PAPER PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGY

‘PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES’

Prepared by :

MUHAMMAD RISKI NUGROHO : (23020230018)

HUSNAYA WUDZINNAFI’A : (23020230023)

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTEMENT

TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL FACULTY
UNIVERSITAS ISLAM KADIRI KEDIRI
2024
 PREFACE

First of all, thanks to Allah the almighty God who has given us His bless for finishing
this paper to fulfill the assignment intro to Phonetic and Phonology with subject topic
“Phonological Processes”. The writers would like to express deep gratitude for those who have
guided in completing this paper.
This English paper contains the information about which is explains clearly to help students of
English Education department to understand the topic easily. They are differences Assimilation,
Dissimilation, and Co-articulation. Identify rules governing sound change in connected speech.
And, identify application of phonological processes in language variation.
Hopefully this paper can help students of English Education department in learning
Phonological processes in Phonetic and Phonology subject.
The writers realize that this paper is far from perfection in the arrangement or the
completeness of the content. The writers hope that suggestion and correction from MS. Dewi
Astutik, S.Pd., M.Pd. as guided teacher of this subject can be a support to complete this paper.

Kediri, March 22, 2024

Author
 TABLE OF CONTENT

COVER....................................................................................................................................i
CHAPTER I............................................................................................................................1
Introduction..............................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER II..........................................................................................................................2
Theory and Discusion...............................................................................................................2
2.1 Definition and Type of Phonological Processes.................................................................2
2.2 Distinguish among Assimilation, Dissimilation, and Co-articulation................................9
2.3 Governing sound changes in connected speech.................................................................9
2.4 Application of Phonological Processes............................................................................10
CHAPTER III……………………………………………………………………………..11
CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………..11
SUGGEST…………………………………………………………………………………..11
BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………11
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses that background of the paper, the formulation of the problem, and
purpose.
1.1 Background of Paper
Phonological processes refer to the rules that govern the pronunciation of words in a
language. These processes can involve changes to the sounds within a word, such as
assimilation, where sounds become more alike, or metathesis, where sounds are rearranged.
Phonological processes can occur in various languages, including English, and can be influenced
by factors such as the speaker’s native language, the context in which the word is used, and the
language’s phonological system.
In the context of English loanwords from France, phonological processes can involve
changes such as substitution of ‘b’ for ‘h’ or ‘z’ for ‘s’ if the marker does not start with a
consonant sound followed by a vowel sound ‘a’ or ‘o’ (Schane, 1973). The theory of distinctive
features, also proposed by Schane (1973), views phonemes as combinations of distinctive
features, which are phonetically based and used in phonological analysis. This theory is
supported by Oden (2005) and Sa’aida (2015), who emphasize the importance of having a tool to
describe every feature in the phonological system. Phonological processes can also occur in the
production of children, where they may simplify pronunciation by replacing difficult sounds with
easier ones, shortening words, or changing word structure (So & Dodd, 1995). Adults may also
exhibit phonological process deviations, which can be a sign of a phonological disorder (Selinker
& Lamendella, 1980; Wei, 2008).
In the context of language teaching, phonological processes are crucial aspects of English
phonology that undergraduates are expected to observe as role models (Chomsky & Halle,
1968). However, the study of undergraduate students of English revealed that they have only
fairly internalized the rules of English phonology, indicating the peculiarity of the English
language spoken in Nigeria (The 3rd Annual International Conferences on Language, Literature,
and Media, 2002).

1.2 Problem Formation

a. What is definition and type of phonological processes.
b. What is distinguish among Assimilation, Dissimilation, and Co-articulation.
c. What are rules governing sound changes in connected speech.
d. What about the application of phonological processes in language variation.
1.3 Purpose of the Paper
a. Knowing definition and type of phonological processes.
b. Knowing the distinguish among Assimilation, Dissimilation, and Co-articulation.
c. Knowing the rules governing sound changes in connected speech.
d. Knowing about the application of phonological processes.
 CHAPTER II
THEORY AND DISCUSISON
The chapter discussion the definition and type of phonological processes, distinguish
among Assimilation, Dissimilation, and Co-articulation, rules governing sound changes in
language variation, and application of phonological processes.
2.1 Definition and Type of Phonological Processes
Phonological processes are the ways that young children change or simplify the sounds in
words as they learn to talk. These processes are a normal part of language development and help
children produce speech sounds that are easier for them to say. For example, a child may
simplify the word “stop” to “top” by dropping the “s” sound, or replace the “th” sound in “think”
with the “f” sound, producing “fink.” These changes are temporary and typically disappear as
children get older and their speech becomes clearer. While young, children hear the speech
sounds of the language being used around them but are unable to produce all of them yet. This is
because they do not possess the ability to coordinate the tongue, lips, teeth, palate, and jaw for
clear speech. Therefore, they simplify complex words in predictable ways until they develop the
coordination necessary to articulate.
As a result, their speech does not resemble that of adults. It would be overwhelming for a
young child’s brain to attempt to speak with all of the sounds an adult can produce. To make
speaking easier, the child’s brain develops rules, known as phonological processes, to simplify
speech sounds and make words easier to say. Phonological processes are a normal part of
language development, and most children naturally outgrow them. It’s important to note that
these rules are beyond the child’s control. They do not choose to omit consonant at the end of
words or alter sounds. Their brain does it automatically, and they may not even be aware that
they’re doing it.
All children use some types of phonological processes. Let us explore the types so that
you can understand how they work. Here are some types of typical phonological processes:
1. Assimilation
Assimilation is a phonological process in which a sound becomes more similar to a
neighboring sound in a word, due to the influence of that neighboring sound. For
example, if a child says “gog” instead of “dog”. This is an example of assimilation, as the
/g/ sound become more like the following /d/ sound in the word.
Here are some examples of assimilation in children:
 Nasal assimilations: this occurs when a non-nasal consonant becomes nasal due
to the influence of a neighboring nasal consonant. For example, the word “tent”
may be pronounced as “temt” because of the influence of the nasal “m” sound.
 Labial assimilation: this occur when a non-labial consonant becomes a labial
consonant due to the influence of a neighboring labial consonant. For example,
the word “cup” may be pronounced as “pup” because of the influence of the
labial “p” sound.
  Velar assimilation: this occurs when a non-velar consonant becomes a velar
consonant due to the influence of a neighboring velar consonant. For example,
the word “dog” may be pronounced as “gog” because of the influence of the velar
“g” sound.
 Voicing assimilation: this occurs when a voiceless consonant becomes voiced
due to the influence of a neighboring voiced consonant. For example, the word
“cat” may be pronounced as “gat” because of the influence of the voiced “g”
sound.
 Devoicing assimilation: this occurs when a voiced consonant becomes voiceless
due to the influence of a neighboring voiceless consonant. For example, the word
“bed” may be pronounced as “pet” because of the influence of the voiceless “p”
sound.
2. Dissimilation
Dissimilation is a phonological process in which a child changes a sound in a word to
make it more distinct from another sound in the same word. The goal of dissimilation is
to make the word easier to say or to avoid a difficult sound sequence.
For example, a child might pronounce the word “yellow” as “yewow” to avoid the
difficult sequence of two “l” sounds. Similarly, the child might pronounce the word
“spaghetti” as “pasketti” to avoid the difficult sequence of two “s” sounds.

Dissimilation is a common phonological process in young children’s speech

development, and it typically disappears as their speech becomes more mature. Parents
and caregivers can help children overcome dissimilation by modeling correct
pronunciation and providing gentle correction when needed. There are several types of
dissimilation that can occur in children’s speech. Here are some explain:
 Regressive dissimilation: in this type of dissimilation, a sound that comes later in
the word influences the sound that comes before it. For example, a child might
pronounce the word “apple” as “appe” because the “l” sound is influenced by the
“p” sound that comes after it.
 Progressive dissimilation: in this type of dissimilation, a sound that comes earlier
in the word influences the sound that comes after it. For example, “banana” as
“banana” because the second “n” sound is influenced by the first “n” sound.
 Total dissimilation: in this type of dissimilation, a sound is completely changed or
eliminated from the word. For example, a child might pronounce the word
“spoon” as “poon” because the “s” sound is eliminated.
 Partial dissimilation: in this type of dissimilation, a sound is changed only slightly
from its original pronunciation. For example, a child might pronounce the word
“water” as “wawa” because the “t” sound is changed to a “w” sound.
3. Deletion
Deletion is a common phonological process in which a child omits or leaves out a sound
or syllable in a word. This process is a natural part of children’s speech development as
they learn to produce more complex sounds and syllables.
There are several types of deletion that can occur in children’s speech:
  Final consonant deletion: in this type of deletion, a child leaves off the final
consonant in a word. For example, the word “cat” may be pronounced as “ca.”
 Cluster reduction: in this type of deletion, a child leaves off one or more
consonants in a consonant cluster. For example, the word “stop” may be
pronounced as “top.” Cluster reduction is a phonological process in which a child
simplifies a group of consonant sounds by turning them into a single sound or a
more manageable combination of sounds, as seen in examples like “poon” for
“spoon” and “tuck” for “truck.” Typically, this process should resolve by age 4
for words without /s/ and by age 5 for words with /s/.
 Syllable deletion: in this type of deletion, a child leaves off an entire syllable in a
word. Weak syllable deletion a phonological process in which a child deletes an
unstressed syllable in a word, such as saying “nana” for “banana” or “puter” for
“computer.” Typically, this process resolves by the age of 4.
 Unstressed syllable deletion: in this type of deletion, a child leaves off an
unstressed syllable in a word. For example, the word “potato” may be pronounced
as “tato.”

4. Epenthesis
Epenthesis is a phonological process where a child instead a sound or a syllable in
between two sounds in a word. This is a common occurrence in young children who are
still developing their language skill.
For example, a child might say “buh-lue” instead of “blue” or “su-pas-ghetti” instead of
“spaghetti.” The child is inserting an extra sound in the middle of the word to make it
easier to pronounce.
Epenthesis is a normal part of language development, and most children grow out of it by
the age of four or five. However, if a child continues to use epenthesis beyond this age or
if it is accompanied by other speech difficulties, it may be a sign of a speech or language
disorder and may require professional intervention.

5. Metathesis
Metathesis is a phonological process where a child switches the order of two sounds in a
word. This is a common occurrence in young children who are still developing their
language skills.
For example, a child might say “aminal” instead of “animal.” The child is switching the
positions of the “n” and “m” sounds in the word.
Metathesis is a normal part of language development, and most children grow out of it by
the age of four of five. However, if a child continues to use metathesis beyond this age or
if it is accompanied by other speech difficulties, it may be a sign of a speech or
phonological disorder.
2.2 Distinguish among Assimilation, Dissimilation, and Co-articulation
 Assimilation is a phonological process where a sound becomes more like a neighboring
sound, either partially or completely. It includes various types such as progressive,
regressive coalescent, full, and partial assimilation, and it aims to make pronunciation
easier by adopting features of another sound in the same or next word in continuous
utterance. An example in the word “impossible” where the /n/ sound becomes /m/ due to
the influence of the following /p/ sound.
 Dissimilation is a phonological process in which one segment avoids taking on the
features of its neighboring segments. This process can occur dynamically in the form of
phonological alternation, as in Berber, or statically in the form of restriction of so-
occurrence in the lexicon, as in Arabic word roots that avoid adjacent homorganic
consonants. Dissimilation of tone features, place, and laryngeal features. In optimality
theory, dissimilation is considered to be the cumulative effect of the marked constraints.
In the autosegmental phonology model, dissimilation is interpretrd as the disconnection
of features that are local to identical features in the same tier. An example of
dissimilation can be seen in the word "comfortable," where the /t/ sound changes to /f/
due to the influence of the /m/ sound, resulting in dissimilation`.
 Coarticulation refers to the phenomenon where the pronunciation of one phoneme is
influenced by the phonemes around it within a word or utterance. It means that the
articulation of one sound overlaps or blends with the articulation of neighboring sounds.
For example, when you say the word "ten," the "t" sound is influenced by the upcoming
"e" sound, so it's pronounced slightly differently compared to when it's pronounced in
isolation. This blending of sounds is what coarticulation is all about. Another example is
in the word "spoon." The "s" sound is influenced by the following "p" sound, causing a
slight change in how the "s" is articulated.
In summary, assimilation involves sounds becoming more similar to each other,
dissimilation involves sounds becoming less similar to each other, and coarticulation involves
the blending or overlapping of sounds due to their adjacent position within a word or phrase.
2.3 Governing sound changes in connected speech
The rules governing sound changes in connected speech are often referred to as
“phonological processes” or “assimilations rules.” These rules describe how speech sounds
change or adapt when spoken in continuous, connected speech. Some common phonological
processes include:
1. Assimilation: this occurs when one sound becomes more like a neighboring sound in a
word or phrase. For example, in the phrase “in the bag,” resulting in pronunciation like
“im the bag.”
2. Elision: this involves the omission of certain sounds in connected speech. For instance, in
rapid speech, the “t” sound in “next door” might be elided, resulting in pronunciation like
“nex(d) door.”
 3. Liaison: this refers to the insertion of a sound, typically a consonant, between two words
to ease the transition between them. For example, in French, the liaison often occurs
between words ending in a consonant and words beginning with a vowel, such as in “les
enfants” (the children), where the “s” sounds is pronounced to link the two words.
4. Epenthesis: this involves the insertion of an extra sound, typically a vowel, into a word.
For example, in some dialects of English, the “r” sound is inserted between vowels in
certain words, such as “idea” pronounced as “idear.”
5. Vowel Reduction: in may languages, including English, vowels may change their quality
or become less distinct in unstressed syllables. For example, the “a” sound in “banana” is
often reduced to a schwa sound in unstressed syllables, resulting in pronunciation like
“buh-Na-nuh.”

2.4 Application of Phonological Processes

Phonological processes play a significant role in language variation, affecting how words
are pronounced across different dialects and languages. One example is the process of "T-
glottalization," where the sound /t/ is replaced with a glottal stop /ʔ/ in certain contexts. For
instance, in some dialects of English, "butter" might be pronounced as "buh-er" with a glottal
stop instead of the standard "butter" with a clear /t/ sound. This variation reflects regional or
social differences in pronunciation. Phonological processes play a crucial role in language
variation, including in Indonesian and English.
 Assimilation*: This process involves the alteration of a sound to make it more similar to
a neighboring sound. In Indonesian, assimilation is common, such as in the pronunciation
of the word "sepeda" (bicycle), where the 'd' sound may assimilate to a 't' sound when
followed by a voiceless consonant, becoming "sepetah". Similarly, in English, the word
"handbag" may be pronounced with assimilation as "ham bag" in casual speech.
 Elision*: This process involves the omission of one or more sounds in a word. In
Indonesian, elision can occur in rapid speech, for example, in the word "saya" (I/me)
where the final 'a' sound may be elided, resulting in "say". In English, elision is common,
such as in the word "probably" which may be pronounced as "probly" in casual speech.
 Metathesis*: This process involves the rearrangement of sounds in a word. In Indonesian,
metathesis is less common, but it can occur informally, such as in the word "terbalik"
(upside down) which may be pronounced as "terlbaik". In English, metathesis is seen in
informal speech, like in the word "ask", which may be pronounced as "aks".
These phonological processes contribute to the richness of language variation and are influenced
by factors such as dialect, socio-economic status, and geographical region.
 CHAPTER III
Conclusion

3.1 CONCLUSION
This paper delves into how sounds change in speech and their impact on language
variation. We'll explore assimilation, dissimilation, sound change rules, and their applications in
diverse linguistic contexts And in the phonology process section, it discusses several topics such
as assimilation, dissimilation, and coarticulation. And of course, the interconnection between
processes and their rules! By exploring how sounds change in speech and influence language
variation, we gain insights into the dynamic nature of phonology and its role in shaping linguistic
diversity.

3.2 SUGGEST
This paper discusses phonology process features, including learning such as assimilation,
dissimilation, and co-articulation. Its aim is to assist readers in literary analysis by providing a
deeper understanding of how these features contribute to language and pronunciation systems
across countries. While the information presented in this paper has been organized to the best of
the writer's ability, there is still room for improvement in terms of clarity and thoroughness. The
sources consulted for this topic are varied, drawn from various journals and books, which are
listed in the references. It is hoped that future writers will be able to build upon this foundation
and further enhance the discussion of these features.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1Irma Diani, 2Azwandi(2021) Phonological process of english and Indonesian language
(Journal of Applied Linguistics and Literatur).
Mulatsih, D. (2015). Pronunciation ability by using English song in Indonesian students of
University of Unswagati Cirebon. Journal of English
Language and Learning, 2(2), 294-299.
Hamada Shehdeh Abid Dawood, Dr. Ahmad Atawneh2(2015) Assimilation of Consonants in
English and Assimilation of the Definite Article in Arabic .American Research Journal of
English and Literature
English phonetics and phonology a pratical course.peter roach.emeritus professor of phonetics
university of reading