A CRITICAL COMPARISON BETWEEN

AS/NZS 2312 AND ISO 12944 STANDARDS

FOR COATING SELECTION
R A Francis
Connell Wagner, South Melbourne, Australia

SUMMARY: In Australia and New Zealand, AS/NZS 2312 has, for many years, covered the factors
to be considered in selection and specification of protective coatings, as well providing much useful
information for others in the industry. More recently, ISO 12944 has been released, covering similar
ground. This paper covers the content of the two standards, their similarities and differences, both in
content and how they are used. Both standards use atmospheric corrosivity as the starting point, and
select coating systems based on the environment and required durability. However, there are many
differences, including the types of coatings recommended, the way they are presented, the durability
of the systems, as well as much of the associated information on specifications, and surface
preparation. This paper will discuss the content of the two standards and provide some guidance to
those who may have to deal with either or both in their coatings work.

Keywords: AS/NZS 2312, ISO 12944, Coatings, Selection, Specification, Steel.

1. INTRODUCTION
In Australia and New Zealand, AS/NZS 2312 (Guide to the protection of structural steel against atmospheric corrosion
by the use of protective coatings) and its predecessors have covered the factors to be considered in selection and
specification of protective coatings, as well providing much useful information for the industry, since 1967. In 1988, the
International Standard ISO 12944 (Paints and varnishes – Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint
systems) was released, covering corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems. This has been
adopted by many European countries as their national standard for selection of paint coatings. Australia has a policy to
consider adopting ISO standards where possible, and users need to be aware of the content and implications of adopting
or rejecting ISO standards. Furthermore, with businesses becoming increasingly global, the ISO standard provides an
international standard for selection of coatings for corrosion professionals world-wide. It is important that those
involved in coating selection in this part of the world are aware of the content of the two standards.
Both standards use atmospheric corrosivity as the starting point, and select coating systems based on the environment
and required durability. However, there are many differences, including the types of coatings recommended, the way
they are presented, the durability of the systems, as well as much of the associated information on specifications, and
surface preparation. This paper will discuss the content of the two standards and provide some guidance to those who
may have to deal with either or both in their coatings work. It discusses the most recent versions of the standards at the
time of writing; the 2002 version of AS/NZS 2312 (with Amendment No 1 from 2004) and the 1998 version of
ISO 12944, other than Part 5 which was updated in 2007.

2. CONTENT OF THE STANDARDS

Both standards have similar objectives. According to the Preface of AS/NZS 2312, its objective is:
“to provide guidance for architects, engineers, builders, the surface coatings industry and users of protective
services in general, on coating systems for the protection of steelwork against corrosion.”
The Introduction to ISO 12944 notes:
“In order to ensure effective corrosion protection of steel structures, it is necessary for owners of such
structures, planners, consultants, companies carrying out corrosion protection work, inspectors of protective
coatings and manufacturer’s of coating materials to have at their disposal state-of-the-art information in concise
form on corrosion protection by paint systems. … This International Standard – ISO 12944 – is intended to
give this information in the form of a series of instructions.”

R A Francis, ‘A Critical Comparison Between AS/NZS 2312 And ISO 12944

Standards For Coating Selection’, ACA Annual Conference, November 2008,
Wellington, NZ, Paper 076. (ACA Best Review Paper Award 2009) Corrosion and Prevention 2008 Paper #076 Page 1
ISO 12944 comes in eight separate documents, each of which is purchased separately, while AS/NZS 2312 is a single
document. The separate sections of ISO 12944 are referred to as ‘Parts’, while the chapters of AS/NZS 2312 are
referred to as ‘Sections’. Table 1 lists the sections in AS/NZS 2312, and corresponding part in ISO 12944, where
applicable. Generally, the two standards cover similar material, although there are significant differences. Many of these
differences are discussed below. A major difference between the two is that AS/NZS 2312 covers metallic coatings,
such as galvanizing and metal spray while these are covered in a completely separate standard within ISO. Comparison
between the Australasian and ISO standards regarding durability and other aspects of metal coatings is outside the scope
of this paper.

Table 1: Sections in AS/NZS 2312 and corresponding part in ISO 12944, where applicable.
Section in Part in ISO 12944 Comments
AS/NZS 2312
1. Scope and 1. General Both contain scope, general references, definitions, a discussion on durability and
general introduction guidelines on how to use the standard.
2. Classification of 2. Classification of Both discuss classification of corrosivity environments.
environments environments
3. Planning and 3. Design Both provide guidance on minimising the risk of corrosion by appropriate design
design for corrosion considerations measures.
protection
4. Surface 4. Types of surface Both provide information on the various surface preparation methods.
preparation and surface
treatments preparation
5. Metallic coatings - Metallic coatings are not covered in ISO 12944. ISO 14713 (1) provides guidelines for
for corrosion protection of steel structures by hot dip and thermal spray zinc and aluminium
protection coatings. Organic coatings over these substrates are covered by ISO 12944 part 5.
AS/NZS 2312 also includes other application methods such as electrogalvanizing and
continuous galvanizing.
6. Paint coating 5. Protective paint Both provide guidance for the selection of different types of protective paint systems.
systems for systems.
corrosion protection
7. Factors - Factors to be considered when selecting a coating system are spread through various
influencing coating parts of ISO 12944, although little detail is given.
selection
8. Paint and paint 7. Execution and Both cover paint application methods.
application supervision of paint
methods work
9. Other systems - This section briefly describes tapes and powder coatings. These are not covered in
for corrosion ISO 12944.
protection
10. Maintenance of - Factors to be considered with maintenance painting work. Not covered in ISO 12944.
protective coating
systems
11. Inspection and - Requirements and practices for inspection of coated steelwork. ISO 12944-4 covers
testing surface preparation, ISO 12944-7 paint application and ISO 12944-8 covers inspection
forms.
12. Preparation of 8. Development of Both deal with preparation of specifications for paint coating work.
coating specifications for
specifications new work and
maintenance.
13. Heath and - An introduction to health and safety aspects of surface preparation and coating
safety application. ISO 12944-1 contains a brief introduction to health, safety and
environmental considerations.
- 6. Laboratory A way of assessing paint systems by means of laboratory tests. Not covered in
performance test AS/NZS 2312.
methods

Corrosion and Prevention 2008 Paper #076Page 2

3. CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTS
Part 2 of ISO 12944 and Section 2 of the current version of AS/NZS 2312 both cover classification of environments.
With the recent release of AS 4312 (2), it is likely that Section 2 and related Appendix B in AS/NZS 2312 will be
reduced to cover only the important definitions. The 2002 version of AS/NZS 2312 refers to the atmospheric
environments as category A to E, rather than C1 to C5 used in ISO standards, and in AS 4312. In this paper, the
environments are referred to using the ISO nomenclature.
The discussion on factors influencing atmospheric environments is similar in both standards. However, ISO 12944
considers non atmospheric environments of immersed and underground as an integral part of the standard, whereas for
AS/NZS 2312 these are in an informative Appendix. The discussion on these non atmospheric environments is more
detailed than in ISO 12944, directly relates to Australian conditions and provides typical coating systems for these
environments. This Appendix in AS/NZS 2312 also has systems for special environments, including sewerage, acid
splash, alkali splash and solvent. It also covers some systems for high temperature applications (>150 deg C). These are
not given in ISO 12944.
The discussion on non-atmospheric environments in ISO 12944 covers structures immersed in water, noting that water,
whether fresh, brackish or salt, can have a significant influence on corrosion of steel, and also that there are three
different zones – underwater, intermediate or fluctuating (probably what we would term tidal zone) and splash zone.
However, there are only two environments given in the table of coatings, fresh water (Im1) and sea or brackish water
(Im2). The ISO standard does not distinguish between underwater, tidal and splash zones, which is strange as corrosivity
between these regions is probably more significant than differences between immersed salt and fresh water.
AS/NZS 2312 covers potable immersion, seawater immersion, seawater splash and hot water.
The Im3 category in ISO 12944 covers soil with a brief discussion on soil corrosivity. AS/NZS 2312 also discusses soil
corrosivity, but in more detail, and has coating systems for this environment within the Appendix.
Some other differences between ISO 12944 and AS/NZS 2312 regarding corrosivity include:
 Annex A in ISO 12944 relates different climates to temperatures and time of wetness, but this is of limited value as
such figures are rarely readily available for sites, and they are not related to corrosivity.
 ISO 12944 contains a useful discussion on corrosion in buildings in Annex B. Other information in Annex B
regarding erosive and chemical stresses is of little relevance and can be ignored.
 Both AS/NZS 2312 and AS 4312 have a “tropical” environmental corrosivity category, (not in the ISO standard) to
account for the aggressive nature of a tropical environment to organic coatings, not indicated by their relatively low
corrosion rates.

4. DEFINITIONS
Part 1 of ISO 12944 gives some general terms and definitions, although each separate part also has definitions relevant
to that part. In AS/NZS 2312, the reader is referred to AS/NZS 2310 (3) so there are only a few definitions given. There
are some similarities as well as subtle differences that are worth commenting on.
For example, a high build coating is defined in ISO 12944 as a coating applied at a thickness greater than 80 microns,
while AS/NZS 2310 defines a high build coating as a coating that can be applied at greater than 100 microns per coat.

4.1 Film Thickness

The nominal dry film thickness (NDFT) is defined the same in both standards (i.e the DFT specified for each coat or
entire system). In ISO 12944, the measured DFT is required to meet the requirements of ISO 19840 (4). In
AS/NZS 2312, it is recommended that AS 3894 Part 3 be used for measurements. Both these methods of measurement
are similar to that given SSPC PA2 (the average of the readings to be greater or equal to the NDFT with no individual
reading <80% of the NDFT). In addition however, ISO 19840 requires that no more than 20% of the readings are
between 80% and 100% of the nominal DFT. ISO also requires readings to be less than or equal to any specified
maximum DFT. If the measured DFT is greater than the maximum DFT, ISO requires that there should “expert
agreement shall be found between the parties”. ISO also says maximum DFT values (individual values) should be less
than three times NDFT. Neither AS/NZS 2312 nor AS3894.3 say anything about any maximum DFT. This is probably
because some coatings can be applied at greater than 3 times the recommended thickness, depending on application and
exposure, while for others 3 times NDFT could cause problems. A blanket policy would be difficult to justify. No
discussion is given of maximum DFT in either Australian standard. Also related to film thickness, ISO 12944 coating
systems are usually based on multiples of 40 microns, whereas in AS/NZS 2312 and in many other countries,
thicknesses tend to be in multiples of 25. This makes comparing systems difficult as discussed.

Corrosion and Prevention 2008 Paper #076 Page 3

4.2 Durability
ISO 12944 notes without going into detail the factors that affect coating durability, such as design, surface preparation,
conditions during application, etc. Many of these are expanded on in section 7 of AS/NZS 2312, which also covers
factors to be taken into account when selecting a coating system such as aesthetics, safety and environment, as well as
durability factors. ISO does not discuss in any detail the factors to be considered, other than durability and environment,
when selecting a system. Part 5 briefly discuss advantages and disadvantages of shop or site application.
There are slight differences in the durability ranges for the various coating systems between the two standards. Three
ranges are given in ISO 12944, while AS/NZS 2312 gives five ranges (see Table 2).

Table 2: Durability ranges in ISO 12944 and AS/NZS 2312

Range (Years) ISO 12944 Durability AS/NZS 2312 Durability
2 to 5 Low Short term
5 to 10 Medium Medium term
10 to 15 Long term
15 to 25 High (15+ years) Very long term
More than 25 Extra long term

Incorporation of the ISO 12944 ranges were considered when AS/NZS 2312 was updated, but the Committee altered
them for two reasons:
 The medium durability range of 5 to 15 years was considered rather broad, so divided into two terms, 5 to10 years
and 10 to 15 years. ISO does note that users should be “aware of the wide extent of the medium durability range and
take this into consideration when developing specifications”.
 The other concern was the maximum of 15 years durability for ISO 12944 systems. The Committee believed there
was evidence of better durability than this for many systems, at least up to 25 years. Indeed, AS/NZS 2312 notes
“the durability of many coatings may be considerably longer than 25 years.
However, it should be stressed that the ranges in AS/NZS 2312 are an expansion of those defined in ISO 12944. While
the five ranges in AS/NZS 2312 is rather unwieldy, it does provide the specifier with the option of specifying longer
durability systems than ISO 12944, at the same time providing conformance with the ISO ranges if this is considered
desirable.
The AS/NZS 2312 committee adopted directly the ISO 12944 paragraph regarding the relationship between durability
and guarantee. Namely that durability is a technical issue for maintenance plans, while guarantee is a legal part of the
contract. There is no relationship between them, although guarantee time is usually shorter than durability time.
AS/NZS 2312 contains further discussion on guarantees. Although the discussion clearly differentiates between
durability and guarantee time, clients outside the coatings industry would have problems separating the terms.
Understandably, they may question how it could be that a coating can have a durability of 15 years say, but they are not
able to get a guarantee for this period of time? This is an issue that the industry needs to consider.
There is also the question of maximum durability and its relationship to environment, which is an issue not covered by
either standard. For less severe conditions (Environmental category C3 and lower), the maximum durability of 15 years
(ISO 12944) and 25 years (AS/NZS 2312) should be easily achieved for a properly selected and applied coating system.
However, for more severe conditions, (Category C4 and especially C5) attaining more than around 10 years before
maintenance is probably unattainable (5). Both standards have systems which are claimed to give high durability (more
than 15 years according to ISO 12944, 15-25 years according to AS/NZS 2312) in a very severe C5 environment. These
claims may be worth revisiting and checking actual performance by both standards committees in the light of these
findings.

5. SURFACE PREPARATION
Section 4 of AS/NZS 2312 and Part 4 of ISO 12944 both describe the different types of surface preparation that can be
used as well as issues such as preparation grades and surface profile. AS/NZS 2312 has more detail on the main methods
of preparation. It also has a discussion on issues regarding soluble salts and a paragraph regarding unsuitability of rust
converters for heavy duty coating systems. These sections are valuable to all coating users, especially specifiers.
AS/NZS 2312 also has a clause on preweld primers, although this does not appear to be relevant to the section on
surface preparation.
Part 4 of ISO 12944 distinguishes between primary (overall) and secondary (spot) surface preparation, where the former
refers to complete removal of surface contamination while the latter refers to leaving intact coating for maintenance

Corrosion and Prevention 2008 Paper #076Page 4

work. This secondary or spot preparation has different grades of surface preparation with the code letter P in front of the
cleanliness grade. These are listed in Annex B of the standard and described in detail in ISO 8501-2 (6).This surface
preparation standard does not appear to be used in Australia or New Zealand and a discussion of the advantages and
disadvantages of spot preparation would appear to be a valuable inclusion in the local standard. However, it should be
noted that the ISO standard only provides coating systems for well prepared (class Sa 2½ or better preparation) surfaces,
while the AS/NZS 2312 gives systems for less well prepared surfaces, as discussed below. The ISO standard also has a
table in Annex C giving final cleaning methods required after each method of surface preparation for removal of
residual extraneous material. It briefly discusses preparation of metal coated steel before painting, although only in
general terms.

6. PROTECTIVE PAINT SYSTEMS

Part 5 of ISO 12944, “Protective paint systems”, is probably the key part of the ISO standard. The Annex to Part 5 lists
a number of different coating systems for different environments. In AS/NZS 2312, Table 6.3 performs a similar
function. However, as discussed above, ISO 12944 contains systems for submerged and underground environments and
for application to galvanized surfaces. In AS/NZS 2312, these are covered by Table C1 for non atmospheric
environments and Tables 5.2 and 5.3 for coatings over galvanized steel. Both standards describe the coating system, and
give expected durability in various environments. However, the two standards designate systems differently, and list the
systems in different ways, making direct comparison difficult. It should be noted that the designation numbering system
in part 5 of ISO 12944 changed completely for the 2007 version of the standard. No table giving correlation to earlier
designations was provided. Furthermore, neither standard is helpful in identifying which particular paint system should
be selected for a given set of circumstances.
ISO 12944 lists the systems twice. In Table A1 (the summary table), systems are listed primarily according to binder
type used in the top coat, and then in increasing order of the expected durability in each of the corrosivity categories.
For purposes of durability, acrylic, chlorinated rubber and vinyl top coats are all considered to have the same durability,
and epoxy and polyurethane topcoats are considered to have the same better durability. This summary table is designed
to provide the specifier with information regarding overall durability of coating systems and shows how durability
improves with increasing coating sophistication and film thickness. In tables A2 to A6 (individual tables) in ISO 12944,
systems suitable for each environment (C2, C3, C4, etc) are given. The systems are listed according to type of priming
coat. These tables are for the user who knows the environment to which their structure will be exposed, and they can
select a system with the required durability. Some systems in the individual tables are not listed in the summary table,
although no explanation is given for their omission.
The system used in AS/NZS 2312 is much simpler with all information in a single table. This table lists coating systems
according to their top coat binder type (each separate binder type is considered separately) providing details of the
system, including surface preparation, each coating and its thickness, and expected durability in each environment.
The method of using either standard for selection of a coating system is largely the same and the main steps are shown in
Table 3.

Table 3: Procedure for selecting coating systems using ISO 12944 or AS/NZS 2312.
Step Activity ISO 12944 AS/NZS 2312
1 Determine the corrosivity category where the structure is Part 2 Section 2 and AS 4312
located.
2 Establish whether any microclimatic conditions may exist. Part 2 Section 2 and AS 4312
3 Note any special requirements, such as surface preparation, Various clauses Section 7
colour, site or shop application, etc which will limit coating throughout all parts of
types. ISO 12944
4 Refer to selection tables, noting durability in the expected Tables A1 to A8 in Table 6.3
environment. Part 5
5 Select the optimum system, taking into account various - -
factors discussed in Step 3.
6 Confirm choice and availability with paint supplier. - -

Table 4 summarises the main differences and similarities between the paint systems for steel for atmospheric
environments as described in the two standards. As mentioned, both standards also have paint systems for galvanizing,
metal spray and non atmospheric environments which are beyond the scope of this paper. Table 4 lists systems which
are included in AS/NZS 2312 but not considered in ISO 12944, such as:

Corrosion and Prevention 2008 Paper #076 Page 5

 There are five systems based on catalysed or 2-pack acrylic listed in AS/NZS 2312, which are largely the same as
the polyurethane systems described below with similar durability. Catalysed acrylic appears to be little used outside
Australia and New Zealand and its omission is not surprising. AS/NZS 2312 also has a polysiloxane topcoat system
but there is no system based on this relatively new binder in ISO 12944.
 AS/NZS 2312 has systems of 2mm of vinyl ester and 1.5 mm of UHB epoxy, both of which are claimed to provide
15-25 years in very high corrosivity environments. A variety of other vinyl ester and UHB epoxy systems, as well as
polyester systems are specified for splash, immersed, underground and severe chemical environments in Appendix
C of AS/NZS 2312. ISO 12944 does not cover UHB systems at all, even for immersed or underground
environments. While there may be occasions where a UHB system might be recommended for a severe atmospheric
environment, such occasions are likely to be unusual, and recommending such systems for atmospheric work is
probably unnecessary.
 ISO 12944 does not consider coating systems for poorly prepared surfaces and all systems require a minimum of an
Sa 2½ blast. AS/NZS 2312 however, does have systems which can be applied to poorly prepared surfaces such as
lesser standards of blasting or hand or power tool cleaning.

Table 4: Summary of atmospheric exposure coating systems listed in ISO 12944 Part 5 Annex A and
AS/NZS 2312 Table 6.3.
Topcoat ISO 12944 AS/NZS 2312
Acrylic latex 8 systems from 160 to 300 microns for 3 systems from 120 to 240 microns for all
C3, C4, C5 environments
2-pack acrylic Not included 6 systems from 175 to 375 microns for all
environments
Alkyd 5 systems from 60 to 200 microns NDFT 6 systems from 40 to 120 microns for C2, C3,
for C2, C3, C4 C4
Chlorinated rubber 8 systems from 160 to 300 microns for 3 systems from 175 to 275 microns for all
C3, C4, C5 environments
High build epoxy 14 systems from 120 to 400 microns for 6 systems from 250 to 325 microns for all
all environments environments
UHB systems Not included UHB epoxy, vinyl ester to 1500/ 2000 microns
for severe environments
Systems for poorly Not included Single and multi-coat epoxy mastic, moisture
prepared surfaces cured urethane and alkyd systems for St2/St3
preparation for maintenance
Single coat inorganic zinc 1 system of 60 microns for limited 3 systems from 75 to 125 microns for long
silicate (see below) durability in mild environments durability in all environments
Polysiloxane systems Not included 1 system at 200 microns for all environments
Polyurethane systems 12 systems from 120 to 500 microns for 7 systems from 175 to 325 microns for all
(see below) all environments environments

It is not possible to compare all systems in the two standards. However, two major systems will be investigated in some
detail to indicate where similarities and differences arise in the different approaches taken by the two standards.
Single Coat Inorganic Zinc Silicate
AS/NZS 2312 has three single coat inorganic zinc silicate (IZS) systems, 75 microns of solvent borne (IZS1), 75
microns of water borne (IZS2) and 125 microns of water borne (IZS3), all over an Sa2½ blasted surface. The durability
increases from 2-10 years for IZS1, 10-15 years for IZS2 and 15-25 years for IZS3 in the very high marine (C5-Marine)
environment, with proportionally similar performance in other environments. ISO 12944 has a 60 micron single coat
zinc rich coating as system A1.02, but this covers zinc epoxy and zinc polyurethane as well as silicate binders. The best
durability it gives is 5-15 years in the moderate C3 environment. Given that it is thinner than the AS/NZS 2312 system,
and includes epoxy zinc, which is never specified as a single coat system in external environments, this poor
performance is not surprising. However, ISO 12944 does include a second single coat inorganic zinc, although this is
not included in the summary table. System A4.16 is a 60 micron coating of zinc silicate (assumed to be solvent or water-
borne), which is claimed to provide 2-5 years durability in C4 high corrosivity category. AS/NZS 2312 gives 5-10 years
in this environmental category for the solvent borne zinc, and 15-25 years for the water-borne, again with 75 micron
DFT. European experience with single coat inorganic zinc is much less than in our part of the world, and more
conservative figures are expected. Durability of inorganic zinc silicate coatings was discussed in some detail by the

Corrosion and Prevention 2008 Paper #076Page 6

Committee during the most recent update of AS/NZS 2312, and the durability figures are based on well-established case
studies.
Polyurethane Top Coat Systems
The popular zinc rich primer/ epoxy mid coat and polyurethane top coat dominates coating specifications around the
world, and is probably the most important single protective coating system. For ease of comparison, this discussion
considers the performance only in one environment, the C4 high corrosivity environment. The durability will be
proportionally lower in more severe environments and greater in less severe environments.
AS/NZS 2312 has 7 polyurethane top coat systems, although two of these (PUR1 and PUR6) are maintenance systems
with epoxy mastic primers over hand/ power tool cleaned surfaces, so not included in ISO 12944. The other five for new
work (blast cleaned surfaces) have similar systems in ISO 12944 and are discussed below. ISO 12944 has a further 7
polyurethane topcoat systems with slightly different NDFTs.
PUR7 in AS/NZS 2312 has 75 microns of epoxy zinc, 75 microns of high build epoxy and 75 microns of high build
polyurethane, a total of 225 microns. It has a durability of 5-10 years in the C4 environment. This system is designed for
situations where blasting is allowed, but spray painting may not, and coatings would then need to be applied by brush or
roller. This could be in hazardous environments or where overspray is not permitted. The ISO equivalent is A1.19 which
allows a zinc silicate or zinc polyurethane primer, although to only 60 microns. Three to four coats to a total of 200
microns are applied, and the durability in C4 is 5-15 years. So the systems and durability are similar in both codes.
PUR4 in AS/NZS 2312 is a commonly specified system which has 75 microns of zinc primer (epoxy or inorganic
silicate), 125 microns of high build epoxy intermediate and 50 microns of polyurethane topcoat, a total of 250 microns.
It is claimed to provide 10-15 years durability in the C4 environment. The ISO equivalent is A1.20 with a total thickness
of 240 microns (the zinc rich primer is again only 60 microns) with a claimed durability of 15+ years in the C4
environment. So, despite a thinner primer and slightly lower total thickness, ISO claims better durability for this system.
PUR3 is almost identical to PUR4, but with an epoxy primer rather than a zinc-rich primer. This system is designed for
applications where a zinc rich coating may not desirable, such as a more acidic environment or where zinc may be a
hazard in a fire. It has the same durability as PUR4 in AS/NZS 2312, that is 10-15 years in a C4 environment. The ISO
equivalent is A4.08 (not listed in the summary table) with 240 microns nominal total thickness. This gives 5-15 years
durability in the C4 environment, almost identical to AS/NZS 2312 durability. System A1.18 is similar but with only
200 microns total film thickness. It is not recommended for C4, but claimed to have 15+ years in C3. A mere 40 micron
increase in total DFT going from A1.18 to A4.08 resulting in a change from not recommended to a durability of 5-15
years in C4 category does seem rather anomalous.
PUR5 in AS/NZS 2312 is the popular system for severe environments with 75 microns of zinc primer (epoxy or
inorganic silicate), 200 microns of high build epoxy intermediate and 50 microns of polyurethane topcoat, a total of 325
microns. It is claimed to provide 15-25 years durability in the C4 environment. The ISO equivalent is A1.24 with an
almost identical total thickness of 320 microns (the zinc rich primer is 80 microns in this case) with a claimed durability
of 15+ years in the C4 environment. ISO therefore claims similar durability to AS/NZS 2312 for this system.
PUR2 is a two coat system consisting of 75 microns of epoxy primer and 50 microns of polyurethane topcoat giving a
total DFT of 125. The durability is 5-10 years in C4. The ISO equivalent is A1.15 with a total thickness of 120 microns.
It is not recommended for C4 and gives only 2-5 years in C3 environment. This is significantly lower than the
AS/NZS 2312 figure, and surprising given the similarity between the two standards for the other systems. This system is
about half the thickness of PUR3 which gives 10-15 years, and only a two coat system, so probably does not deserve the
durability figure given in AS/NZS 2312.
Interestingly, AS/NZS 2312 does not have a similar two coat system based on a zinc-rich primer, which would be more
popular than the PUR2 based on a zinc-free primer. A1.17 in ISO 12944 is a 2 or 3 coat system to 160 microns (60
microns of primer) giving 2-5 years in C4. A similar system could be included in AS/NZS 2312. ISO 12944 has other
polyurethane topcoat systems for which there is no close AS/NZS 2312 equivalent, although it is difficult to see where
any other systems would be needed.
Table 5 provides a summary of the polyurethane systems where there is approximate equivalence. It can be seen that,
despite some anomalies discussed, the systems and durability figures are similar for both standards.

Corrosion and Prevention 2008 Paper #076 Page 7

 Table 5: Comparison of polyurethane topcoat systems in the standards.
Description AS/NZS 2312 ISO 12944
Ref Total DFT Durability Ref Total DFT Durability in
(µm) in C4 (yrs) (µm) C4 (yrs)
Zinc rich primer/ HB epoxy/ HB PU topcoat PUR7 225 5-10 A1.19 200 5-15
Zinc rich primer/ HB epoxy/ PU topcoat PUR4 250 10-15 A1.20 240 15+
Epoxy primer/ HB epoxy/ PU topcoat PUR3 250 10-15 A4.08 240 5-15
Epoxy primer/ HB epoxy/ PU topcoat - - - A1.18 200 NR
Zinc rich primer/ HB epoxy/ PU topcoat PUR5 325 15-25 A1.24 320 15+
Epoxy primer/ PU topcoat PUR2 125 5-10 A1.15 120 NR
Zinc rich primer/ PU topcoat - - - A1.17 160 2-5

7. LABORATORY TESTING OF COATINGS

Recommended coating systems in both the international and local standard are described in terms of generic coatings,
such as zinc-rich epoxy primer, epoxy intermediate coat and polyurethane top coat. However, there can be a wide range
of products available on the market covered by these descriptions. The specifier needs to be sure that the properties of
the coating will, in fact, provide the required durability.
AS/NZS 2312 does not comment on how the specifier can be assured of obtaining products meeting any required
minimum composition or performance requirements. In AS/NZS 2312 Section 12 on the preparation of specifications, it
does recommend the following details of the coating system should be specified (clause 12.2.3):
“(a) Type of material, including reference to any relevant Australian, New Zealand or other Standard. Each part
of the system should be specified.
(b) Where proprietary paints are specified, both the manufacturer’s name and the brand name.”
This specification to an Australian Standard, or specific proprietary products is not mandatory, but recommended. It is
assumed that specifiers would not specify simply a generic type, but require products that meet the Australian Standards
or APAS approval, a list of approved proprietary products or a single proprietary product. AS/NZS 2312 provides the
relevant Australian Standard and APAS approval number with the list of products in Table D1. By sticking to known
proprietary products with proven performance, or requiring Australian Standards or APAS approval or both, the
Australian specifier is probably reasonably assured of selecting quality products. Of course, this system is not perfect.
For example, not all products have Australian Standard or APAS approval numbers, new suppliers with good products
are disqualified and standards and approval methods may not be up-to-date or allow lower quality products through.
ISO takes a completely different approach, probably because there is no history of coating composition or performance
standards in Europe, nor is there any equivalent to APAS. Part 6 of ISO 12944 provides a way of assessing paint
systems by means of laboratory tests. The standard contains details of artificial ageing tests: resistance to water
immersion (for fresh, sea water and soil exposure) or water condensation (for atmospheric environments), resistance to
salt fog (for all except fresh water exposure) and chemical resistance (for severe chemical exposure, C5-I). After
exposure, test panels are assessed by visual assessment of breakdown and loss of adhesion. For example, a coating
system required to achieve low durability (2-5 years) in a C3 environment must survive 48 hours water condensation to
ISO 6270 (7) and 120 hours neutral salt spray to ISO 7253 ( 8), whereas a coating system for high durability in a C5-M
environment must survive 720 hours water condensation and 1440 hours neutral salt spray. The standard claims that
such tests will “ensure, with a high degree of probability, that paint systems really do have the characteristics needed for
the durability required for the intended application.”
The standard does acknowledge that artificial ageing is not necessarily the same as natural exposure and that such results
should be used with caution. The testing does not include exposure to UV radiation, and does not include cyclic testing
such as Prohesion testing, both of which are known to correlate much better with real world performance. It is
interesting to note that a new standard, ISO 20340 ( 9) has recently been developed covering test methods and evaluation
criteria for coating systems for steel structures exposed to offshore environments (C5-M and Im2). The offshore industry
considered the performance requirements of ISO 12944 to be inadequate. ISO 20340 requires cyclic testing which
includes salt fog, condensation, UV exposure and low temperature exposure for a much greater time than the ISO
ISO 12944-6 requirements. It is clear that even within ISO, there is disagreement regarding the value of laboratory
testing and its relationship to performance. Furthermore, as there has been little obligation for coatings to meet
ISO 12944 requirements, Australian paint manufacturer’s are unlikely to have carried out such tests on their products,
and there would be few if any products meeting these requirements in our part of the world.

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However, ISO 12944 does note that additional tests may be recommended for coatings in certain situations, such as
cyclic testing and where more information is required. Furthermore, the standard notes:
“The selection of a paint system for a specific situation should preferably be based on experience from the use
of the system in similar cases.”
This appears to imply that specification of products that have proven experience is preferable to selection based on
accelerated testing.
In summary, while there is little detail on how to assess paints and paint systems in AS/NZS 2312, adoption of the ISO
ISO 12944-6 method of assessing performance of paint on accelerated testing would not appear to be warranted.
However, AS/NZS 2312 should ideally have a clause in Section 6 regarding issues involved in selecting specific
proprietary products providing specifiers with more information on this important subject.

8. APPLICATION OF PAINT COATINGS

Part 7 of ISO 12944 covers supervision of paint work, application on site and in a workshop, along with handling and
storage of coating materials. This is designed for the coating contractor, or for the specifier to indicate contractor
requirements. For example, it covers qualification of contractors, supply, storage of coatings, execution of paint work,
application conditions and methods, supervision and checks required. In AS/NZS 2312, similar information is provided
in Section 8. The specifier would need to check individual clauses to determine suitability for incorporation in the
specification.
The ISO standard has clauses on qualification of contractors, including the requirement for a QA system. It also has a
section on supervision of paint work, and a section on reference areas which are used to establish minimum acceptable
standards for the work. There is more detail on reference areas in Annex B of ISO 12944-8. ISO 12944 has a short
section on inspection of the coatings but this subject is covered in far more detail in Section 11 of AS/NZS 2312.
AS/NZS 2312 provides more detail on temperature and humidity limitations, including a table in Section 8 showing
allowable environmental conditions for different coating types. It also describes the defects that may arise if coatings are
applied under unfavourable conditions. This standard also has a little more on application techniques, pot life, cure times
and effects of delays, all of which are important for both selection and application.

9. DEVELOPMENT OF COATING SPECIFICATIONS

Part 8 of ISO 12944 covers issues regarding development of coating specifications. Section 12 in AS/NZS 2312 covers
the same subject but the approach is different in each. In the ISO standard, there is a section on developing
specifications, but most of the document is taken up with various tables. The actual specification is considered to be
made up of four separate documents:
1. The project specification covers the items to be coated, design issues, environment, constraints on the paint coating,
references areas, documentation, etc. This would normally be prepared by the owner of the structure to be protected
or the prime contractor. An example of a simple project specification is provided.
2. The paint specification covers surface preparation, the paint system and quality assurance requirements. This could
be prepared by the coating supplier. Annex A in the standard provides the basic information to be included. Annex
G gives a pro-forma that could be used for a paint system specification for new work and Annex H for maintenance
work.
3. The paint work specification covers applicator requirements, their tasks and quality control requirements. This may
be prepared by the paint applicator, in which case it is probably considered as a work method statement, rather than
part of the specification.
4. The inspection and assessment specification describes how inspection and assessment are to be carried out, giving
inspector qualifications, the inspection plan and required records. Annex J provides a form for reporting surface
preparation and coating inspection results. In Australia and New Zealand, AS 3894 parts10 to 14 ( 10) forms are
commonly used for recording inspection results.
There is a flow chart in Part 8 of ISO 12944 designed to assist planning new work and a checklist for classifying
environments. However, the flow chart in AS 4312 assists in identifying actual environments more clearly.
AS/NZS 2312 takes a different approach to preparation of specifications. It lists the specification requirements assuming
it will be a single document, which would be the more common approach. It contains clauses which can be considered as
a check list for the specification writer, from scope, surface preparation, coating system, coating application and
inspection. This section appears much clearer than the ISO equivalent.

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10. MAINTENANCE
Section 10 in AS/NZS 2312 covers maintenance of protective coatings. ISO does not have a separate section, but the
subject is covered throughout the various parts. For example, ISO 12944-8 has a form for recording the condition of an
existing paint system, including amount of blistering, rusting and other items that require recording. This five page form
appears complex and unnecessarily detailed. Generally, there is far more information in Section 10 of AS/NZS 2312
regarding assessment, surface preparation, coating compatibility and coating application for maintenance work than
contained throughout the various parts of ISO 12944.
One issue requiring consideration is the amount of breakdown of a coating before maintenance is recommended.
AS/NZS 2312 suggests about 0.2 to 2% breakdown depending on whether or not a zinc-rich coating is used. According
to clause 5.5 of ISO 12944-5, “maintenance painting would normally be needed for reasons of corrosion protection once
the coating has reached Ri 3 as defined in ISO 4628-3 (11)”, without distinguishing between zinc-based and non-zinc
systems. Ri 3 is about 1% breakdown. These figures from both standards are very conservative, and for corrosion
protection (as distinct from aesthetics) most owners would wait for a much greater degree of breakdown (perhaps some
5 to 10%) before spending money on maintenance. Helsel et al ( 12) suggest that “practical life is considered to be the
time until 5 to 10 per cent coating breakdown occurs, and active rusting of the substrate is present.” The European
Protective Coatings Product-oriented Group (CEPE) suggest that “repainting is more likely to be undertaken at
somewhere around 8% breakdown (13). Even though it can be argued that surface preparation costs, and therefore
overall costs, will be lower if the work is carried out with limited breakdown, practical maintenance programs would be
difficult to justify unless significant breakdown was apparent. It would appear that neither standard is being realistic
regarding degree of breakdown before maintenance is required.

11. INSPECTION AND TESTING

Section 11 of AS AS/NZS 2312 covers all aspects of inspection and testing of coatings, including requirements of
inspectors, preliminary discussions as well as duties of the inspector for surface preparation, paint application,
inspection of metallic coatings and records. Section 4 of ISO 12944 covers assessment of surface preparation according
to various ISO standards, and section 7 contains checks that need to be done on a paint coating, mainly covering DFT
measurements. Part 8 gives example inspection forms, whereas AS/NZS 2312 refers to the relevant Australian standards.
ISO 12944 does not cover the requirements of inspectors nor the need for preliminary discussions, both of which are
included in AS/NZS 2312. In summary, both standards describe the basic measurements and testing to be carried out,
although it is spread out over a number of parts of ISO 12944. AS/NZS 2312 has information on inspection
requirements, preliminary discussions and inspection of metal coatings. As mentioned above, ISO has information on
reference areas.

12. HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

AS/NZS 2312 has a separate section (Section 13) on health and safety issues concerned with surface preparation and
coating application. This covers issues such as dust hazards, eye protection, hazards of storage and application of paints
and hazards of certain paint types. Specific hazards and means of minimising their effects are described. By contrast,
ISO 12944 has limited information on health and safety. ISO 12944-1 states that it is the duty of all personnel involved
in the project to carry out the work so that they do not endanger the health and safety of themselves or others. It requires
all parties to comply with statutory requirements and lists some areas that need particular attention, such as not
specifying toxic substances, being aware of specific hazards and of protection measures. No specific information is
provided.
ISO 12944 has a discussion on Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) levels, including details of coatings available as
water-borne with lower VOC levels. This is not an issue discussed in great detail in AS/NZS 2312 as there are no
statutory requirements here compared to other parts of the world. There is a single paragraph in the chapter on selection
considerations on environment and safety concerns. Section 13 of AS/NZS 2312 notes that coal tar, bituminous, zinc
chromate and lead paints are not recommended for environmental or OHS reasons, but does not comment on
environmental suitability of high VOC level coatings.

13. CONCLUSIONS
Both AS/NZS 2312 and ISO 12944 provide useful information to enable selection and specification of protective
coating systems. Both contain similar information, and the approach of both is generally similar. However, there are
significant differences, such as:
 ISO 12944 contains systems for submerged and underground environments in the main part of the standard, while
these are part of an informative appendix in AS/NZS 2312. However, AS/NZS 2312 covers a wider range coatings
for non-atmospheric exposures and more information on such environments.

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 AS/NZS 2312 contains more generic types of coatings, such as uncoated galvanizing, metal spray and continuous
galvanizing, as well as catalysed acrylic and polysiloxane topcoat systems.
 ISO 12944 requires coatings to meet specific accelerated laboratory tests, including salt spray and immersion
testing. AS/NZS 2312 requires conformance with Australian standards or APAS requirements.
 AS/NZS 2312 has systems for poorly prepared surfaces, and more information for maintenance of degraded coating
systems.
These and other differences suggest that AS/NZS 2312 is a more useful document for those in the coatings industry in
our part of the world, and blanket adoption of the ISO standard would not be of benefit to users at this stage. However,
there is useful information in the ISO standard that could be incorporated into the local standard, and any opportunity to
correlate standards, such as already occurs with adoption of ISO corrosivity zones, should be taken.

14. REFERENCES
1
ISO 14713, Protection against corrosion of iron and steel in structures – Zinc and aluminium coatings – Guidelines,
1999.
2
AS 4312- Atmospheric corrosivity zones in Australia, Standards Australia, 2008.
3
AS/NZS 2310, Glossary of paint and painting terms, Standards Australia, 2002.
4
ISO 19840, Paints and varnishes – Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems – measurement
of, and acceptance criteria for, the thickness of dry films on rough surfaces
5
P Kronborg, A Description and Evaluation of ISO 12944, PCE December 1998, p6-13.
6
ISO 8501-2, Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products - Visual assessment of
surface cleanliness – Part 2: Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localised removal of previous
coatings, 1994.
7
ISO 6270, Paints and varnishes – Determination of resistance to humidity (continuous condensation), 1980.
8
ISO 7253, Paints and varnishes – Determination of resistance to neutral salt spray (fog), 1996.
9
ISO 20340, Paints and varnishes -- Performance requirements for protective paint systems for offshore and related
structures, 2003.
10
AS 3894.10 to 14, Site testing of protective coatings. Standards Australia, 2002.
11
ISO 4628-3, Paints and varnishes – Evaluation of degradation of paint coatings – Designation of intensity, quantity
and size of common type of defects – Part 3: Designation of degree of rusting, 1982.
12
J L Helsel, M F Melampy, K Wissmar, Expected service life and cost considerations for maintenance and new
construction protective coating work, NACE 2006, Paper 06318, (2006).
13
CEPE, Expected Lifetimes of Coatings, JPCL-PCE, September 2003, p40-42.

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