CHAPTER 1 Chemistry – it is the study of matter, its
composition, structure, properties, the changes
Lesson 1: Connecting Chemistry to our
World
• The importance of chemistry to daily life may
be further observed with the role of
chemistry to society.
• Chemistry has helped advance human
civilization
 Research in chemistry enhance crop
 Water-treatment processes
 Life-saving pharmaceuticals
 Synthetic plastic and fibers
 Production of shelter and clothing
• Chemists are scientist trained to apply
chemistry principles in various fields of work.
Careers using chemistry
• Agriculturist
• Chemistry teacher
• Dietician
• Food technologist
• Materials engineer
• Meteorologist
• Pharmacist
Lesson 2: History of Chemistry
Science
• Comes from the Latin word scientia
meaning knowledge
• It refers to the organized, systematized, and
logical body of knowledge that uses
observation and experimentation to describe
and explain natural phenomena
Technology
• comes from the Greek word “techno” for art
and skill
• another Greek origin is technologia
meaning systematic treatment
• it is the art of applying science
it undergoes, and the energy that accompanies
these changes
Development of Modern Chemistry
• Prehistoric
 used fire in cooking of food
 made glass, dyes, perfumes, metallurgy
made pottery, bricks and wine
• 400 BC
 beginning of chemistry as science
 Aristotle proposed the four fundamental
elements
1. Earth
2. Fire
3. Air
4. Water
• First Century
 Beginning of alchemy in China
 First book of chemistry written in Egypt
 Combination of art of Egyptians and
Greeks
Gold – first used metal in the late 400 BC
Alchemy – the transformation of one substance
into another substance
Two goals of alchemists:
1. To change transmute metals
2. Increase the human life span
The Skeptical Chemist – first textbook of
chemistry was written
• 1st Century – probably the beginning of
alchemy in China to reach Europe through
Spain
• 16th and 17th century
 Chemistry applied in medicine
 Study of gases
 Summary of alchemist contribution to
science
  Summary of alchemist contribution to
science
 Quantitative experiments
 Wanted to discover and elixir of life
(eternal life)
Robert Boyle – determined the relationship of
volume and pressure
Antoine Lavoisier – Father of Modern
Chemistry
Carl Scheele – discovered oxygen (1772-1774)
Phlogiston Theory – substance that produce
combustion
• 18th Century – beginning of modern
chemistry
• 19th and 20th Century
 Atomic theory proposed by John Dalton
 Theories of the nature of matter
 Discovery of new elements and
systematization
 Arrangement of the elements in the
periodic table
Lesson 3: What is Chemistry?
Organic Chemistry
• The study of carbon-based compounds.
• This specific type of chemistry is
concerned with elements containing
carbon.
Inorganic Chemistry – this branch of chemistry
deals with substances not containing carbon
and that are not organic.
Biochemistry
• Study of chemistry of living systems
• Is a science that is concerned with the
composition and changes in the
formation of living species.
Physical Chemistry
• The study of the mechanism, rates, and
energetic of chemical reactions.
• This type of chemistry deals with the
discovery and description of the behavior of
chemical substances.
Analytical Chemistry – this kind of chemistry
deals mostly with the composition of
substances.
CHAPTER 2
Lesson 1: What is Matter?
Matter – is anything that takes up space and
has mass.
Examples of Matter:
• Metal
• Air
• Water
• Paper
• Earth
• Sun
• Plants
• Rocks
• Honey
Examples of not Matter:
• Heat – it is an energy moving from high
temperature to lower temperature
• Sound – vibration of molecules in the air.
✓ Matter is made of small particles called
atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller
particles called subatomic particles.
✓ The matter in the sun and the matter high in
the air is called the ionosphere is made of
ions.
✓ Ions are pieces of atoms, or atoms with an
extra piece.
 Forms of Matter Example:
- Melting butter
❖ Solid - Boiling water
• Keeps their shape - Breaking a glass
• Do not move a lot when pushed - Evaporation of alcohol

❖ Liquid Chemical Change

• Take the shape of their containers • It results in the disappearance of substance
• Move easily when pushed and formation of new one
• Refers to the ability of a substance to
❖ Gas undergo changes to transform into a
• Also take the shape of their containers different substance.
• Move very easily when pushed
Example:
❖ Plasma - Baking a cake
• Like gas, but the atoms are broken, so it - Dissolving antacid in water
has electric charge - Rusting of a nail
• Sun is made of plasma
Extrinsic Property
❖ Bose-Einstein Condensate • Is a property that depends on the amount or
• A condensate is a solid where all atoms quantity of the material
make a super atom because of • Also known as the Extensive Physical
something called quantum mechanics Property
• Do not happen in nature, but scientists
can make them in big freezers. Example:
- Length
Changing States of Matter - Width
- Area
• Solid to liquid is melting. - Mass
- Height
• Liquid to solid is freezing. - Weight
• Liquid to gas is evaporation.
Intrinsic Property
• Gas to liquid is condensation.
• Is a property that depends on the kind or
• Solid to gas is sublimation. quality of the material
• Gas to solid is deposition. • Also known as the Intensive Physical
Property

Lesson 2: Properties of Matter Example:

- Density
Physical Change - Texture
• properties of matter do not change at all - Malleability
• is a characteristic that can be observed and - Odor
measured without changing the identity and - Taste
composition of the substance. - Hardness
 Classification of Matter
Physical separation – include filtering,
evaporating, distilling, decanting, crystallizing.
Chemical separation – include heating to
decompose a substance and replacement of
one element out of a substance by another,
more active substance.
Standard Notation to Scientific Notation
If the zeroes are in the left side, the exponent
is negative, therefore we will move to right.
0.0069
0.0069
The moves we made after moving the decimal
point to whole number is our exponent.
6.9 × 10−3

➢ Substance – matter with constant
compositions.
o Element – substance made up of only
one type of atom
o Compound – two or more elements that
are chemically combined.
If the zeroes are in the right side, the exponent
is positive, therefore we will move to left.
6900
6900
The moves we made after moving the decimal
point to the first whole number is our exponent.

➢ Mixture – matter with variable composition. 6.9 × 103

o Homogenous Mixtures – also called
solution. Mixtures that are made up of
only one phase. Chapter 4
o Heterogenous Mixture – mixtures that Boyle’s Law
are made up of more than one phase.
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Chapter 3
Charles’ Law
Scientific Notation to Standard Notation
𝑉1 𝑉2
If the exponent is positive, move depending on =
the exponent to the right. 𝑇2 𝑇2
1.43 × 104
1.43 0 0 14300 Gay-Lussac’s Law

𝑃1 𝑃2
If the exponent is negative, move depending on =
the exponent to the left.
𝑇1 𝑇2
1.43 × 10−4
0001.43 Notes:
Then add zero after moving the decimal point. K = ℃ + 273
0.000143
CHAPTER 5: ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER
Atom – the smallest particle of matter
Theories
• Democritus (300 BC)
o Atom the indivisible particle
o Atomos means "that which cannot be
further broken down into smaller pieces".
• John Dalton (1800)
o The Solid Sphere Model
o Atoms are seen as solid, indestructible
spheres (like billiard balls)
• JJ Thompson (1850)
o The Raisin Bun Model or the Chocolate
Chip Cookie Model
o Atoms are solid spheres made-up of a
solid positive mass with tiny negative
particles embedded in the positive core.
• Rutherford (1905)
o The Planetary Model Famous Gold Leaf
Experiment
o proves that the nucleus is positive and
the electrons are outside the nucleus
• Neils Bohr
o Bohr-Rutherford c. 1920
o Electrons in definite energy levels around
the nucleus
o Used atomic spectra to prove that
electrons are placed in definite orbitals
around the nucleus.
• Modern Theory
o Many Scientists Contributed. Some of
the more famous are: Schrodinger,
Einstein, Luis De Broglie, Max Planck,
Frank Hertz, Maxwell and Fermi
o Quantum Mechanical Model or Electron
Cloud Model
o The analogy here is that of a "beehive"
where the bees are the electrons moving
around the nucleus in a "cloud"
Relative mass – means that is the electron has
a mass of 1 unit, the proton and neutron will
have a mass 2000 times that of the electron.
• The atomic number tells us the number of
electrons and the number of protons.
o Atomic Number = Number of
electrons = Number of Protons.
• The atomic mass tells the total number of
particles in the nucleus.
o Atomic Mass = # of protons + number
of neutrons
Parts of an Atom
1. Nucleus
• the central part of an atom.
• composed of protons and neutrons.
• contains most of an atom's mass.
2. Subatomic Particles
1. Proton
o positively charge
o found within an atomic nucleus.
o discovered by Eugene Goldstein
2. Electron
o negatively charge
o discovered by Joseph John Thomson
3. Neutron
o no charge/uncharged particle.
o found within an atomic nucleus.
o discovered by Sir James Chadwick
3. Shell
• an orbit that contains electrons traveling at
the same average distance from the nucleus
• like a space or cloud around the nucleus
Isotopes – atoms of the same element that
have different mass (amu)
Angstrom – a common unit for describing the
sizes of atoms.
 CHAPTER 6: ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE CHAPTER 7: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND
AND PROPERTIES ITS USE

Electron configuration Periodic Table

• is the arrangement of electrons of an atom • An arrangement of elements by increasing
• electrons are able to move from one orbital atomic number
to another by emission or absorption of a • its invention is generally credited to Russian
chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869
quantum of energy
• The current standard table contains 117
• a wave function for an electron in an atom is
elements as of July 2009 (elements 1–116
called an atomic orbital. and element 118).
Atomic Size – the region of space occupied by
an atom's electrons Groups and Periods
• Groups are the vertical columns that include
Atomic Mass elements with similar chemical and physical
• is the mass of a specific isotope properties.
• Periods are the horizontal rows.
• the total mass of protons, neutrons and
electrons in a single atom
Element Categories in the Periodic Table
Atomic Number
• Metals
• (also known as the proton number) is the
number of protons found in the nucleus of an o Alkali Metals
atom o Alkaline Earth Metals
o Inner transition elements
• It is conventionally represented by the
 Lanthanides
symbol Z.
 Actinides
o Transition elements
Ionization Energy o Other metals
• the energy required to remove the outermost
electron from a gaseous atom.
• Metalloids
• If the ionization energy is high, that means it
takes a lot of energy to remove the
outermost electron and vice versa • Nonmetals
o Halogens
Electronegativity o Noble gases
• symbol χ (the Greek letter chi), the tendency o Other nonmetals
of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.
• The higher the associated electronegativity ❖ GROUP 1A
number, the more an element or compound ▪ Known as Alkali Metals
attracts electrons towards it. ▪ Very reactive
• First proposed by Linus Pauling in 1932 ▪ Never found free in nature
▪ React readily with water
Quarks
• elementary particle and a fundamental ❖ GROUP 2A
constituent of matter. ▪ Known as Alkaline earth elements
• combine to form composite particles called ▪ All are metals
hadrons ▪ Occur only in compounds
• Due to a phenomenon, color confinement, ▪ React with oxygen in the general formula
quarks are never found in isolation EO
❖ GROUP 3A
▪ Metalloids
▪ Includes Aluminum (the most abundant
metal in the earth)
▪ Forms oxygen compounds with a X2O3
formula
❖ GROUP 4A
▪ Includes metals and nonmetals
▪ Go from nonmetals at the top of the
column to metals at the bottom
▪ All oxygen form compounds with a XO2
formula
❖ GROUP 5A
▪ All elements form an oxygen or sulfur
compound with E2O3 or E2S3 formulas
❖ GROUP 6A
▪ Includes oxygen, one of the most
abundant elements.
▪ Generally, oxygen compound formulas
within this group are EO2 and EO3
❖ GROUP 7A
▪ Elements combine violently with alkali
metals to form salts
▪ Called halogens, which mean "salt
forming"
▪ Are all highly reactive
❖ GROUP 8A
▪ Least reactive group
▪ All elements are gases
▪ Not very abundant on earth
▪ Given the name noble gas because they
are not very reactive
CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical Bonding
• is an interaction between atoms or
molecules and allows the formation of
chemical compounds
• is the attraction caused by the
electromagnetic force between opposing
charges
Valence Bond Theory
• In 1927, this theory states that a chemical
bond forms when two valence electrons
work to hold two nuclei together
• Linus Pauling (1931) published one of the
most important papers in the history of
chemistry: "On the Nature of the Chemical
Bond". In this paper, he presented six rules
for the shared electron bond.
Two Main Types of Chemical Bonding
1. Ionic Bonding
• electrons are completely transferred from
one atom to another.
• In the process of either losing or gaining
negatively charged electrons, the reacting
atoms form ions.
2. Covalent Bonding
• The second major type of atomic bonding
occurs when two (or more) elements share
electrons.
• most commonly occurs when two nonmetals
bond together.
• both atoms share the stability of a full
valence shell.
Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonding
a) Nonpolar Bonding – electrons are equally
shared by the two atoms of the same
element
b) Polar Bonding
• is formed when electrons are unequally
shared between two atoms.
• occurs because one atom has a stronger
affinity for electrons than the other
Covalent Bonding Between Hydrogen
Atoms
• covalent molecules exist as true molecules.
• no full ionic charges are formed.
• covalent molecules are not strongly attracted
to one another.
• covalent molecules move about freely.
Multiple Bonds
• For every pair of electrons shared between
two atoms, a single covalent bond is formed.
• Some atoms can share multiple pairs of
electrons, forming multiple covalent bonds.
Lewis Dot Structures
• are a short hand to represent the valence
electrons of an atom.
• structures are written as the element symbol
surrounded by dots that represent the
valence electrons.
• can be used to show bonding between
atoms.
• bonding electrons are placed between the
atoms and represented by a pair of dots or a
dash
CHAPTER 9: INTRODUCTION OF ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
• Most notable experiment for atoms was
Ernest Rutherford's famous 1911 alpha-
ray scattering experiment, which established
that:
o All mass of an atom is contained within
nucleus which carries positive charge
that identifies the element, and is known
as the atomic number
o Almost all of the volume of an atom
consists of empty space in which
electrons reside.
o It is common to describe the volume of
space in which the electrons of an atom
have a significant probability of being
found as the electron cloud.
o The radius of an atom must be defined
arbitrarily, in which the electron can be
found with 95% probability. Atomic radii
are typically 30-300 pm.
Elements
• To date, about 115 different elements have
been discovered
• Nucleus composed of protons and neutrons
• The mass of a proton or a neutron is about
1836 times greater than the mass of an
electron.
• Protons and neutrons constitute the bulk of
the mass of atoms.
• the elucidation of the atom's structure is one
of the greatest detective stories in the history
of science.
Element’s Symbol o The metal loses electrons to become
• In most cases, the symbols for the elements cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts
are derived directly from each element’s those electrons to become anion.
names such as: o require an electron donor (metal), and an
o C = Carbon electron acceptor (nonmetal).
o U = Uranium o more than 1 electron can be donated or
o Ca = Calcium received to satisfy the octet rule.
o Po = Polonium o charges on the anion and cation
correspond to the number of electrons
• Elements have also been named for their donated or received.
properties such as o the net charge of the compound must be
o Radium (Ra) for its radioactivity zero.

• for the native country of the scientist(s) who ▪ Cations - Positive Charged Ions
discovered them (Lose)
o Polonium (Po) = Poland ▪ Anions - Negative Charged Ions
o curium (Cm) = Curies (Gain

• for gods and goddesses o Ionic bonds are important because they
o selenium (Se)= Greek goddess of the allow the synthesis of specific organic
moon, Selene. compounds.

• Some of the symbols used for elements are ➢ Covalent bonding

derived from historical names that are no
longer in use; only the symbols remain to
indicate their origin.
o Fe for iron = Latin Ferrum
o Na for sodium = Latin Natrium
o W for tungsten = German Wolfram
➢ All isotopes of an element have the same
number of protons and electrons.
o the sharing of electrons to form electron
pairs between atoms known as shared
pairs or bonding pairs.
o Two types of covalent bonding
▪ Non-polar covalent bond is a bond
formed when a shared pair of
electrons are shared equally.
▪ Polar covalent bond is a bond
formed when a shared pair of
electrons are shared unequally

➢ The isotopes of an element differ only in their
atomic mass.
➢ An isotope of any element can be uniquely
represented as A/Z X where X is the atomic
symbol of the element.
o Covalent bonds are especially important
because it allows molecules to share
electrons with other molecules, creating
long chains of compounds.

Chemical Bonding
➢ Ionic Bonding
o The complete transfer of valence
electrons between atoms.
 CHAPTER 10: SATURATED
HYDROCARBONS
Organic Chemistry – is the study of carbon
containing compounds.
John Jacob Berzelius
▪ Swedish doctor, chemist, and pharmacist
▪ Coined the term organic in 1807
▪ credited with discovering the chemical
elements cerium and selenium
Friedrich Wohler
▪ 27-year-old German physician
▪ Known as the Father of Organic Chemistry
▪ synthesized the organic molecule urea from
inorganic starting materials
Three Allotropic of Elemental Carbon:
1. Graphite
2. Diamond
3. Buckminsterfullerene
Why are there so many carbon containing
compounds?
1. Carbon can form stable, covalent bonds with
other carbon atoms
2. Carbon can form stable bonds with other
elements.
3. Carbon can form double and triple bonds
with other carbon atoms
4. Carbon can bond with itself either as straight
chains or cyclic compounds with branching
possible in either case.
➢ Isomers – two different organic compounds
can also have the same number of carbon
atoms.
Contrasts Between Organic and Inorganic
Molecules
▪ Carbon bonds are almost always covalent.
Covalent compounds are often referred to as
molecules.
▪ Many inorganic compounds are ionic
compounds.
Ionic Bonds
▪ result from the transfer of atoms and not
sharing
▪ electrostatic
▪ result with formation of cations and anions.
▪ often dissolve in water to give electrolytic
solutions
Organic Compound
▪ is a type of chemical compound that contains
carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms.
▪ can be generally classified as hydrocarbon
and substituted hydrocarbon.
Hydrocarbons
▪ Compounds that only contains carbon and
hydrogen atoms.
o Saturated – all carbon and carbon
bonds are single bonds.
o Unsaturated – one or more double or
triple carbon-carbon
▪ Hydrocarbon is subdivided into Aliphatic
(Greek aleiphat fat”) and Aromatic
o Aliphatic Hydrocarbon can be
divided into alkanes, alkenes, and
alkynes
o Alkanes are aliphatic hydrocarbons
with only single covalent bonds.
Ex: Ethane c2h6
o Alkenes are a hydrocarbon that
contain at least one c-c double bond
Ex: Ethene c2h4
o Alkynes are hydrocarbon that
contain C-C triple bond.
Ex: Ethyne c2h2
o Aromatic Compounds are
unsaturated hydrocarbons and
contain a benzene ring.
➢ Functional group – is an atom on group of
atoms arranged in a particular way that is
primarily responsible for the chemical and
physical properties of that molecule.
 Ex: Alkane, Alkene, Alkyne, Aromatic, Alkyl
Halide, Alcohol, Ether, Aldehyde or Ketone,
Carboxylic acids, Carboxylic acid
derivatives, Amines
Alkanes
▪ are saturated hydrocarbons.
▪ contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms
bonded by single bonds only.
▪ The general formula for an Alkane is
CnH2n+2. In this formula, n, is the number
of carbon atoms in the molecule.
Molecular Formula – is an actual ratio of atoms
to one another in a molecule
Structural Formula – represents a structural
and emphasizes the bond connection between
atoms
Condensed Formula – is a simplification of the
structural formula.
Line Formula – is a simplified representation of
a structural formula in which many of the C-H
bonds are not shown.
Hydrocarbon Carbon Bonding
Characteristics
▪ Carbon always forms 4 bonds with no lone
pair electrons on the carbon atom.
▪ Single bonded carbon atoms have bond
angles of 109.5o.
▪ Alkanes are composed of carbon atoms that
have tetrahedral geometry.
▪ Any compound with carbon having four
single bonds will have a tetrahedral shape
Hydrocarbon physical characteristics
▪ Hydrocarbons are nonpolar.
▪ immiscible with water.
▪ low melting points and boiling points.
▪ Compounds that differ in the number of -
CH2- groups inserted in the carbon chain
form a family group called a homologous
series. Members of this family are called
homologs.
▪ The first four alkanes are gases at room
temp.
Alkyl Group
▪ formed by removing one hydrogen from the
alkane chain.
▪ The removal of this hydrogen results in a
stem change from -ane to -yl to
▪ can be represented by "R" in chemical
structures.
▪ Carbon atoms are classified by the number
of other carbon atoms bonded to it.
o A primary carbon (1o) is bonded to
one carbon.
o A secondary carbon (2o) is bonded
to two carbons.
o A tertiary carbon (3o) is bonded to
three carbons.
o A quaternary carbon (4o) is bonded
to four carbons.
Nomenclature Halogenation
▪ is a substitution reaction.
▪ A chemical name that has three parts in the
▪ Substitution reactions involve replacement
IUPAC system.
of an atom with another atom or group of
o Prefix - gives location
atoms.
o Parent, roots, stem - tells how many
▪ In halogenation, hydrogens in the
carbons
hydrocarbon are substituted with a halogen
o Suffix - identifies the functional group
(Cl or Br).
▪ The product of a halogenation is an alkyl
Constitutional isomers
halide (RX) and hydrogen halide
▪ Isomers are compounds with identical
molecular formulas but differ in the atomic
arrangements.
▪ Constitutional isomers are molecules
having the same molecular formula but
different arrangement of atoms.
▪ Geometric isomers are molecules which
have the same molecular formula but
differing spatial arrangement of atoms due to
absence of free rotation.

o There are 2 butane, C4H10, isomers.

o There are 3 pentane, C5H12, isomers.
o There are 4 hexane, C6H14, isomers.
o There are 9 heptane, C7H16, isomers.
o There are 18 octane, C8H18, isomers.
o There are 35 nonane, C9H20, isomers.
o There are 75 decane, C10H22, isomers.

Cycloalkanes
▪ The cycloalkanes have the general formula
of CnH2n.
▪ Geometric isomers are a type of
stereoisomer.
▪ The term "cis" is derived from Latin and
means "on the same side."
▪ The term "trans" is also derived from Latin
and means "across from."
▪ Cycloalkanes can exist in two
conformations: chair (energy-friendly) and
boat (unstable). - atoms
▪ Axial hydrogens are crowded, and chair
forms favor larger substituents to minimize
crowding.
▪ Boat conformations are less stable due to
unstaggered hydrogen atoms.