Effects of English-speaking lessons in virtual reality on

EFL learners’ confidence and anxiety†

Yoshiho Satake, Shinji Yamamoto and Hiroyuki Obari

With the COVID-19 outbreak impacting all aspects of education, virtual reality (VR) tools
have been considered an option for distance learning. Using VR to learn English can help
reduce the foreign language anxiety that many learners experience, as communication with an
avatar in VR reduces learners’ psychological burden when speaking English. This mixed
methods study examines the effects of fully immersive VR use on Japanese English learners’
conversation skills, their attitudes, such as anxiety and confidence toward English
conversation, and cross-cultural sensitivity. A total of 102 intermediate Japanese English
learners participated in this study (experimental group: 59; control group: 43). The results
show no significant differences in the speaking test scores between the experimental and
control groups or between the pre- and post-tests. However, a significant increase, with a
large effect size, was observed in the post-intervention questionnaire. There was no
significant difference in cross-cultural sensitivity. A cluster analysis of the corpus of the
students’ comments showed that conversing in English with their avatars in fully immersive
VR was more comfortable for them, and they experienced less anxiety and stress compared to
conversing face-to-face in English. This study supports the educational use of VR by showing
that VR English-speaking lessons may decrease students’ anxiety and increase their
confidence in speaking English.

3.1 Introduction

Since the COVID-19 pandemic, virtual reality (VR) tools have been considered suitable
options for distance learning (e.g., Mado et al., 2022). In the literature (e.g., Chen et al., 2022,
Zheng et al., 2022), it has been asserted that VR tools for language teaching allow students to
learn through communication in diverse virtual contexts. Using VR for English-language
learning can help reduce the foreign language anxiety experienced by many Japanese
English-language learners, as communication with an avatar in VR reduces learners’
psychological burden when speaking English (Melchor-Couto, 2017). However, there seems
to be a paucity of established and conclusive findings on the effects of VR English-speaking
lessons. To overcome this research gap, this study examines the effects of fully immersive
VR use on Japanese English-language learners’ conversation skills, their anxiety and
confidence toward English conversation, and cross-cultural sensitivity by analyzing their
speaking test scores and statements obtained through questionnaires.

3.2 Literature review

For successful language learning, foreign language anxiety is a factor that needs to be
addressed, as it can have serious effects on various aspects of the process. Horwitz et al.
(1986) administered a survey to 75 students who took introductory Spanish classes at an
American university; their results suggest that many students are anxious in foreign language
classes. In particular, students with high levels of anxiety said that they were afraid to speak a
foreign language. Young (1990) similarly investigated learners’ perspectives on anxiety and
speaking in a foreign language by surveying 135 university-level students and 109 high
school students who took Spanish lessons in the U.S. and found that speaking in front of the
class caused learners greater anxiety. Similar reports of foreign language anxiety have been
found among Japanese students learning English. Hojo (1996) conducted a 20-minute survey
of 199 university students in Japan. The results demonstrated that students were most afraid
of speaking English in front of other students owing to the possibility of making mistakes
when speaking English. In a recent study, Fujii (2021) surveyed 145 intermediate to upper-
intermediate English learners at two universities in Japan. The results indicate a significant コメントの追加 [A1]: 145 English learners at the
negative correlation between language anxiety and Willingness to Communicate (WTC). The intermediate to upper-intermediate proficiency level
result of the t-test indicates significant differences in WTC scores between high-anxious and
low-anxious learners. Overall, foreign language anxiety has been found to have a significant
impact on language learning, particularly in regards to speaking skills, as evidenced by
various studies conducted in different settings and cultures (e.g., Hakim, 2019, Hojo, 1996,
Horwitz et al., 1986, Young, 1990).

VR is an emerging technology for learning, particularly for language learning. Ma and

Zheng (2011) categorized immersive VR systems into three types: non-immersive, semi-
immersive, and fully immersive. Non-immersive systems are computer-based and use a
keyboard, mouse, and small screen. Semi-immersive systems use a large screen and may
have gesture recognition for natural interaction. Fully immersive systems are head-mounted
and provide a sense of full immersion. Parmaxi (2020), for example, analyzed 26 papers
published between 2015 and 2018 on the use of VR (mainly non-immersive and semi-
immersive) to teach and learn a language and found that VR improved the acquisition of
authenticity of interactions, promoted cultural learning, and reduced foreign language
anxiety. However, Parmaxi cautioned that experts must better understand VR’s offerings for
language teaching and learning before this technology is put to use. More recently, Dhimolea
et al. (2022) analyzed 32 peer-reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2020 on the use
of VR (mainly non-immersive and semi-immersive) for language learning. They found that
multiple exposures to VR are required for effective learning, that VR is effective for learning
vocabulary, and that learners’ perceptions of language learning in VR are positive.

As a specific effect, Chen et al. (2021) reported that interaction in VR promoted

learners’ English-language skills and motivation to learn. Eighty-four engineering students
were divided into two groups: Those in the experimental group participated in VR-assisted
problem-based learning (PBL), in which they viewed PBL scenarios using fully immersive
VR technology and created VR videos to solve the given problems. Students in the control
group did the same without VR. The results of the pre- and post-tests showed that vocabulary
acquisition and motivation to learn were promoted significantly more in the experimental
group than in the control group. Simultaneously, no significant difference in problem-solving
ability was observed between the two groups. In another recent study, Xie et al. (2022)
examined the effectiveness of English education using VR technology. An experiment was
conducted for 16 weeks, 3 hours per week, and a total of 48 hours with 106 students from a
Chinese school. The results showed that there is a positive correlation between VR and
immersion-based language teaching, and there is a positive correlation between immersion-
based language teaching and academic achievement. VR is also positively correlated with
learning outcomes. Overall, the findings from these studies suggest that using VR technology
can have a positive impact on learners’ English-language skills and motivation to learn.

Regarding the psychological effects of language learning in VR, Melchor-Couto (2017)

reported that activities performed in non-immersive VR contributed to decreasing
participants’ levels of foreign language anxiety. Melchor-Couto’s findings were based on 14
students who took modules of Spanish as a second language at a university in the UK, and
their Spanish was at a B1 level based on the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2018). Seven participants performed four interaction
activities in non-immersive VR, and the rest performed similar activities without VR tools.
The self-reported measures of anxiety showed that the anxiety levels of the former group
significantly decreased as the weeks progressed, whereas those of the latter group remained
unchanged. Anonymity in VR positively influenced some participants, who felt more
confident and less nervous.

Although research on the effects of VR on language learning has increased, this topic
has not yet been sufficiently researched. Few studies have examined the effects of fully コメントの追加 [A2]: While there has been a rise in
immersive VR on language learning by Japanese students whom the authors teach. The research exploring the impact of VR on language learning,
the topic remains inadequately investigated.
effects of this type of VR use on English proficiency and attitudes toward English among
Japanese learners of English remain unclear. Therefore, this study examined the effects of コメントの追加 [A3]: Only a handful of studies have
investigated the impact of fully immersive VR on language
fully immersive VR use on Japanese English learners’ conversation skills, anxiety and learning among Japanese students taught by the authors.
confidence toward English conversation, and cross-cultural sensitivity. The research
considers the following question: How does fully immersive VR use influence Japanese
learners’ conversation skills in English and their attitudes such as anxiety and confidence
toward English conversation and cross-cultural sensitivity? The authors explored the effects
of this type of VR use by analyzing pre- and post-speaking test scores and questionnaires.

3.3 Methods

3.3.1 Participants

The participants in this mixed methods research were 102 undergraduate students at a
Japanese university who had taken a course taught by the authors. The authors used
convenience sampling to recruit the participants, who were students between 18 and their
early 20s, with a male-to-female ratio of two to one. Fifty-nine were allocated to the
experimental group and 43 to the control group. The students in the experimental group, who
had applied to participate in this study and signed a consent form, participated in all tasks.
The students in the control group, who had not wished to take VR English-speaking lessons,
only took the speaking test and did not participate in other tasks.
コメントの追加 [A4]: mixed-methods
コメントの追加 [A5]: The authors employed convenience
sampling to enlist participants, who were students aged
between 18 and their early 20s. The gender distribution was
predominantly male, with a male-to-female ratio of two to
one.

3.3.2 Instructors

The instructors were six native English-speaking volunteers from Singapore and the U.S. コメントの追加 [A6]: The instructors consisted of six
They were acquainted with one of the authors and came to Japan as a missionary staff at the volunteers who were native English speakers from Singapore
and the United States.
Campus Crusade for Christ. They were amateur English teachers, but all had college degrees
or higher qualifications. They taught English lessons using fully immersive VR. Since they
did not have prior experience in teaching through VR, a one-hour training session on how to
teach through VR was provided to them by Immerse, whose VR platform for language
teaching the authors used for this study.

3.3.3 Lessons

The participants wore a VR headset (Oculus Quest 2 [n.d.], produced by Oculus and released
in 2020) to participate in English-speaking lessons in fully immersive VR. The study used the
Immerse platform†, which incorporates an avatar system to enable users to interact with the

†
Immerse. https://www.immerse.com/
content. The participants were provided with suitable lesson settings and employed avatars as
a means of communication among themselves (Immerse, n.d.). Immerse lesson plans
included a variety of locations and topics and were organized according to the levels of the
CEFR (Council of Europe, 2018). For instance, in a virtual space that emulates real-world
environments, the students engaged in activities such as attending a birthday party, ordering
food in restaurants, or practicing conversational expressions useful for sightseeing in foreign
cities. The participants were asked to take an English lesson using fully immersive VR that コメントの追加 [A7]: For instance, within a virtual space
lasted from 30 minutes to 1 hour once a week for 7 months; the number of participants per that replicates real-world environments, the students actively
participated in various activities. These activities ranged
lesson was limited to no more than eight. The participants could freely choose the instructor from attending birthday parties and ordering food in
and lesson time. restaurants to practicing conversational expressions that are
helpful for sightseeing in foreign cities.
Figure 1. A screenshot of the Immerse platform

3.3.4 Tests

To judge the participants’ English-language proficiency, they were asked to take the
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (n.d.) Speaking Assessment: Oral コメントの追加 [A8]: To assess the participants' English-
Proficiency Interview-Computer (OPIc) before the first fully immersive VR lesson and after language proficiency, they were administered the Speaking
Assessment by the American Council on the Teaching of
the last lesson. Most participants took the test in approximately 30 minutes during the Foreign Languages (ACTFL) (n.d.).
authors’ class, and those who were absent took the test at home. An analysis of variance was
used to examine the test scores.

3.3.5 Questionnaires

Before the first fully immersive VR lesson and after the last lesson, the participants were コメントの追加 [A9]: Prior to the first fully immersive
asked to complete a questionnaire so that the authors could judge how they rated their virtual reality (VR) lesson and after the final lesson,
English-language proficiency and cross-cultural sensitivity. The questionnaire had 21
multiple-choice questions and an optional comment section (for the questionnaire, see
Appendix). Twenty of the 21 questions used A2.1 to B2.1 level descriptors in the speaking
section of the CEFR-J (Tono, n.d.), which was modified from the original CEFR (Council of
Europe, 2018) for English teaching in Japan. Although the CEFR-J level classification is
more detailed than that of CEFR, it was assumed that the A2 to B2 levels are roughly the
same in CEFR and CEFR-J because A2, B1, and B2 are divided into two categories each in
both CEFR and CEFR-J (i.e., A2.1, A2.2, B1.1, B1.2, B2.1, and B2.2). Therefore, the
participants were asked to read 20 descriptors and respond by choosing from five options (“I
can,” “I can do a little,” “Neither I can nor can’t,” “I cannot do much,” and “I cannot”). The
21st question was about cross-cultural sensitivity. The participants were asked to read it and
respond by choosing from five options (“Integration,” “Adaptation,” “Minimalization,”
“Defense,” and “Denial”). Each response was converted to numerical values to analyze the
results. For questions 1 to 20, the values were 5 for “I can“, 4 for “I can do a little“, 3 for コメントの追加 [A10]: "
“Neither I can nor can’t“, 2 for “I cannot do much“, and 1 for “I cannot.” For question (21), コメントの追加 [A11]: "
the values were 5 for “Integration”; 4 for “Adaptation”; 3 for “Minimalization”; 2 for
コメントの追加 [A12]: "
“Defense”; 1 for “Denial.” The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was performed because the data
were not normally distributed. The criteria for effect size were as follows: r < 0.10 = trivial; コメントの追加 [A13]: "
0.10–0.29 = small; 0.30–0.49 = medium; and ≥ 0.50 = large, according to Cohen (1988). The
questionnaire also contained an optional comment section. The participants were asked to
write their thoughts about English-language learning, cross-cultural sensitivity, and fully
immersive VR experiences.

To understand how the participants learned English using the fully immersive VR tool,
the authors administered monthly questionnaires on how often, how much, and by which
methods they studied. The questionnaire, completed outside the classroom, included five
multiple-choice and three descriptive questions. The participants’ explanatory answers
regarding their impressions of the fully immersive VR lessons were analyzed using their
comments collected via Slack [n.d.].

3.3.6 Participants’ comments

To collect feedback from the participants, the authors and participants used Slack [n.d.], a
communication software package with features such as persistent chat rooms by topic and
private groups. A chat room was created in Slack so that participants could freely write
comments in Japanese. A corpus was then generated by collecting the participants’ comments
(1720 words from 72 comments). To examine the participants’ anxiety and confidence
toward language use and understand the main points of the participants’ comments obtained
according to the semantic relevance of high-frequency words, the corpus data were
morphologically analyzed with KH Coder, free software for quantitative text analysis
(Higuchi, 2001). Hierarchical cluster analysis was also performed, which grouped a set of
similar objects on high-frequency words that appeared five times or more. In addition to the
quantitative analysis using cluster analysis, a qualitative analysis of the meanings of high-
frequency words was conducted by checking their examples with concordance lines.

3.3.7 Procedure

The following procedure was used for this study:

(1) Pre-OPIc speaking test (30 minutes, in class)

(2) Pre-questionnaire survey on English proficiency (outside of class)
(3) English lessons using fully immersive VR (30 minutes to 1 hour, once a week for 7
months, outside of class)
(4) Questionnaires on learning conditions (once a month, outside of class)
 (5) Participants’ comments (anytime, outside of class)
(6) Post-OPIc speaking test (30 minutes, in class)
(7) Post-questionnaire survey on English proficiency (outside of class)
(8) Analysis

We conducted the analysis based on the information obtained from the OPIc speaking tests,
questionnaires, and participants’ comments. As the number of students in the experimental コメントの追加 [A14]: The analysis was conducted using
group who had participated in all tasks was very small, we used the data from those who had data obtained from the OPIc speaking tests, questionnaires,
and participants' comments.
taken both the pre- and post-OPIc speaking tests to judge the growth in their speaking ability,
as well as the data from those who had taken both the pre- and post-questionnaires to judge
their perception of growth.

3.4 Results and discussion

3.4.1 Learning conditions

A total of 42 participants took fully immersive VR English lessons. Fig. 1 shows the number
of lessons they took per month. Twelve participants took one lesson (28.6%), 12 participants
took two lessons (28.6%), 15 participants took three lessons (35.7%), and three participants
took four or more lessons (7.1%). Although they were supposed to take one lesson per week,
they did not take as many lessons as we expected.

Figure 2. The number of lessons per month.

3.4.2 Tests

Twenty-three participants in the experimental group and 16 in the control group took both
pre- and post-OPIc speaking tests, and their test results were used for the analysis. The mean
pre-test score for the experimental group was 6.2 (intermediate middle), and the mean post-
test score was 6.1 (intermediate middle), which were both roughly equivalent to the lower
CEFR B1 level. The mean pre-test score for the control group was 5.5 (intermediate low),
and the mean post-test score was 5.3 (intermediate low), which were both roughly equivalent
to the upper CEFR A2 level. At a significance level of 0.05, a two-factor analysis of variance
on the OPIc test results showed no significant differences in either the experimental or
control group factor, F (1,37) = 3.14, p = .08, partial η 2= .08; the pre- and post-test factor, F
(1,37) = .12, p = .73, partial η2 = .003; or the interaction, F (1,37) = .05, p = .83, partial η2
= .001. The results suggest that fully immersive VR English lessons did not significantly
improve participants’ ability to speak English.

3.4.3 Questionnaires

Fourteen participants in the experimental group responded to both the pre- and post-
questionnaires, and their data were used for analysis. The average score per participant on the
pre-questionnaire was 67.1 out of 105, and that of the post-questionnaire was 75.6. As shown
in Figure 1, the scores increased overall in the post-questionnaire. A significant difference
with a large effect size was observed at the level 0.05 (z = 2.86, p =.004, r =.54). Overall, the
scores significantly increased in the post-test, which suggests that fully immersive VR
English lessons significantly enhanced participants’ self-assessment of their English language
skills.

Figure 3. The average score of the questionnaires.

Pre-questionnaire Post-questionnaire

Analyzing the questions one by one, significant differences with medium or large effect
sizes were observed in nine of 21 questions between the pre- and post-questionnaires (for all
questions in the questionnaire, see Appendix). In the post-questionnaire, the results of the
Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed a significant increase in the following seven items at the
pre-intermediate CEFR A2 level.

(1) I can give simple directions from place to place, using basic expressions such as “turn
right” and “go straight” along with sequencers such as first, then, and next (z =2.45, p
 =.01, r =.46, the average pre-questionnaire score: 4.2, the average post-questionnaire
score: 4.6)
(3) I can introduce myself, including my hobbies and abilities, using a series of simple
phrases and sentences (z =2.33, p =.02, r =.44; the average pre-questionnaire score:
3.9; the average post-questionnaire score: 4.4).
(4) I can give a brief talk about familiar topics (e.g., my school and my neighborhood)
supported by visual aids such as photos, pictures, and maps, using a series of simple
phrases and sentences (z =2.97, p =.003, r =.56, the average pre-questionnaire score:
3.4, the average post-questionnaire score: 4.3).
(5) I can exchange opinions and feelings, express agreement and disagreement, and
compare things and people using simple English (z =2.43, p =.02, r =.46, the average
pre-questionnaire score: 3.4, the average post-questionnaire score: 4.1).
(6) I can interact in predictable everyday situations (e.g., a post office, a station, a shop)
using a wide range of words and expressions (z =2.33, p =.02, r =.44, the average pre-
questionnaire score: 3.3, the average post-questionnaire score: 3.8).
(7) I can make a short speech on topics directly related to my everyday life (e.g., myself,
my school, my neighborhood) with the use of visual aids such as photos, pictures, and
maps, using a series of simple words and phrases and sentences (z =2.71, p =.007, r
=.51, the average pre-questionnaire score: 3.2, the average post-questionnaire score:
3.9).
(8) I can give an opinion or explain a plan of action concisely, giving some reasons, using
a series of simple words and phrases and sentences (z =2.53, p =.01, r =.48, the
average pre-questionnaire score: 3.3, the average post-questionnaire score: 3.9).

The effect size was medium for items 1, 3, 5, 6, and 8, and large for items 4 and 7. The
results showed that the participants had higher confidence in their ability to hold basic
exchanges, such as giving directions (1), self-introduction (3), talking about familiar topics
(4), discussing opinions and feelings (5), everyday conversation (6), making a short speech
(7), and giving an opinion and explaining a plan (8).

At the intermediate CEFR B1 level, the results showed a significant increase in the
post-questionnaire for the following two questions:

(9) I can express opinions and exchange information about familiar topics (e.g., school,
hobbies, hopes for the future) using a wide range of simple English (z =2.24, p =.03, r
=.42, the average pre-questionnaire score: 3.4, the average post-questionnaire score:
3.7).
(16) I can give a reasonably smooth presentation about social situations of personal
interest, adding my own opinions, and I can take a series of follow-up questions from
the audience, responding in a way that they can understand (z =2.33, p =.02, r =.44,
the average pre-questionnaire score: 2.6, the average post-questionnaire score: 3.1).

The effect size was medium for items 9 and 16. Further, the participants had increased
confidence in their ability to speak with a wider range of vocabulary and grammar, such as
when expressing opinions and exchanging information (9) and giving a presentation and a
question-and-answer session (16).

However, no significant differences were found in most B1-level and above items or
cross-cultural sensitivity items. These results indicate that the fully immersive VR English
lessons led to students’ perceived growth in their ability to cope with tasks below the
intermediate level but not as much in their ability to cope with tasks at the intermediate level
or above. As fully immersive VR English-speaking lessons often tackle simple, concrete
tasks in various virtual spaces, the learning experience may have strengthened the students’
confidence in tackling the A2-level tasks, which focus on a simple and direct exchange of
information regarding familiar and routine matters. As some Japanese English learners have
difficulty motivating themselves to speak English, increasing their confidence in tasks one
level below the participants’ speaking level (see Tests) has a meaningful learning effect, as
supported by the students’ generally positive comments on the fully immersive VR lessons.
Examples of the participants’ comments are as follows:

The VR experience allowed me to learn to communicate in English without fear.

Participating in English lessons with an avatar is more enjoyable because I can be
more active than in face-to-face situations.

Even shy people can relax and communicate with others in VR.

These comments suggest that, for learners who are shy and fearful of speaking in English,
using an avatar in a virtual space allows them to be more relaxed and active than when
communicating face-to-face in the real world. For Japanese learners of English, who tend to
be shy and timid about speaking the language (Hojo, 1996, Fujii, 2021), fully immersive VR
English lessons using an avatar, which increases confidence in basic conversation, are an
effective option for cultivating a positive attitude toward speaking English.

3.4.4 Participants’ comments

Next, let us provide a more detailed analysis of the participants’ comments. Fig. 3 shows the
results of the cluster analysis of the participants’ comments, which appeared seven times or
more (31 word types). The bar graph below the words shows the number of times each word
has appeared. The number of clusters was set to 10, judging from the cluster merging level,
and the semantic associations implied by the clusters were analyzed by checking the
concordance lines for each word.

Figure 4. Cluster analysis of the participants’ comments.

The leftmost cluster comprises “空間 (space)” and “緊張 (nervous).” The following
examples of comments were translated from Japanese into English: For example, the English
translation of an example of a comment, where “space” and “nervous” co-occur, is as
follows:

Because it was in a virtual space, I was less nervous than in face-to-face conversation
and could have a frank conversation.

From this feedback, it can be observed that the VR environment appeared to ease the
nervousness associated with speaking English.
The second cluster from the left comprises “慣れる (get used)” and “使う (use).” The
following is an example where “get used” and “use” co-occur.

I am still getting used to cutting-edge English-language learning using VR, but I want
to get used to it and improve my English skills.

The above comment shows that the participant is aware of the need to become accustomed to
using fully immersive VR.

The third cluster comprises “体験 (experience),” “アバター (avatar),” and “良い
(good).” The following sentence exemplifies the co-occurrence of “experience” and “avatar.”

I thought it was practical because I could use my avatar to express gestures, and I
could learn English conversation while experiencing places (such as airports) in a
virtual space that I would not be able to experience in a real English conversation
class.

The comment indicated a positive evaluation of practical English learning with their avatars
in various situations in a virtual space.

The fifth cluster comprises “会話 (conversation),” “実際 (actually),” “機会

(opportunity),” and “ネイティブ (native).” The following sentence is an example of the co-
occurrence of “conversation,” “actually,” and “native.”

It was invaluable to have a daily conversation with a native speaker for more than 30
minutes, and I think that only VR can make me feel like I was standing next to her, with
our eyes and faces actually moving.

The comment shows that the student appreciated the fully immersive VR experience, where
he felt like he was speaking directly with an English instructor rather than communicating
through an avatar.

The sixth cluster comprises “参加 (participation)” and “多い (many).” The following is
an example of a comment where “participation” and “many” co-occur.

First, I realized that if there were too many participants, there would not be many
opportunities to talk.

This shows a negative evaluation of reduced speaking opportunities in cases where there are
many participants.
 The seventh cluster comprises “VR,” “思う (think),” “シチュエーション (situation),”
“レッスン(lesson),” and “話す(speak).” An example of a comment in which these five
words co-occur is as follows.

Since VR lessons are available about once a week, and each time we try to speak using
a variety of expressions in different situations, I thought it would be a good way to
practice practical English conversations.

Thus, the participant believes that it is good to be able to speak English in various situations
in fully immersive VR lessons.

The eighth cluster comprises “家 (home),” “英会話 (English conversation),” and “受け
る (take).” The following is an example where “home” and “English conversation” co-occur.

I think it is an easy way to learn English conversation from the comfort of my home,
making it easy to continue learning.

Evidently, the participants positively evaluated the fact that they could take English lessons at
home.

The ninth cluster comprises “学習 (learning),” “英語 (English),” and “楽しい (fun).”
The following sentence is an example where these three words co-occur:

It was very fun and meaningful because I was able to engage in English-language
learning in various places through the VR space.

The above comment is a positive assessment of having fun learning English in fully
immersive VR.

For the fourth cluster (“出来る (can)” and “難しい (difficult)”) and the tenth cluster
(“先生 (instructor),” “感じる (feel),” “時間 (time),” “自分 (I),” and “勉強 (study)”), the
authors analyzed the concordance lines of each and found that the semantic connection was
weak.

The above results from the cluster analysis of the participants’ comments can be
summarized as follows: Participants found it enjoyable and useful to take practical English-
speaking lessons at home using their avatars in various situations in fully immersive VR, as
they were less nervous about speaking in English. While the authors are aware of the
limitations of learner self-reporting, such as inaccurate reflections of their experiences
(Bailey, 1991), we could conclude that the participants had very positive opinions about
English-speaking lessons in fully immersive VR, which consequently helped reduce their
nervousness, that is, their foreign language anxiety. Although the participants' learning time
was short (see Learning conditions), the fully immersive VR English lessons effectively
alleviated their foreign language anxiety. Thus, the participants enjoyed English-speaking
lessons in fully immersive VR, which helped Japanese English as a foreign language (EFL)
learners reduce their foreign language anxiety in a short period; however, participants may
need help adjusting to fully immersive VR so that the number of participants per lesson can
be reduced to allow each of them to speak enough.

3.4 Conclusions

This study examined the effects of fully immersive VR use on Japanese English learners’
conversational skills, attitudes such as anxiety and confidence toward English conversation,
and cross-cultural sensitivity. The results show that, although fully immersive VR English
lessons did not significantly increase participants’ speaking ability in English, they
significantly enhanced their self-assessment of their English language skills in tackling
intermediate-low-level tasks, which were one level below their speaking level. Participants’
feedback shows that they enjoyed English-speaking lessons in fully immersive VR, which
helped them reduce their foreign language anxiety.

This study suggests the potential for the educational use of immersive VR by showing
that fully immersive VR English-speaking lessons held in this environment effectively reduce
learners’ foreign language anxiety and increase their confidence in speaking English, which
tends to be lacking among Japanese English learners. Participants who participated until the
end of the program benefited from the confidence-building effect, while the majority stopped
actively participating midway. We thus suggest a deeper exploration of how learners can
maintain their motivation in language learning.

We demonstrated the specific effects of using a fully immersive VR tool for English
conversation learning. We provided qualitative and quantitative evidence to support the
inclusion of fully immersive VR tools as an option for English education. However, the
limitations of this study are that the effect of fully immersive VR English-language learning
on learners’ English proficiency was not clarified, and that learner self-reporting could be
inaccurate reflections of their experiences (Bailey, 1991). The participants didn’t take as
many lessons as they were supposed to, which could have been why a change was not
observed in their proficiency. Our future research will explore how fully immersive VR
English-speaking lessons can contribute to learners’ ability and confidence to handle tasks at
the intermediate level and above. When considering future research on teaching EFL with
VR, it is important to address several factors. These include limitations such as sample size
and diversity, duration and intensity of the intervention, technological constraints, and long-
term effects. By acknowledging and addressing these aspects, the research can provide more
robust and meaningful insights.

Acknowledgments

This paper is based on presentations and proceedings at the 15th and 16th Annual
International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies (ICERI2022 and
2023), and it was financially supported by the College of Economics, Aoyama Gakuin
University. コメントの追加 [A15]: This paper draws upon
presentations and proceedings from the 15th and 16th
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Appendix: Questionnaires (CEFT-J [Tono, n.d.] partially used)

(1) I can give simple directions from place to place using basic expressions such as “turn
right” and “go straight” along with sequencers such as first, then, and next.
• I can.
• I can do a little.
• Neither I can nor can’t.
• I cannot do much.
• I cannot.
Note: The choices are the same for (1) to (20).
(2) I can get across basic information and exchange simple opinions using pictures or
objects to help me.
(3) I can introduce myself, including my hobbies and abilities, using a series of simple
phrases and sentences.
(4) I can give a brief talk about familiar topics (e.g., my school and my neighborhood)
supported by visual aids such as photos, pictures, and maps, using a series of simple
phrases and sentences.
(5) I can exchange opinions and feelings, express agreement and disagreement, and
compare things and people using simple English.
(6) I can interact in predictable everyday situations (e.g., a post office, a station, a shop)
using a wide range of words and expressions.
(7) I can make a short speech on topics directly related to my everyday life (e.g., myself,
my school, my neighborhood) with the use of visual aids such as photos, pictures, and
maps, using a series of simple words and phrases and sentences.
(8) I can give an opinion or explain a plan of action concisely, giving some reasons, using
a series of simple words, and phrases, and sentences.
(9) I can express opinions and exchange information about familiar topics (e.g., school,
hobbies, hopes for the future), using a wide range of simple English.
(10) I can maintain a social conversation about concrete topics of personal interest using a
wide range of simple English.
(11) I can talk in some detail about my experiences, hopes, and dreams, expanding on what
I say by joining together words, phrases, and expressions I can readily use to make
longer contributions.
(12) I can talk about familiar topics and other topics of personal interest without causing
confusion to the listeners, provided I can prepare my ideas in advance and use brief
notes to help me.
(13) I can explain in detail and with confidence a problem which has arisen in places such
as hospitals or city halls. I can get the right treatment by providing relevant, detailed
information.
(14) I can explain with confidence a problem which has arisen in familiar places such as a
station or a shop (e.g., purchasing the wrong ticket) and obtain the right product or
service by requesting politely and expressing gratitude (assuming that the provider of
the service is cooperative).
(15) I can give an outline or list the main points of a short story or a short newspaper
article with some fluency, adding my own feelings and ideas.
(16) I can give a reasonably smooth presentation about social situations of personal
interest, adding my own opinions, and I can take a series of follow-up questions from
the audience, responding in a way that they can understand.
(17) I can explain in detail and with confidence a problem which has arisen in places such
as hospitals or city halls. I can get the right treatment by providing relevant, detailed
information. I can discuss the main points of news stories I have read about in the
newspapers/ on the Internet or watched on TV, provided the topic is reasonably
familiar to me.
(18) I can discuss abstract topics, provided they are within my terms of knowledge, my
interests, and my experience, although I sometimes cannot contribute to discussions
between native speakers.
(19) I can give a prepared presentation with reasonable fluency, stating reasons for
agreement or disagreement or alternative proposals, and can answer a series of
questions.
(20) I can develop an argument clearly in a debate by providing evidence, provided the
topic is of personal interest.
(21) A question about cross-cultural sensitivity. Please select one of your current positions
with respect to other cultures.
• Integration: An attitude of trying to assimilate into other cultures beyond their
own worldview.
• Adaptation: Understanding the worldviews of their own culture and other cultures,
interacting well with people from different cultures, and viewing things from a
cross-cultural perspective.
• Minimalization: An attitude of the need to experience and understand other
cultures.
• Defense: Not negative but critical of other cultures and an attitude of thinking that
their own culture is the best.
• Denial: An attitude of not being interested in cultural differences, not trying to
understand other cultures, and thinking that one’s own culture is best.

Please write your thoughts on English-language learning, cross-cultural sensitivity, and VR

experience.