note: Between each change in frequency, the tube must be refilled, so that the water level is at the top of the tube.
Only then, can L be determined, once resonance is achieved. This ensures that only the fundamental mode is being
investigated.

Diagram B, represents an alternative approach. The signal generator is adjusted to produce a frequency, and this is
then kept constant. Starting with the water level at the top, the level is lowered until resonance is achieved. At this
point, the length L1, is recorded. Continue to lower the level until resonance is again achieved, and record the length L2.
3
Then we can write !< − !# = . This can easily be seen from the diagram as !< − !# is simply the distance between
<
k k
two consecutive nodes. As before, we can write ' = and obtain !< − !# = . Hence, we can determine the speed
l <l
of sound by * = 2, !< − !# . In fact, we do not need to start with the water level at the top. We could find the
difference in length, ∆! between two consecutive points of resonance and write * = 2,∆!.

Unit 2.5 Wave Properties – © Dr Hanbury 01/2019 36

Mustance
Potential difference (V(
define as potential difference (1) between
: two points is the
energy converted from electrical
voltmeter R 50M-
potential energy to some other form per unit
charge
>
- digital =

D
↳ analogue voltmeter
R 200km
=
The S I unit
.
for potential difference Costs (V) : /V 1 J at
:
=

The pd can
only be measured ↳ by
hinking to work done - > potential difference between 2
points is the
win coltmeters (Coltmeter must be connected
component) voltmeter must have work done in
in parallel across :

moving unit
a charge between
very high resistance
these point
* the
energy transfer free elections collide with positive metal lattine > Kinetic
in a conductor > ins in the
energy of
- -

the free elections is

transferred vibrational energy of
to the lattice or kinetic
energy
of the free elections is transferred to thermol energy in the metal (nature of pd in
energy transfer)
Resistance (R)
define as resistance of
: a
component is the ratio of the potential difference across the

componere to the current

flowing through it
.

the S I unit
.
for resistance ohms (2) :

Potential difference across the component [11 /VAT

calculated
Y
=
as : =
currene which flows through the component

electrical resistance arises in metal conductor

as
pd . is applied across the conductor -> free
elections x collide with the positive
be acceleratedto

= > these
metal in lateine mo- collision
frequence collision results in
mean drife velocity of the free elections -
> resistance z

limits current for a

given .
pud
↑

mmmm
temperature affects Electrical Resistance
D. As temperature x
amplitude
increases , metal ins oscillates /vibrates with greater frequency
↳ produce a
higher frequency of collisions between the metal ions
a free elections
↳ reduces the mean drife velocity of the free elections a current -> as pd stays constant : current is smaller
↳ electrical resistance of metal increases with
a
increasing temperature
2 illustration graphically]
M

>
-
generally , if have a non-linear relationship
↓ however
as if can be seen

wider temperature the resistance of metal be considered to

over a range , a can
vary linearly with
increasing temperature

② Practical investigation of
therelationshipbetween
temperatureDressed
.

Set up the apparatus

as this &
te
resistance at a
temperature of Oc
8 The water bath should be heated Brsen burner
with a a water
continuously in order to ensure an

even temperature throughout the water bath

② Once the required temperature record the

. has been reached remove the heat source a
reading
of resistance on the ohmmeter /alternatively take the reallings from ammeter & voltmeters the

calculate the resistance vin R=

⑳ process should repeat at 10 % intervals til the water is boiled 1100d

⑤ repeat the measurement of temperature a resistance

during cooling
O plot the graph of resistance ly-axis) against
temperature (x-axis)
Istraight line through
origin]
mmmoment
characteristics
* the characteristics of the component showe how the current flows through the component depends on the pd applied across it

↳ normally l graph (characteristics includes

displayed in the form of an can be
investigated with a avant that a variable De

coltage supply

mmm
characteristics of a filament lamp
> as the
- pd*
. & ↑ energy
started measuring at the minimum
>
-
value of the variable dia voltage
is been transferred from
supply set
->
slowly increase the value kinetic
energy in the free
of the applied voltage > record
hit his
a
range
-

of ht elections to thermal in
values of the
applied voltage
lin order to obtain negative value of pid.
d
the metal lattice> -

lamp's
reverse the terminals of the . c

voltage supply R =
F (R3 > R2> Ri) temperature increases -
>

graph shown
K
Re = metalions to oscillate (vibrate
=(
Rs hihih)
with a
greater anphiende
due to mean drife frequency -> higher frequency
directly proportional
velocity is of collision between metal
To the current /number

of free elections stays constant) the

&
Done & free electrons -> limit
density
drift velocity of
free elections > Limit the -

I
Ohms13 Lau rate of increase ofacrrent
- ↑ ve +TER
with potential difference
- >
to due to
ccreate
the
pel covers small
flowing through the
range -resist
lamp > small
is small -
in temperature
-
increase
within the
resistance of the lamp increases
~ we
small range
· consider temperature
with
increasing potential difference
as constant

>
- Ohm's Law : the current through an ohme
conductor is
directly proportional
to the Pe applied across it
,
kV
provided that the temperature
& other
physical conditions remains constant
Investigating Ohm's Law
-NOTE : Temperature of wine is kept do this
constant -
> we
by only closing the switch when
a
reading is being twhen once taken the ,

switch should be immediately opened

>
- 1) .
started with output of the variable dc voltage supply see to its minimum value then ,

slowly increase the value of the applied voltage

& the currence through the lampa potential difference the
lamp should be recorded for
K graph ploseed across a

[(xV]
range of values of the applied roltage
>
-
the ratio of V to 1 is constant
throughout- R is
constant for the
increasing

>
- the R is the reciprocal of the
gradient only for a straight line through origin

~
ternative circuit for IV characteristics
D .
adjust the slider on the variable resistor to set the

p. d . across the
component
2) record the p.d voltmeter a current on the ammeter repeat ,

for different values of p.d.

throughwoonee
change total
flowing
used to
> change the curre
resistance of the circuit
Advantage E simple ira
↑ The component
Disadvantages -> The resistance variation is small which limes

range of pid's available the lowest p.d available

,

is
greater than zero
 Unit 2, Section 2: Resistance
How Temperature Affects Electrical Resistance

As the temperature increases, the metal ions oscillate (vibrate) with greater amplitude and frequency. This produces a
higher frequency of collisions between the metal ions and the free electrons. This reduces the mean drift velocity of the
free electrons, and hence, the current. Therefore, for the same potential difference, a smaller current results. The
electrical resistance of a metal increases with increasing temperature.

The graph on the right shows how the resistance

of a metal wire changes with increasing
temperature. Generally, there is a non-linear
relationship as can be seen. However, over a
wide temperature range, the resistance of a
metal can be considered to vary linearly with
increasing temperature.

Practical Investigation

1. The apparatus should be set up as shown in the diagram.

2. An ice water mixture can be used to record the resistance at a temperature of 0°C
3. The water bath should be heated (e.g. with a Bunsen burner) and the water stirred continuously in order to
ensure an even temperature throughout the water bath.
4. Once the required temperature has been reached remove the heat source and record the reading of resistance
on the ohmmeter OR take the ammeter and voltmeter readings and calculate the resistance using the formula
C
3= .
D
5. This process should be repeated at 10°C intervals until the water boils (100°C).
6. Repeat the measurement of temperature and resistance during cooling.
7. Plot a graph of resistance (y-axis) against temperature (x-axis). This should be a straight line, but NOT through
the origin.

Unit 2.2 Resistance – © Dr Hanbury 01/2019 12

 Unit 2, Section 2: Resistance
Component Characteristics

The characteristics of a component shows how the current which flows through the component depends on the p.d.
applied across it. This is normally displayed in the form of an I-V graph. The characteristics can be investigated with a
circuit which includes a variable DC voltage supply.

I-V Characteristics of a Filament Lamp

Starting with the output of the variable d.c. voltage supply set
to its minimum value, slowly increase the value of the applied
voltage.

The current through the lamp and the potential difference

across the lamp should be recorded for a range of values of
the applied voltage.

In order to obtain negative values of p.d., reverse the terminals

of the d.c. voltage supply.

A graph of current against voltage should then be plotted.

Analysis of the Graph

The graph on the right shows how the current through the lamp varies
with increasing p.d. (voltage). We can use the I-V characteristic to
determine how the resistance of the lamp changes for increasing p.d.
across the lamp. We can choose 3 points as shown, and determine the
ratio of p.d. to current. i.e.,
C C C
3E = F , 3G = H , 3I = J
DF DH DJ
Important: The resistance at any point on the graph is the ratio of p.d. to
current and not the reciprocal of the tangent.

The resistance of the lamp is found to increase for increasing p.d.

If you look closely at the shape of the graph, you should be able to see
the ratio of V to I increase for increasing p.d. [Hint: look at width to height
ratio of the dashed line boxes]

As the potential different increases, more energy is transferred from kinetic energy in the free electrons to thermal in the
metal lattice, and hence, the temperature of the lamp increases. This causes metal ions to oscillate (vibrate) with greater
amplitude and frequency and produces a higher frequency of collisions between the metal ions and the free electrons.
limiting the mean drift velocity of the free electrons. Since the mean drift velocity is directly proportional to the current
(and number density of free electrons stays constant), this~ s
a limits the rate of increase
e of current withepotential difference.
Therefore, the resistance of the lamp increases with increasing potential difference. [In short, increasing V leads to an
increase in I. Increase in I leads to increase in temperature. Increase in temperature leads to an increase in
resistance.]
D
which limits the current

Unit 2.2 Resistance – © Dr Hanbury 01/2019 15

 Unit 2, Section 2: Resistance
Ohm’s Law

As can be seen from the I-V characteristic for the filament

lamp, the current is directly proportional to the applied p.d. for
a small range of p.d., ! ∝ (.

Since the p.d. covers a small range, the current flowing

through the lamp is small, resulting in a very small increase in
temperature. Over this range, we can consider the resistance
of the lamp constant as the temperature can be considerd
constant.

This leads to Ohm’s Law. The current through an ohmic

-

conductor
-
~ is proportional to the p.d. applied across it, provided
that
e the temperature and
a other physical conditions
r remain
constant. This means that the I-V graph is a straight line
-

passing through the origin.

Investigating Ohm’s Law

The procedure is exactly the same as before and only repeated here for
convenience. As we are investigating Ohm’s Law, it is important that the
temperature of the wire is kept constant. We do this by only closing
the switch when a reading is being taken. Once taken, the switch should
be immediately opened.

Starting with the output of the variable d.c. voltage supply set to its
minimum value, slowly increase the value of the applied voltage.

The current through the lamp and the potential difference across the lamp
should be recorded for a range of values of the applied voltage.

A graph of current against voltage should then be plotted

Analysis of the Graph

As can be seen, the current flowing through the wire is proportional to
the applied p.d., ! ∝ (. This can be recognised as it is a straight line
passing through the origin.
grad=*
As before, the resistance at each of the 3 points shown can be
C
determined using 3 = . On inspection of the graph, it can be seen
D
that the ratio of V to I is constant, and hence, the resistance must be
constant for increasing V. [As before, look at the ratio of width to height
for the dashed boxes].
↓= gradient =
C
Comparing ! = L to the straight line, it can be seen that the gradient, m, V-1 gradient R
=

E E
is equal to ?
Lu
= L, and hence, 3 = M. Note, the resistance is the
reciprocal of the gradient only for a straight line through the origin.

Unit 2.2 Resistance – © Dr Hanbury 01/2019 17

 Unit 2, Section 2: Resistance
Alternative Circuit for I-V Characteristics
The diagram on the right, represents an alternative circuit that can be
used to obtain the I-V characteristic of a component. The variable
resistor can be used to change the total resistance of the circuit (more
on this later), and therefore, change the current flowing through the
component. This in turn, will change the p.d. across the component.

Adjust the slider on the variable resistor to set the p.d. across the
component.

Record the p.d. on the voltmeter and the current on the ammeter.
Repeat for different values of p.d.

Advantage: Simple circuit

Disadvantage: The resistance variation is small, which limits range of
p.d.’s available. The lowest p.d. available is greater than zero.

[PLEASE TURN OVER]

Unit 2.2 Resistance – © Dr Hanbury 01/2019 18

 Unit 2, Section 2: Resistance
Measuring Resistivity

1. The apparatus should be set up as shown in the diagram

2. Use a micrometer to measure the diameter of the nichrome wire at several positions along the length of the wire
and determine the mean value.
TU H
3. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the wire using the equation , = V .
4. Leaving one crocodile clip fixed at one end of the wire, the other clip should be moved along at suitable
intervals, e.g. every 10 cm/20 cm to cover the whole range of the wire.
5. Record the resistance taken from the multimeter for each length, L, of the wire.
6. Plot a graph of R (y-axis) against L (x-axis).

Analysis

RQ
Comparing 3 = with W = ?X + 7, the graph should be a straight line
.
through the origin.
R
The gradient, m, is then given by ? = .
.

The resistivity can then be determined using S = ?,

Question 9

In the space below, draw a circuit diagram that you would use to carry out the above experiment, but this time, include
an ammeter and voltmeter instead of the multimeter.

Unit 2.2 Resistance – © Dr Hanbury 01/2019 20

Resistivity
ne
1
>
-
imply 2 conductors made of same materials but conductor B has doubled the cross-sectional
area of conductor A
>
- both conductors have same pd applied across them
>
- conductor B has twice the number of free charge carriers /free elections) as its volume

doubled > drife velocity of the free elections are equal in both
is Since the mean
conductions
-

↓
doubled Area = current flowing
through everyfree electronincondu
there must be twice as much charge

↑
conductor is must be ar
Paying any cross-sectional a
doubled I currents conductor B unt time for conductor B.
doubled that flowing having 2 in
~

through conductor A
as
p d
.

stays constant I
B half the
Conductor resistance of conductor A
=* RB
RB-inversy proportional
he RA hence
to cross-sectional area

2)) . * note :
if the p . d . across of length (is V cores > Vioules of electrical
the conductor -

potential energy is converted to other forms (thermol in this cases for every
conlomb of charge that passes through length (- > this
energy is transferred
evenly within the conductor
- >
exactly half of the electrical potential energy is
Alt the

Lomba
resistance of length (be R = = &
resistance of converted to other forms
for every 1 concomb that
I be RE = = -R 2RE =
passes through half the length of the conductor
K It - > p d across the
length 2 muse be v
double the length then double the resistance
.

↓
Risproportional to the length ((RXL)
construct of proportionality known as
resistivity
One
Ra & RAL@ R & E R =
A
*
Resistivity (f) of a material at a
given temperature is given by
R =
+L > length of the
sample material

↓ A-cross-section area of sample of material

of resistanceutility) Ohm-meter (etm)
S ] unit
. :

~
cal Measuring :
resistivity
set the apparatus as this

>
- O . use a micrometer to measure the diameter of the nichrome wire at

several positions determine the

along the length of the x
wire mean

value
e then calculate the cross-sectional
, area of wire
using A: The
②leaving one crocodile dip fixed at one end of the wire ,
the other dip
should be moved along a suitable intervals leg every loanlou) to cover

the whole range of wire

% plot graph
ofRLYagainst ata
a

graph is straight through the origin

gradient
.
The gradient (m) is
given
e
by resistivity is f-mA

Power dissipation in
&

a conductor
* The conductor > how
power dissipated in the much electrical potential energy is
being converted to other
-

form permut time

-> in a time les , the total charge & that passes through the conductor &(given by C = 2 ]-
-
> followed

↓ due to

PE
the definition of potential difference that the total energy E transferred to conductor
by in a time (e)
k to equals
E = QV =
It
conductor is given P IV
=
a

4 due to R = -> V IR =
=
P z([R)
= =
[R = 1 =
* = P= - V
=

(P
Y
in
summary