Electrical Installation Notes 3 1

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Electrical Installation Notes 3-1
Electrical power generation (Kenya Industrial Training Institute)
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SAFETY
SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP
Safety: it is freedom from danger or harm. In the workshop safety may be
achieved by not taking any risk taking precaution much more than necessary.
Before anyone can install a safe and efficient electrical system it is essential for
him or her to be familiar of risk of electricity and the danger inherent in its use.
Electrical safety: this involves proper use of electrical equipment and
machinery to perform a divine task safely and economically. Safe operation of
machines are safety to personnel, should be given the best consideration.
When working in a circuit it must be completely isolated and tests should be
carried out to ensure that poles of the cct are dead. At the position of isolation
steps should be taken to ensure that the cct cannot be restored until required.
Any isolation must be provided with a lock position, secure fixed warning
should be displayed on the isolator board. Where fuses are removed, they
should be put in a safe position where they cannot be replaced without the
knowledge of the person concerned. Ensure that no similar fuses are readily
available. The cct should be isolated as near to the work as possible so that
visual check can be kept on any attempt to restore a supply. After carrying out
works always test for possible faults which may be due to excessive current
flow before restoring the supply.
Special safety requirements: when corrosive liquids are being handled by an
electrician or maintaining and installing battery the following precautions
should be taken into consideration:
 Protective clothing is necessary such as rubber gloves, overall to protect
body from burns with acids.

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 In this installation good ventilation is necessary to reduce the building up

of inflammable and dangerous chemical vapours.
 Never allow naked flames near a battery installation.
General workshop rules
1. Do not meddle with switches, knobs, and rivets handles e.t.c.
2. Do not lean on electric machines.
3. Do not jump or play in the workshop.
4. Do not stare on welding arc lights without wearing guard.
5. Take care when working with hot metals use suitable glasses.
6. Do not operate electric machine before you know how to stop it.
7. Do not lubricate any moving machine.
8. Do not remove machine guard before stopping the machine.
9. Do not use faulty tools.
10.Never touch any moving machine.
11.Use or wear protective clothing for particular job.
12.Any loose clothing e.g. ties, shirts long hairs, should be avoided
where there is a rotating machine.
13.Obey all working warnings on the notice boards.
14.Never switch on a machine and leave it running.
15.Avoid overworking or overcrowding a machine.
16.Use the right tool for the right work in the right way at the right
time.
Accident: an accident is unexpected and undesirable occurrence resulting into
injury or damage to human beings or to properties.

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Causes of accidents:
 Carelessness: familiarity of tasks sets in boredom therefore original high
standards begin to slide which leads to accidents.
 Ignorance: this is due to lack of sufficient technical knowledge to
perform a task efficiently and to leave it in a condition which is safe.
 Panic
 Laziness
 Drunkenness
Electrical hazards:
They affect;
I. Human beings: through electric shock and burns.
II. Properties ; e.g. buildings furniture
III. Environment; through pollution due to chemical reactions.
ELECTRIC SHOCK
It is the effect felt by the body when electric current flows through the body.
This happens when the body acts as a link between two points of different
potential. Shock is sudden and causes disturbance of feelings of the nervous
system.
Types of electric shock
A] hand to hand: it cuts across the chest where the vital body parts are
situated and it happens where conductors are held by both hands and is likely
to result to death.
B] Hand to foot: it occurs when the conductor is between the hand and the
foot. It is usually not serious though it may result to paralysis.

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Factors determining the severity of shock:

1) Amount of current flowing through the body.
2) The time of contact.
3) The voltage level.
4) The body resistance
FIRST AID:
It is the application of accepted principles of treatment on occurrence of any
injury or incase of sudden illness using facilities or materials available at that
time to sustain live to prevent condition from becoming worse. In every
factory, workshop or construction site a first Aid box containing all the
necessary facilities must be provided and workers should know where to go to
obtain first Aid materials.
Order of action to safe an electrocuted victim
 Switch off the power supply then isolate the victim from the supply.
 One must be very careful not to touch the victim when the switch is on.
 The victim must be pushed or pulled away by his/her clothes or ay
insulating material.
 Check for tight cloth and untie them.
 Remove the victim from the scene of crime as quickly as possible.
 Check any sign of life in the victim and start artificial respiration
immediately.
 Send for a doctor or medical personnel or ambulance.
 Report the matter to the police.
NB//: never leave the victim alone.

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Methods of artificial respiration

1. Holger Nielsen method:
 Place the patient face downwards the forehead resting on his
hands.
 If the patients tongue has been swallowed 2 or 3 firm slaps with
the flat of the hand on the area between the shoulders will bring
it forward.
 The rescuer should kneel in front of the patient a knee beside the
right of the head and a foot to the left of the patient’s elbow.
 The arms should slope forward so that the hands lie close
together on the patient’s shoulder.
 The wrists should be over the top of the shoulder blade and then
begin the movement as follows:
i. Move forward and press down with a light pressure
to drive air from the lungs. These movements should
last about 2 seconds.
ii. Slide hands quickly down the patient’s elbow and the
movement should take a second.
iii. Raise the elbow slightly.
iv. The rescuers body should move backwards a bit low
this induces air to the lungs and shall take 2 seconds.
v. Lower the elbow and slide hands to patient’s back to
resume original position.
vi. Repeat the above movement until the patient
recovers.

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2. Mouth to mouth [kiss of life]:

 Place the patient on his back and sit or kneel by the side of his head.
 The head should be held with both hands.
 One hand should press upward while the other push the jaw up and
forwards this position ensures that the patient’s lungs gets maximum air.
 Close the patient’s nose with one hand.
 Seal your lips round the patient’s mouth.
 Blow air steadily into the patient’s mouth until the swelling of lungs
cause the chest to rise.
 Remove your mouth, turn your head aside and take a deep breath.
 Repeat this cycle six times as quickly as possible.
 Continue at about 10 sec intervals.
3. Sylvester[revised] method
 Position the casualty on his back quickly.
 Probe up shoulder with a suitable padding e.g. a rolled jacket so that the
head falls fully backward to open up air passage.
 Kneel near the casualty’s head, take his hands at the wrist then cross
them and press firmly downwards to force air out of the lungs.
 Release the downward pressure by pulling their arms upwards above
his head and backwards as far as possible.
 This helps to throw air in the lungs.
 If breathing, restart and adjust movement to coincide with his breathing
speed.
ELECTRIC BURNS
- They are best seen by a first Aid expert or a doctor.
- Burned clothing should not be removed.

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- Blisters should not be broken.

- Sterilized dressing may be applied if necessary.
- The patient may be given water, tea, coffee or other liquids but not
alcohol.
- Keep the patient warm at all times and take him to the doctor or
expertise.
HAZARD TO PROPERTY
Fire safety:
Fire prevention:
In order to minimize the risk of fire it is advantagesisable to make sure that:
 all appliances are switched off after use
 all are highly combustible materials are kept away from any source of
heat
 Smoking and naked flames should be prohibited in some areas e.g. near
batteries.
For fire to exist there are three things which must be present namely:
 Fuel [wood, paper, petrol e.t.c]
 Oxygen [combustion]
 Heat [e.g. flame]
Fire detection:
i. Human detection: this is limited to an individual noticing the fire and
raising the alarm manually at a break the glass call point.
ii. Smoke detection:
iii. Heat detection:
Both ii and iii sense automatically and operates the alarm system.

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Fire control:
They are divided into:
a) Manual; this by use of hand held extinguishers.
b) Automatic; this is by use of sprinklers, guns e.t.c
Both systems use the same extinguishing substances e.g. water powder foam
e.t.c
Classes of fire:
Fires are divided into three classes depending on the fuel supporting it.
Class A: wood, textile, paper
Class B: petrol, oil, paints
Class C: electric current or electric equipment.
Not all fires can be extinguished by the same kind of extinguishing material
each class has a specific extinguisher. It is a legal requirement that all fire
extinguisher are colored red but with a block or band, denoting the type of
extinguisher.
Type of extinguisher Most suited for Class of Color band

fire [container]
Water Wood paper textile A Signal red
Carbon dioxide Petrol paint oil B Black
Foam[h20 or co2] Petrol, paint, oil B Pale cream
Powder Wood, petrol, A,B,C French blue

electric fire
Halogenated Petrol, oil, electric B,C Emerald green.

hydrocarbon gas

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Some kinds of materials e.g. plastic and chemicals give off high toxic fumes
when ignited. Under such circumstances special apparatus would be needed to
minimize the danger to the fire fighter.

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ELECTRICAL MATERIALS
There are three types of materials i.e.
i) Conductors
ii) Insulators
iii) Semiconductors
CONDUCTORS
Its any material which allows free passage of an electric current. Conducting
materials vary in the degree to which they can conduct electricity therefore
have different applications e.g. good conductors are required for connecting
leads in electric ccts for minimum current or voltage loss while materials with
higher resistance are sometimes needed for controlling currents e.g. of
rheostats and motor control starters. Some materials used as conductors are:
A] Silver
It’s the best conductor known but its too expensive for general use.
B] Copper
Its conductivity is second to silver and its widely used for the manufacture of
electric wires, cables and busbars.
ADVANTAGES
i) Has low resistance
ii) Its ductile there4 easily formed into wires.
iii) It is readily tinned for soldering.
C] ALMINIUM
Not as good as copper but its light in weight, this is an advantages in many
situations.
D] BRASS
It’s used for the manufacture of terminals and various parts of electric fittings.
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ADVANTAGES
i. It’s harder than copper
ii. Its easily machined
iii. It can be readily cast
iv. It’s easily tinned for soldering.
E] NICHROME
It’s used for the manufacture of fixed and variable resistors and heating
elements.
F] MANGANIN
It’s a high quality resistance wire, expensive and requires special heat to
develop its good properties and it’s used mainly for precision resistors as used
in the laboratories.
G] TUNGSTERN
This has a very high melting point so is used in the manufacture of electric
lamp filaments.
H] CARBON
It’s not a metal but it’s a fairly good conductor and its physical properties make
it very suitable for use as brushes in electrical machines. Carbon can be mixed
with clay and other materials for the manufacture of carbon composition
resistors which are widely used in radio and electronic equipment.
INSULATORS
Any material which does not allow the free passage of an electric current is
known as insulator.
Insulators are used to confine electric currents to the conductors in which they
are intended to flow and to prevent leakage of electricity to adjacent
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conducting materials which are not intended to become ‘alive’. Insulation is

also needed to prevent ‘short ccts’ btwn various parts of an installation. Some
insulating materials commonly used as insulators are:
A] Rubber
Widely used for covering wires and cables.
ADVANTAGES
i. Good insulator
ii. Impervious to water
iii. Flexible
DISADVANTAGES
i. Its adversely affected by sunlight
ii. It’s not fireproof
B] POLY-VINLY CHLORIDE [P.V.C]
It’s a modern thermoplastic material which is often used as an alternative to
rubber.
Advantages
i. It resists chemical action and direct sunlight
ii. Not so inflammable
Disadvantages
i. Has less degree of mechanical protection as rubber
ii. More expensive than rubber
iii. Cannot be used where temperatures exceeds 45⁰C
C] PAPER
Impregnated paper is often used to insulate the conductors in
underground cables and must be protected from the ingress of
moisture.
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D] MINERAL INSULATION
Magnesium oxide is used as insulation in the certain types of cables. It is
extremely heat resistance but must be protected against ingress of
moisture.
E] MICA
Used for insulation where high temperatures are involved e.g. heating
elements. It is also used for insulation between the copper segments of
the commutators of electrical machines.
Disadvantages
Its brittle
F] ASBESTOS
Used to insulate connecting leads where high temperatures are
involved.
G] PAXOLIN
Used for insulating panels and barriers in switchgears.
H] BAKELITE
Used for moulded insulating parts of electrical fittings.
CABLES
A cable is a length of insulated conductor solid or stranded of two or more of

such conductors each provided with its own insulation which are laid 2gether.
A cable consists of three parts namely:
 Conductor
 Insulation
 Mechanical protection
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INSULATION
Insulation of cables used in domestic installations is normally vulcanized [VRI]
or p.v.c
Insulators where mineral is employed the cable has a copper outer sheath and
this type of cable is known as mineral insulated metal sheathed cable [M.IC.S]
MECHANICAL PROTECTION
It is provided to prevent damage to the cable during installation and
throughout its subsequent service. It must be non – absorbent and also must
be able to withstand:
 Mechanical stresses e.g. compression.
 High temperatures.
 Corrosive effects of chemicals.
The common types of protection are:
Sheathing: sheathing materials used vary considerably and are associated with
the type of material used for the conductor installation. Examples include:
tough rubber, lead alloy, polyvinylchloride, metal [copper alminium].
Armouring: it is the wrapping of metal usually with wire or tape metals used
include steel or alminium.
CONDUCTORS
They are usually made of copper the conducting cores being formed from
strands of copper wire so that the cable is more flexible than if solid were
used. If vulcanized rubber insulation is used the cu conductors are tinned to
prevent corrosion of the cu by sulphur which is present in vulcanized rubber.
The size of cables used in domestic installations is normally stated as no. of
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strands/diameter of each strand e.g. a cable commonly used for lighting cct is
3/0.029 meaning it consists of three strands and each strand is 0.029 in
diameter.
NB:
For larger types of cable, the effective x-sectional area of the core is often
quoted as the size.
Some commonly used cables sizes are:
Nominal x- No. and Current Application

sectional dia.[mm] Rating[Amp]
area[mm2]
Solid stranded
0.75 › 5A Bell and alarm ccts
1.0 1/1.13 11 Lighting ccts[solar]
1.5 1/1.38 3/0.029 13 Lighting ccts
2.5 1/1.78 7/0.78 18 Power ccts [s/o]
4 7/0.85 24 Cooker ccts
6 7/1.04 31 Mains to ccu supply
10 7/1.35 42 Mains supply, floodlights
16 7/1.70 56 Underground cables from
25 7/2.14 73 the transformer to the

supply mains
35 19/1.53 90
50
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CABLE ABBREVIATIONS INITIALS

V.R.I: vulcanized insulated rubber
C.S.P: chrolo-sulphonated polythene compound
T.R.S: tough rubber sheath
M.I.M.S: mineral insulated metal sheathed
M.I.C.S: mineral insulated copper sheathed
M.I.A.S mineral insulated aluminum sheathed
P.V.C: polyvinyl chloride
P.C.P: polychloroprene
L.A.S: lead alloy sheathed
P.I.L.C: paper insulated lead sheathed
P.I.L.C.S.T.A: paper insulated lead, steel tape armored cable
P.I.L.C.S.W.A: paper insulated lead sheathed, steel wire armored
A.V.C: asbestos varnished cambric
S.R.I: silicon rubber insulated
B.R.I: butyl rubber insulated
H.CH.D: high conductivity hard drawn
P.T.P : polyethylene terephthalate [e.g. Terylene]
E.P: Ethylene propylene
P.B.J: paper bituminized jute
H.S.O.S: house service overhead service
TYPES OF CABLES
Cables can be grouped according to their applications in electrical work. These
groups include:
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 Wiring cables; this includes switchboard wiring, farm wiring, domestic

and workshop.
 Power cables: heavy cables generally, lead sheathed and armored
control cables for electrical equipment.
 Overhead cables: bare, light insulated and insulated conductor of
copper, copper- cadmium and alminium.
 Communication cables: this group includes television down lead and
radio relay cables and telephone cables.
 Welding cables: these are flexible cables and heavy cords with either
copper or alminium conductors.
 Electric sign cables p.v.c and rubber insulated cables for high voltage
discharge lamps. They are able to withstand the high voltage
 Equipment wires; they are special wires for use with instruments often
insulated with special materials such as silicon, rubber and irradiated
polythene.
 Appliance wiring cables: its group includes high temperature cables for
electric radiators and cookers. The insulation used includes nylon
asbestos and varnished cambric.
 Heating cables: cables for floor warming road, soil warming, ceiling
heating and similar applications.
Flexible cable it is a cable consisting of one or more cores each containing a
group of wires, the diameters of the wires and the construction of the cable
being such as to afford flexibility.
Flexible cord it is a flexible cable in which the x sectional area of each
conductor does not exceed 4mm2. Flexible cables are available in many sizes
and types the most common are,
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 Twin twisted; this consist of two single insulated stranded conductors

twisted together to form a two core cable. Color identification is red and
black. The insulation used is vulcanized rubber or p.v.c .the rubber is
protected by a braiding of cotton, glazed cotton and artificial silk.
 Three core; they are similar to twin twisted but are provided with a third
conductor colored green for earthing.
 Twin circular; this flexible cord consists of two conductors twisted
together with cotton filter threads colored brown and blue, and
enclosed within a protective braiding of cotton or nylon.
 Three core circular; like twin core circular except that the third
conductor is colored green and yellow for earthing purposes.
 Four core circular; they are like core circular the colors are brown and
blue.
 Parallel twin; they are two stranded conductors laid together in parallel
and insulated to form uniform cable with rubber or p.v.c.
 Twin – core[flat]; this consist of two stranded conductors insulated with
rubber colored red and black laid side by side and braided with artificial
silk.
 Flexible cables; these cables are made with stranded conductors the
diameters being 0.3mm 0.4mm 0.5mm 0.6mm.they are generally used
for trailing cables and similar applications where heavy currents are to
be colored for instance to welding.
CABLE RATINGS AND SIZES

The current rating of a conductor is the maximum current that it can
carry continuously without undue heating. The temperature rise of a
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conductor depends on both the amount of current flowing and the

installation environment therefore the current rating of a particular size
conductor varies.
When selecting the size of cable to be used in a particular cct there are
two IEE requirements that should be met.
i) The cable must be able to carry the maximum current liable to
flow in the cct without undue heating
ii) The voltage drop from consumers point to any point in the
installation shall not exceed 2.5% of the declared or nominal
voltage when the conductors are carrying the full load current
disregarding starting conditions.
Factors affecting the current rating of a cable;
Ambient temperature; this is the temperature in the vicinity of the
cables or it’s the temp of the surrounding medium under normal
conditions in which cables are or to be installed including the effect
of artificial heating used in the building and any local source of heat
but not an increase of temperature in the neighborhood of cables.
Type of excess current protection; current rating of cables insulated
with p.v.c or synthetic rubbers are determined not only by the
maximum conductor temperature admissible for continuous running
but also by the temperature likely to be attained under conditions of
excess current. There are two types of excess current protection
namely;
i) Close excess current protection; this is excess current
protection which will operate within four hours at 1.5 times
the designed load current of the cct it protects. The devices
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includes; Fuses which have fusing factor not exceeding 1.5 and
m.c.bs which are set to operate to an overload not exceeding
1.5 times the designed load cct.
ii) Coarse excess current protection; This type of excess current
protection which will not operate within four hours at 1.5
times the designed load current of the cct which it operates.
Devices offering coarse excess current protection are BS 88
fuses. Semi enclosed [rewirable] fuses complying with BS3036.
Grouping of ccts; the no of ccts running in the same enclosure e.g. trunking,
conduits cables carrying the same current rating are bunched and when laid
2gether they add heat to one another therefore group factor is used.
Disposition; position relative to other conductors and surfaces e.g. when
cables are laid together in underground the temperature around them rises.
Type of insulation and sheath; e.g. sheathed multiple cores can be considered
as a no. of cable tightly bunched together.
The current rating of various types of cables installed in particular conditions
are listed in IEE tables multiplied by an appropriate rating factor which is
determined by considering the ambient temperature.
In many cases it is unlikely that all the apparatus connected to a cct will be
switched on at the same time thus the maximum current that the conductor
will actually have to carry will be less than the total possible current which
would flow if all the apparatus were switched on simultaneously therefore the
flow of current varies and we have a factor known as diversity factor which is
given by
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Actual maximum current

Total current required for all apparatus combined
Or use a table for diversity.
Example I
A corridor 96m long is to be lighted by 240v 60w lamps spaced 12m apart and
controlled by one switch at the supply end. The wiring is to be single core P.V.C
insulated cables enclosed in metal conduit. Find the size of wire required.
Sol:
No. of lamps 96/12 =8
Current per lamp I = P/V =60/240 =0.25A
Maximum current = 0.25x8 =2A
The current distribution is marked on the diagram below
6 18 30 42 54 66 78 96
2A 1.75A 1.5A 1.25A 1.0A 0.75A 0.50A 0.25A
The allowable volt drop is 2.5% =240x 2.5/100 =6v

Ref to the table column 3and 4 shows that a cable 1.0mm2 [1/1.13] has a v.d
per ampere per metre run of 40Mv and a current rating of 11A. The cable
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carries 2A, the v.d will vary at each lighting point and the calculations are as
shown below;
AB = 40x 2x 6 = 480mv =0.48v

BC= 40x 1.75x12 = 840mv = 0.84v
CD= 40x1.5x12 =720mv
DE= 40x1.25x12 =600mv
EF= 40x1.0 x12 =480mv
FG= 40x0.75x12 =360mv
GH= 40x0.50x12 =240mv
HJ= 40x0.25x12 =120mv
Total =3.84v which is less than 6v therefore the cable chosen
is of suitable size.
Example II
A room is warmed by a 2.4Kw heater which consists of two ccts together in
one conduit. The length of the room is 23m and the supply is 240v single phase
and the wiring is single core p.v.c insulated cables drawn in conduit. Find the
required size of cable to comply with IEE regulations.
Sol;
Load current = 2400/240 =10A
Allowable v.d = 6v
Ref table column 3 and 4
Cable 1.5mm2 [1/1.38] has a current rating of 13A and v.d /A/m of 27mv.
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The group rating of two pairs of two pairs cable is 0.8 therefore the current
rating of this cable is 13 x 0.8 = 10.4A. This is large enough to carry current of
10A
The v.d = 27 x 10 x 23/1000 = 6.21v which is greater than the allowable v.d
therefore the next cable is chosen which is 2.5mm2 [1/1.78] with current rating
of 18A and v.d of 16mv. the current rating with the grouping factor of 0.8 will
be
18x 0.8 = 14.4A therefore the v.d = 16x10x23/1000 = 3.68v
The v.d is within the limit of 6v thus this cable will be suitable.
Example III
A P.V.C insulated and sheathed twin cable of 20m run supplies current from
the switchboard in the domestic premises to a 6Kw 240v cooker which
incorporates a s/o in the control unit. Find the minimum size of cable to
comply with the IEE regulations.
Sol;
V.d allowable = 2.5% of 240 = 6v
Load current = 6000/240 = 25A
Since it cooking appliance diversity is allowed therefore
First 10A of rated current = 10A
30% of the remainder = 30/100 x15 =4.5A
For s/o = 5A
Total = 19.5A
Since a twin cable is used col 7&8 are used and a cable of 2.5mm2 1/1.78 with
a current rating of 23A and v.d /A/m of 16mv therefore
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The v.d = 16x 19.5x 20 = 6.24v

1000
This drop is greater than 6v therefore choose the next cable which is 4mm2
with a current rating of 30A and a v.d of 10mv /A/metre. Then the v.d is 10x
19.5 x 20 = 3.9v.
This cable is suitable since the volt drop is within the allowable limit of 6v.
Example IV
A 7kw 240v electrical load is fed from a single phase supply 38m away. The
installation is done using p.v.c sheathed twin with earth enclosed in conduit
and the ambient temperature is 400 coarse excess current protection. Find the
size of the cable required for the installation to comply with IEE regulations.
Sol;
Max permissible v.d = 6v
Load current = p/v = 7000/ 240 = 29A
Cable chosen is from col 3&4 size is 6mm2 with current rating of 31A & v.d
6.8mv at 400 current rating = 0.94
Amended current = 31 x 0.94 = 29.14A
v.d = 6.8 x29 x38
1000 = 7.4936v which is greater than 6v a more larger cable is
used
Which is 10mm2 with 4mv
v.d = 4 x29x 38
1000 = 4.408. Therefore the cable is 10mm2
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Example V
A conductor 40m long supplied by 240v single phase is to feed a 6kw water
heater. If the wiring is single core p.v.c insulated copper and enclosed in a
conduit, the protection offered is close excess and the ambient temperature
400c. Calculate the appropriate cable size that is suitable for this installation.
Max permissible voltage drop is 2.5% of 240 = 6v
Load current = I=p/v = 6000/240 = 25A
From the table the cable size is 6mm2 with a current rating of 31 A and a v.d of
6.8mv
Rating factor temperature 400 is 0.87
Protection is close 1.33
Combine rating factors = 1.33 x 0.87 = 1.571
Amended current = 31 x1.571 = 35.87A
v.d =6.8x 25x 40
1000 = 6.8v which is more than the required 6v therefore the next
cable is chosen which is 10mm2 with a current rating of 42A and a v.d of 10mv.
The v.d is 4x 25x40
1000 = 4v and it’s less than 6v therefore the correct cable size
is 10mm2.
Example VI
A conductor 30m long is to supply a 7.68kw electric motor which is single
phase, the ambient temperature is 550c and the protection offered is coarse
excess current protection. The cable for the motor is to be drawn together
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with other two ccts in a p.v.c. conduit. All the cables are p.v.c insulated non
armored single core copper. Find the size of the cable which will be used to
install and meet the v.d requirements.
Sol:
Permissible drop is 6v
Load current is 7.68x 1000
1000 = 32A
Rating factors temp =0.77
Grouping =0.69
Combined R.F = .77x 0.69 = 0.531
From the tables cable chosen is 10mm2 with a current rating of 42A and v.d of
4mv
The amended current = 42 x 0.531 = 22.3A.
This current is less than the load current therefore the next cable is selected
which is 16mm2 with a current rating of 56A and v.d of 2.6mv.
The amended current is 56x 0.531 = 29.74A.
Still its less than the load current therefore the next cable which is 25mm2 with
a current rating of 73A and v.d of 1.6mv.
The amended current is 73x 0.531 = 38.76A
The v.d is 1.6 x 32 x30

1000 = 1.54v which is less than 6v
The appropriate cable size is 25mm2.
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Example VII
A single phase supply is used in a domestic house to supply load. The total
current demand is 28A and the cable used is p.v.c non armored single core
clipped directly on the surface. The protection to be offered is close excess
current protection and ambient temperature is 500 c. the total no. of ccts in
the installation is 5. Calculate the appropriate size of cable required for the
installation.
Sol:
Current demand is 28A
The size chosen is 4mm2 with a current rating of 30 and v.d of 10mv
The rating factor is 1.33 x 0.71 = 0.9443
Grouping the R.F = 0.9443 x 0.59 = 0.557
The permissible drop is 6v
The amended current is 0.557 x 30 = 16.71 which is less than the load current
therefore next cable is chosen which is 6mm2 with a current rating of 38A and
a v.d of 6.8mv
Amended current is 0.557x38 =21.2A which is still less than the load current
therefore the next cable which is 10mm2 with a current rating of 51A and v.d of
4mv .
The amended current is 0.557 x 51 = 28.41
V.d is 4x28 x1
1000 = 0.112v which is less than 6v.
The appropriate cable is therefore 10mm2.
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WIRING ACCESSORIES:
An accessory is any device other than a lighting fitting, associated with wiring
and current using appliances of an installation e.g. a switch, a plug s/o e.t.c.
Types of accessories:
Lampholders; these are designed for quick removal and replacement of lamps.
The main types are: bayonet cap[B.C] its used for filament lamps upto 150w
Small bayonet cap used for small discharge lamps
Edison screw [G.S]used for filament lamps from 150 – 200w.
Goliath Edison screw [G.E.S] for filament lamps above 200w.
Lampholders used in flexible pendants are of cord grip type. Those for
mounting direct on ceiling are known as battern type.
IEE regulations concerning lamp holders:
I. Lamp holders for filament lamps shall normally be used in low voltage
only i.e. shall not exceed 250v.
II. Every lamp holder for a bayonet cap in any situations in which its readily
be touched by a person in contact with or standing on earth shall be
– earthed
- constructed of or stranded in insulating material.
III. With Edison screw type lamp holder is connected to a source of supply
having an earthed, neutral, the live conductor should be connected to
the centre terminal and the neutral to the outer or screwed contact.
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Ceiling roses: it may be of two or three plate. The connections are as shown
below
Two plate
lamp
N
L
3 plate ceiling
N
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IEE regulations on ceiling roses:

 Ceiling rose shall not be installed in any cct operating at a voltage
exceeding 250v.
 A ceiling rose shall not be used for the attachment of more than one
outgoing flexible cord, unless it is specifically for multiple pendants.
 A ceiling rose shall not be connected in a manner that one of the
terminals remains live when the associated switch is off unless the
terminal cannot be touched when the ceiling rose is dismantled for
replacement associated flexible cord.
 The earthing terminal of every ceiling rose shall be connected to the
earth continuity conductor [ECC] of the final sub cct.
Switch: it’s a mechanical device used for controlling or isolating part of or a
cct. It may be single pole [controlling only the live pole of the supply] or double
pole [controlling two poles ]. Ordinary switches used for controlling light points
are usually rated 5A.
Classification of switch as according construction or purpose
One way switch: this is a switch that controls a point from one position.
Lamp
N
Two way switch: this provides independent control from two positions. It has
three terminals; one is terminated from the switch feed the other two are
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interconnected by straps. When used in pairs the two switches should provide
complete control from two positions.
N
L lamp feed
Switch feed
strappers
Intermediate switch
It’s used where control of three or more positions is required. They are
normally used in conjunction with two way switches. They have four terminals
and are of three different kinds:
Type one:
. . ∙ ---------
I/p outgoing
. . ----------
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Type two:
Incoming
Outgoing
Type three
------------
---------------
IEE REG:
1. In a two wire installation connected to source of supply having one pole
connected with earth, all fuses and single pole control device e.g.
switches, cct breakers thermostats should be connected in the live
conductor only.
2. In a two wire installation connected to a source of supply having either
pole to the earth every switch, cct breaker shall be fitted in both poles.
Joint box
This is a box in which conductors of cables are jointed. They are available in
various forms. They have knock cuts for cable entry and are provided with lids
of screw.
Plugs and socket outlets: These are required to enable portable apparatus to
the final ccts. The s/o is the fixed portion connected to the fixed wiring and
comprises of two or three conduct tubes and terminals. The plug is connected
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to the apparatus by a flexible wire and comprises of two or three contact pins
to fit the contact tubes or the s/o. the plug may be fused or not.
IEE reg for s/o and plugs:
1. It must not be possible for any one of the pin of plug to be in live contact
with the s/o when any other pin is exposed.
2. No plug should be fit in any live contact if a s/o, other than that of the
s/o for which it is designed.
3. With exceptions every plug and s/o must be non-reversible with
provisions for earthing.
4. Every fuse plug is to be non-reversible with no provision for a fuse in an
earthed conductor.
Distribution boards;
This is an assemblage of parts including one or more fuse of cct breakers
arranged for distribution of an electric current to final ccts or to the
distribution boards. The boards are usually metal cased or hard wood cased.
The case is fitted with an earthing terminal. It contains a fuse bank on the live
side. Neutral wire is connected to the neutral bar. The LEE reg require that the
neutral conductor for different currents should be connected in the same
order as the live conductor.
Consumer control unit [CCU]
In a single phase installation whose current rating is not greater than 60A, the
consumers’ main switch and other fuses may e combined with the distribution
board as one unit. This unit is known as consumers control unit.
Fuses and cct breakers [under protection]
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WIRING SYSTEM
A wiring system is an assembly of parts used in the formation of one more
electric ccts. It consists of a conductor together with its insulation its
protection against mechanical damage [sheathing or armoring] certain wiring
accessories for fixing the system, joining and terminating the conductors.
Good workmanship; a good workman is the technician who does produce a
good looking, neat jo with his tools, and the result of the sound and considered
application of theory.
Factors to consider when choosing the wiring system.
 Type of building; whether the installation work is for permanent or
temporary building or for extension to an existing building.
 Installation conditions; whether the installation is likely to be subjected
to mechanical damage, moisture, fumes, weather, abnormal or
subnormal temperatures, inflammable or explosive dust, gas or vapor.
 Flexibility ; whether the wiring system must be one which will allow it to
be easily extended or altered at some time in the future.
 Appearance; whether the building is such that the electrical installation
must be hidden or its appearance can be allowed e.g. in an electrical
workshop surface run conduits is not out of place but would be awkward
in offices.
 Durability; whether the installation is to last for the time of the life of
the building or not.
 Cost; whether the amount of money available for the electrical
installation part of the building is restricted or not.
 Safety; depends on the installation conditions type of the supply and the
earthing arrangements available.
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WIRING SYSTEM 1
This system includes all wiring which use sheath as its mechanical protection.
There are several types depending on the material used for sheathing they are;
 Tough rubber sheath [TRS] its termed as an all insulated system because
the sheath is of an insulating material. The insulation material is
vulcanized rubber and the sheath is tough rubber. The cable is available
in single core, flat twin three core and twin with cct protective conductor
[cpc].
Advantages: it’s cheap
It’s flexible
It’s easy to install
Disadvantages; rubber is weak to withstand severe mechanical damage
Rubber is affected by oil
Limited to ambient temperature [tends to harden at high
temperature]
 Polyvinylchloride [PVC] its also an all insulated wiring system where
both the insulation and sheath are p.v.c. Available as single core, flat
twin with earth and 3 core with earth.
Advantages; less affected by oil
Has less insulation resistance
Disadvantages; p.v.c softens when warmed therefore excluded in a
number of installation applications.
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 Polychloroprene sheathed [p.c.p] : The cable consist of conductors

insulated with vulcanized and sheathed with p.c.p which is a tough
rubber like substance. This form of plastic material is suitable for farm
wiring where steam, ammonia fumes, lactic acid and milk fats, sulphur
fumes, direct sunlight and heat is likely to be encountered.
 LEAD ALLOY SHEATHED [LAS]: this system consists of conductors which

are insulated with vulcanized rubber, taped and sheathed with a lead
alloy. The lead sheath can be used as a cct protective conductor
therefore must be continuous throughout the installation by soldering or
bonding with clamps and also it protects against mechanical damage.
Disadvantages: the lead sheath is very soft material and can be
damaged severely by blows from any hard object.
LAS cables are liable to corrosion where they come into contact with
lime in damp situations.
 MINERAL INSULATED METAL SHEATHED [MIMS]: These cables consist
of alminium conductors contained in a copper or alminium sheath, the
insulant is compressed mineral magnesium oxide. The most common
type is MICS which are impervious to water and oil and immune from
condensation therefore does not require further protection even against
high temperatures and fire. The conductor sheath and the insulant are
inorganic the cable is virtually ageless. During installation the ends of
cable must be sealed off against the ingress of moisture by special
terminations.
Advantages: the cable has good heat resisting properties.
Has a higher current rating than P.V.C, TRS or PILC
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Offers an excellent self-contained CPC since the sheath is copper or

alminium.
Application: for industrial and hazardous areas.
 HOUSE SERVICE OVEHEAD SYSTEM [HSOS]
The conductors of this wiring system are insulated with vulcanized
rubber and tapped. The cores of the cable are then varnished and calico
tapped. The whole is braided and coated with weather resisting
compound. This type of cable is used for consumer’s distribution wiring
between buildings. They are found either fixed or supported by a
catenary wire between buildings.
WIRING SYSTEM II
This includes all the wiring systems which have prefabricated sections. They
include: conduit, trunks and ducts.
CONDUITS
The conduits may be metallic or non-metallic. In both they are of two types i.e.
light and heavy gauge.
Metallic conduits
i. Steel conduits: the light gauge conduit is produced from steel strip
which is formed into a tube. This type of conduit has an open seam and
is only used for small installation at or below 250v. The light construction
of the tube makes it unsuitable for bending. There are two types of
fittings which are supplied for use with this type of conduit which are:
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lug grip: paint is cleaned at the end of the conduit to ensure electrical
continuity and the fitting is connected to the conduit by tightening two
brass screws.
Pin grip: continuity is obtained in this type by tightening hardened steel
screw into the grip conduit at each fitting.
There are two types of the heavy gauge conduits:
Heavy gauge welded: this is formed from two strips of heavy gauge sheet steel
and is welded at the seam. This is the most common type of conduit and is
used in sizes from 16mm to 32mm outside diameter.
Solid drawn conduit: this is produced by a heated bar over a ram forming a
heavy gauge seamless tube. This type of conduit is more expensive than
welded steel heavy gauge conduit and is only used for flame proof condition.
The finishing’s used are:
 Black enamel for internal use in dry situations.
 Silver grey finish for internal use in dry situations where the conduit is
required to match decorations.
 Hot galvanized or stainless steel for external use where the conduit will
be subjected to dampness or condensation.
Because solid drawn conduit is more expensive than the seam welded its use
is generally restricted to gas tight and explosion proof installation. Welded
seam conduit is used generally for moist wood installation.
Advantages of steel conduits:
 Provides protection against mechanical damage.
 Provides earth continuity conductor ECC
 It is durable in that if properly installed it lasts for years without
maintenance.
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 It can be easily extended.

 It has low fire.
Disadvantages of steel:
 It is more expensive than p.v.c
 It is difficult to conceal
 It is reliable to corrosion.
COPPER CONDUIT
Copper conduit resists corrosion and is an excellent ECC. The system is
expensive but has extremely long life. Conduits are screwed in normal manner
through connection to accessories associated with the system. It can be
soldered and bronze junction boxes are used.
ALMINIUM CONDUIT
Though in some ways its inferior to steel conduit but it has found its own
application because of its light weight easy in working with and suitable to
tropical conditions. It is a screwed end conduit and because its resistivity is
only a little higher than that of copper it offers excellent earth continuity
facilities. It is not strong mechanically and may require further protection
where the risk of mechanical damage is high.
FLEXIBLE CONDUITS
Flexible conduits are generally used for the final connection to machinery e.g.
electrical motors and where vibrations and the need to adjust the position of
equipment make a rigid conduit connection unsatisfactory.
Flexible conduits can also be deal with the need for complicated twists and
bends. It is used for short runs where mechanical damage is less likely to occur.
The conduit is not an acceptable ECC a separate ECC must be run between the
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special brush adaptor used to join the flexible conduit to the ordinally screw
conduit to the ordinary screw conduit. Sizes available are from 8mm to 50mm
internal diameter.
NON METALLIC CONDUITS

There are two main types:
- Flexible type which comes in both round and oval section and it is
supplied in seven metre coils.
- The rigid type which is supplied in a standard length of 4metres. The
light gauge can be bent without tools but bending spring or sand is
inserted to prevent it from collapsing at the bends. The heavy gauge is
the commonly used and is made of materials which vary widely but the
most common is p.v.c and is installed with phenolic moulded fittings
which closely resemble the steel conduit range. Fixing is by saddles or
clips.
Advantages of p.v.c conduits:
 Absence of fire risk due to breakdown in continuity.
 Easy manipulation without the use of special tools.
 Resistance to corrosion from most industrial liquids.
 No internal condensation takes place.
IEE reg
 The conduit installation must be completed b4 cables are drawn in.
 A space factor of 40%is allowed in conduit system
 The radius of bend in a circuit should not be greater than 2.5 times the
outside diameter of the conduit.
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 The ends of a conduit must be filed or reamed to provide damage to the

cable.
 Conduit installed in damp conditions must have a water resistance finish
e.g galvanized
 Extra low voltage and high voltage cables must not be run in the same
conduit.
 Metal conduits should be kept separate from gas and water serving
conduit which is likely to come into contact with other services should
be bounded to those services.
 All metal conduits must be effectively earthed and all joints must be
mechanically and electrically sound and continuous.
 Drainage points should be provided at the lowest point in a conduit
installation and in conditions where condensed moisture is likely to
collect. Drainage points are not made in a gas tight system.
 Cable installed in explosive atmosphere must be enclosed in solid
conduit unless they are metal sheathed.
 Metal conduits not requiring earthing are: - short isolated lengths used
for mechanical protection – short exposed length used for the
mechanical protection.
 Ducting of cables - outgoing and return cables must be run in the same
conduit.
TRUNKING
Trunking is available in square or rectangular sections ranging from 1.5 inches
by 1.5 inch to 12 inch by 6 inch in cross section and in length of 2m. Trunking is
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a very rigid system i.e. cannot be bent or set around obstacles therefore a wide
range of fittings are provided by manufacturers to enable bends to be
negotiated. Such fittings include : elbows, tees, blank ends, bends of various
radii and angles, couplers, four way boxes, fire resisting barriers, pin racks for
vertical runs where cables are wound.
Earth straps are fixed at each section to ensure earth continuity along the
trunking.
Forms of trunking
 Busbar trunking
 Flush trunking
 Multi – compartment
 Skirt trunking
 Lighting
 Cable tap trunking
 P.v.c trunking
BUS BAR TRUNKING SYSTEM
It’s a wiring system which consists of copper busbars supported on insulators
and enclosed in steel trunking which is convenient for use where large currents
have to be handled. Typical uses off this type of system are:
a) Vertical raising mains: It’s often employed in a multi – storeyed
building to carry the supply to each floor.
The incoming supply is connected to the bottom of the raising main and a
suitable tap off point provided at each floor level. A common type of trunking
used for this purpose consists of 300A copper busbars. Since in the event of a
fire hot gases and flames would tend to travel up the trunking, fire proof
barriers are fitted at each floor level. A typical fire barrier consists of a 2- 3 inch
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thick layer of glass wool supported by a hard asbestos board sheet and
completely fills the trunking.
Fire barrier
Trunking branch
Fuse box
Support insulators
Copper busbars [3ф and neutral]
Detachable covers
Incoming cable
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Overhead busbar system

This system provides a convenient method of distribution in a factory or a large
workshop. A typical system used to provide a 3ф supply has ‘plug in’ tap off
points at 3ft intervals into which a fused tap off box can be fitted which makes
it easy to provide a supply position wherever it is required and can be readily
changed if necessary. if long runs of busbars trunking are installed, it is
necessary to provide expansion joints at approximately 100ft intervals to allow
for expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature. Fire barriers
must be installed at suitable intervals particularly where trunking passes
through walls or partitions to prevent the possible spread of fire along the
trunking.
Flush trunking
It fits flush with walls of which it entails a lot of builders work to install.
Multi – compartment
It is provided with segregated compartments so that cables carrying different
voltages can be accommodated in the same trunking unit.
Skirt trunking
It is designed to take the normal place of the room skirting. It carries power,
telephone and lighting cables in its various compartments. s/o can be easily
fitted as an integral part of the trunking.
Lighting trunking
It is designed for use where long rows of continuous lighting are required. The
steel enclosure can carry fluorescent and or tungsten fittings, control gear and
supply cables.
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P.v.c trunking
Used for lighting ccts mostly in extensions of buildings bell ccts and for
telephone cables.
Cable –tap trunking
It does not carry copper busbars but insulated supports which can
accommodate VRI and P.V.C cables from which supplies to machines and
lighting ccts are tapped through fused tap, off boxes.
Advantages:
 It’s much lighter than conduits of the same capacity
 Has fewer fixings
 Wiring is easier and quicker as cables are laid in instead of being drawn
in.
 Erection time is reduced.
 Multi - compartment trunking is available where segregation of services
is required.
Disadvantages:
The initial cost of installation is quite high.
IEE REG:
 Where cables are having different ratings are installed in the same
enclosure all cables shall be deemed to have the lowest temperature
rating.
 Busbar trunking must trunking must not be installed in conditions where
inflammable vapours are present.
 Fire barriers must be installed inside the trunking when it passes through
floors, walls and partitions. Floors, walls, and partitions must be made
up with an incombustible material after the trunking has been installed.
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 Allowance should be made for expansion in long sections e.g. by fitting

copper braiding between sections.
 All busbar trunking should be marked danger and voltage stated and lids
must be securely fitted.
 Spacing factor must not exceed 45%.
UNDER FLOOR DUCTS:
The ducts are made of chemically inert non metallic fibrous material
impregnated with a preservative bitumen compound.
The duct is semicircular in section with spigot and s/o laid on and sealed to
sheets of impregnated asbestos with bitumen compound. Metallic boxes are
provided as draw in boxes and junction boxes and include baffles [restraining
device to control the movement of fluid or gas] and tunnels for the crossover
of the wiring. The ducts are installed in the solid concrete floors during the
erection of the building then the ccts are connected through surface conduits
hence to distribution boards. The various ducts are arranged to feed ceiling
points for the floor below and s/o for the floor above. Junction boxes are
provided with cover plates fixed flush with the floor finish and since the
ducting is laid out in straight lines btwn j.b it always possible to locate the runs.
The duct system takes form of an intersecting grid so that every part of the
floor area is within reasonable distance of the duct.
ADVANTAGES:
 The major part of the accommodation for the wiring can be conveniently
installed at an early stage during the construction of the building even
though the exact positions of the outlets may not be known at that time.
 A concealed wiring system is provided, without the need for excessive
long chases in the concrete floors.
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 It is relatively easy to alter the positions of outlets if necessary e.g. in

case of change of tenancy.
IEE REG:
 The ducting system shall be sufficiently protected to prevent damage
caused by the intended use of the floor.
 The ducting system shall be run in such a position that it is not liable to
damage by contact with the floor or the ceiling or their fixings.
 Entries into the ducts must be protected from ingress of water. All
covers should be securely fixed on completion.
 A maximum space factor of 35% must be ensured.
 Where ducts pass through walls or partitions, the hole should be
plugged of fire resisting materials to the thickness of the building
materials to avoid spread of fire.
WIRING SYSTEM III
SPECIAL INSTALLATIONS:
Special installations deals with wiring systems which have been developed to
meet the requirements of specific installation condition or are a combination
of types of wiring system I and II or are fairly common in use but are applied
only in special circumstances.
A. BARE CONDUCTORS
Bare conductors and or lightly insulated conductors are installed in buildings
for the following purposes:
- earthing connections
- As the external conductors of earthed concentric wiring systems.
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- protected rising main and busbar system

- The conductors of extra low voltage system.
- As collector wires for travelling cranes and trolleys.
Bare conductors passing through walls, floors, partitions or ceilings must be
protected by enclosing them in a non-absorbent incombustible insulating
material.
B. CATENARY SYSTEMS:
The most common system of catenary wiring is that which uses a high tensile
steel wire pulled taut between buildings, the cable is then run along the
catenary wire being supported the same way. This system is also known as grid
suspension system and consists of a central galvanized steel, high tensile
stranded wire surrounded by a number of p.v.c insulated conductors and the
whole is enclosed with p.v.c tape and p.v.c sheathing. Special connecting boxes
are used at tees and right angled turns.
ADVANTAGES:
- The system is completely water proof.
- Weight imposed on the building is reduced.
- Installation can be left until the building work is completed.
- Has reduced installation costs.
APPLICATIONS:
- In industrial buildings band similar installations where other types of
wiring systems would either be difficult or expensive to install.
- For overhead street lighting and in factories instead of an overhead
busbar system where amount of power required for machines is small.
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C. EARTH CONCENTRIC WIRING:

This consists of one core tinned copper made up with an outer sheath of
tinned copper .the function of the outer sheath is to act both as return
conductor for the cct current and as a mechanical protection.
IEE REG:
ii. Earth concentric system may only be used if its supplied by a tx and has
no metallic connection with the public supply system on multiple
earthing of the neutral has been approved.
D. CLEATED WIRING:
The cleat system consists of V.R.I cable supported by plastic or porcelain
cleats.
IEE REG:
iii. The conductors in a cleated system must not touch one another or
adjacent surfaces e.g. walls, ceilings e.t.c
iv. The conductors must be in view throughout their length and must be
supplied with mechanical protection when they pass through walls.
v. Conductors must be terminated at a non-inflammable surface e.g. hard
wood or block.
NB: this system is very cheap to install but is only used in conditions where it is
not liable to damage from moisture or mechanical damage.
E. OVERHEAD SYSTEM:
It’s not an actual wiring system but an overhead cable which provide
distribution of electrical energy btwn points of use and btwn buildings where
there is some considerable distance btwn the main and control of supply and
the point of use e.g. a farmhouse and a water pump a mile away.
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F. TEMPORARY INSTALLATIONS:
A temporary installation is an installation with an expected period of service of
three months. Any installation beyond this period should be completely
overhauled at three month intervals.
IEE REG:
vi. Every installation on a construction site, temporary installation other
than in private dwelling house, shall be in charge of a competent person
who shall be fully responsible for the safety and use of the installation
and for any alteration or extension.
vii. The installation shall be inspected and tested at intervals of three
months or less, as necessitated by the nature of the installation.
G. INSTALLATION IN HAZARDOUS AREAS
There are three main types of hazards classified as follows:
1. Flammable liquids.
2. Explosive gases and vapours
3. Explosive dusts where flammable organic dusts e.g. sugar and flour or
metallic dusts such as Mg, Al are likely to be present.
Flammable gases and vapours encountered with industry are classified into:
Group I: Gases encountered in coal mining e.g. methane

Group II: Petrochemical gases e.g. propane butane pentane ammonia carbon
monoxide etc
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Group III: coal gas

Group IV: Acetylene and hydrogen.
POTENTIAL DANGER AREAS
DIVISION O
This is an area in which flammable vapours are continuously present.
This is the most dangerous area and generally it is recommended that electric
equipment should not be installed there.
If it is necessary to install electrical equipment then the system of electrical

enclosures could be pressurized above atmospheric pressure so that no
explosive vapours inbuilt pass into the electrical system. An alternative method
would be to install the electric motor and its control gear outside the area and
have the drive shaft coupled to the driven machine (in the hazardous area) via
a flame proof seal in the dividing wall.
DIVISION I
This is a less dangerous area than division o and flame proof equipment is
installed.
Flame proof equipment is designed that it will withstand an internal explosion
of the particular gas for which it is certified and also prevents any spark or
flame from that explosion escaping from enclosure and igniting the
surrounding atmosphere.
These areas may be wired in:
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 Armored cable
 MICC cables with flame proof glands and for underground installations it
should have a PVC oversheath.
 Single or multicore cables enclosed in solid drawn heavy duty conduit
protected against corrosion. All conduit boxes and inspection fittings
must be flame proof.
DIVISION 2
This is less dangerous than division I areas where the equipment is unlikely to
produce arc sparks during operation. It may be possible to install normal wiring
systems with special attention to cable entries.
Regular testing must be carried out by competent personnel.

On mixed installation where there are hazardous and safe areas the electrical
installation should revert from flame proof wiring to normal wiring systems
provided that suitable sealing boxes are used.
These areas may be wired in:
 MICC with PVC oversheath for underground
 Single or multicore cables in heavy duty screwed and welded conduit.
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ILLUMINATION [ELECTRIC LIGHTING]

Introduction:
Light is a form of radiant energy. Various forms of incandescent bodies are the
sources of light and the light emitted in such bodies depend upon the
temperature of bodies. When the body is red hot the wave length of radiated
energy will be sufficiently large but the energy is in form of heat. When the
temperature increases the body changes from red hot to white hot state, the
wave length of the radiated energy becomes smaller and enters into the range
of wavelength of light therefore hot bodies emit heat as well as light energy
with its velocity being 3x 108 m/s. The ratio of the energy emitted by the body
in form of light to the total energy emitted by the body is known as the radiant
efficiency of the body which depends upon the temperature i.e. the higher the
temperature of the body the lower the wave length of the radiant energy and
the higher the radiant efficiency.
Terms used in illumination:
 Light: it is the radiant energy from a hot body which produces the visual
sensation upon human eye. It is expressed in lumen- hours.
 Luminous flux [Ф]: it is the quantity of light energy emitted per second
from a luminous body measured in lumens.
 Luminous intensity [I]: it is the luminous flux emitted by the source per
unit solid angle measured in the direction in which the intensity is
required measured in candela [cd] or lumens per steradian.
NB//: solid angle Ѡ is the angle subtended by an area at the centre of a
sphere from a light source its unit is Steradian Ѡ = 1steradian which is
defined as the angle subtended at the Centre of a sphere by part of its
surface having an area equal to [radius] 2]. The solid angle subtended by
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the centre of the whole spherical surface = 4πr2/r2 = 4π. Therefore Ѡ =

4π.
I=Ф /Ѡ cd or lumen per steradian.
 Lumen: it is defined as the amount of luminous flux given out in space
represented by one unit of solid angle by a source having an intensity of
one candle power in all directions. I.e. lumens = candle power x solid
angle = cp x Ѡ for a source emitting 1 cd lumen = 4π.
 Candle power [cp]: it is the radiating capacity of a source in a given
direction which is defined as the number of lumens given out by the
source in a unit solid angle in a given direction. Cp = lm/Ѡ.
 Illumination [E]: it’s the number of lumens falling on the surface per
unit area. It’s measured in lumens per square metre or lux or metre
candle. i.e. E =Ф/A.
 Lux or metre candle: it is defined as the luminous flux falling per square
metre on the square which is everywhere perpendicular to the rays of
light from a source of one candle power and one metre away from it.
 Mean horizontal candle power [MHCP]: it is the mean candle power in
all directions in the horizontal containing the source of light.
 Mean spherical candle power[MSCP]: It is the mean of candle power in
all directions and in all planes from the source of light.
 Reduction factor: it is the ratio of its mean spherical candle power to its
mean horizontal candle power. R.f = MSCP/MHCP.
 Lamp efficiency: it’s the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input
expressed in lumens per watt.
 Glare: it’s the brightness within the field of vision of such a character as
to cause annoyance, discomfort, interference with vision or eye fatigue.
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 Space height ratio: = horizontal distance between the two adjacent

lamps
Mounting height of lamps above working plane
 Utilization factor: = total lumens reaching the working plane
Total lumens given out by lamp
 Maintenance factor: = illumination under normal working conditions

Illumination when everything is perfectly clean.
 Depreciation factor: this is merely the inverse of the maintenance factor
and its value is more than unity.
Laws of illumination
i. Illumination of a surface E is directly proportional to the luminous
intensity I of the surface i.e. E ἀ I
ii. Inverse square law: states that the illumination of a surface is
inversely proportional to the a square of the distance of the
surface from the source.
E ἀ 1/r2
iii. Cosine law: illumination is directly proportional to the cosine of
the angle by the normal to the illuminated surface with the
direction of the incident flux. E ἀ cos Ө
Combining all these factors we get E= I cos Ө lm/m2
r2
Examples:
A. Calculate the illumination on a working plane at appoint A 2m
vertically below a lamp emitting 720 cd when;
- The surface is at right angles with the light source
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- Illumination at point B which is 3m from point A.

Sol: E ἀ I/r2
E = 720 = 180lm/m2
4
C 720 cd
Ө
2m Distance = 32+22 =3.604
A 3m B
cos Ө =Adj =2/3.604 = 0.5549
Hyp
E= I cos Ө = 720x 0.5549

r2 3.6042
= 30.73 lm/m2
B. A lamp giving out 1000 lm in all directions is suspended 6m above

the working plane. Calculate the illumination at appoint on the
working plane 4m away from the lamp foot point.
Sol:
Luminous intensity = 1000/4π =79.57
R= 62 + 42 = 7.2
Cos Ө =4/7.2 = 0.55556
E = 79.57 x 0.5556 = 0.8195lm/m2
7.22
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Calculation of total lumens required in an installation.
Luminous flux = illumination required [lm/m2] x area [m2]

Maintenance factor x coefficient of utilization
Example:
A yard 25m long by 6m wide is to be illuminated to a level of 20lm/m2. The
average lumen output of the lamp is 35lm/w, the maintenance factor is 0.8
and the coefficient of utilization is 0.5 calculate the total lamp power required
and the number of lamps if the available lamps are rated 60w.
Sol:
Luminous flux = illumination required [lm/m2] x area [m2]
Maintenance factor x coefficient of utilization
= 20 x [25 x 6]
0.8 x 0.5
= 7500lm
Total watts required = 7500lm = 214.3W
35 lm
Number of lamps required = 214.3/60 = 4lamps.
SOURCES OF ELECTRIC LIGHT

There are two main types of lamps namely;
 Incandescent lamps
 Discharge lamps.
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Incandescent lamps:
Principle of operation
In this lamp light is produced by passing electric current through a conductor
[usually tungsten] enclosed in an evacuated glass bulb. The operating
temperature is over 20000 C.
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The efficiency of the lamp is approximately 12lm/W. the efficiency of a lamp

depends on
 The rating of the lamp i.e. the size.
 The age of the lamp.
 The operating voltage.
The efficiency of the lamp can be increased by:
 Filling the bulb with inert gas, usually argon. The gas allows an increased
operating temperature of about 25000 C which gives increased light as it
minimizes the losses from the filament due to evaporation. This also
increases the life of the lamp to a minimum of 1000 hours.
 Double coiling the filament which reduces the heat losses due to
convection currents in the gas but the filament is operated at the same
temperature.
Discharge lamps:
Construction:
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Principle of operation
When electrical pressure is applied across a glass tube containing neon gas an
electrical discharge takes place and energy in form of light is given off. The gas
under these conditions is said to be ionized. Ionization is caused by the
movement of electrons in the gas which bombards the atoms of gas and free
other electrons and light is given off during this bombardment. This process of
ionization is started off by a high voltage being applied across the tube or the
use of heated filaments in the lamp. The filaments are heated at the moment
of starting and are coated with special oxide which emits electrons.
The flow of current through the tube increases with ionization and the
following chain of reaction take place;
 Increased ionization
 Decreased resistance
 Increased current
 The cycle is repeated.
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EARTHING AND PROTECTION

PROTECTION
It’s carried out both on the installation and the user from the risk of electric
shock or fire which may 0ccur under fault conditions.
Fire risk
Fire risk in electrical installation can arise due to;
a] sustained overloading of wiring or equipment:
Every circuit must have some form of over current protection which takes the
form of a fuse or miniature circuit breaker [m.c.b].the over current device must
be capable of disconnecting the supply safely in the event of the most severe
fault that can arise i.e. short cct across its own outgoing terminals. The current
rating of a fuse or C.B has inverse time xristics which operates in a time which
is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the fault current.
B] Faulty contacts or connections:
This can be avoided by the use of good quality accessories and fittings and by
using correct methods of installation. NB//loose or poor contact can attain a
very high temperature even though only a small current is flowing and the over
current device gives no protection under these circumstances.
C] Earth leakage currents
This can give rise to fire risks particularly if the earthing and bonding
arrangements are not capable of carrying a sustained fault current without
excessive heating. Danger arises from inadequate connections such as an earth
clip which has worked loose a poorly made conduit connection or corrosion of
parts of the earthing system.
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Shock risk
It arises whenever accidental contact is made btwn the live conductor and
exposed metalwork. The risk can be guarded against either by efficient
earthing or by employing earth leakage circuit breakers.
Protective devices include:
Fuses:
Def: it’s a device for opening a cct by means of a conductor designed to melt
when excess current flows along it. Terms relating to a fuse:
Fuse element: it’s that part of a fuse which is designed to melt and thus open
the cct.
Catridge: an enclosure of the fuse element.
Fuse link: fuse contacts
Terms used in connection with fuses:
Current rating; this is the maximum current that a fuse will carry without
undue deterioration of the fuse element.
Fusing current; this is the minimum current that will blow the fuse.
Fusing factor: this is the ratio of the fusing current to the current rating.
i.e. fusing factor = fusing current
Current rating
There are three types of fuses namely:
Rewirable, catridge$ HBC or HRC
REWIRABLE FUSE
It consists of a porcelain bridge and a base. The base has to sets of contacts
which fit into other contacts in the base. The fuse element usually tinned
copper wire is connected btwn the terminals of the bridge and an asbestos
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tube or pad is usually fitted to reduce the effects of arching when the fuse
melts.
ADVANTAGES:
It’s simple and cheap
DISADVANTAGESVANTAGESANTAGES:
- It’s too easy for an inexperienced person to replace the fuse element
with wire of incorrect gauge or type.
- Even when the correct wire is used for the fuse element the current
rating and fusing factor may not be exactly as intended.
- There is often undue deterioration of the fuse element due to oxidation.
- Damage particularly in conditions of severe short cct.
- Lack of discrimination i.e. a momentary high current e.g. motor starting
current and a continuous fault current.
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CATRIDGE FUSE
Its an advantages on rewirable fuse as the rating of a replacement element
is determined by the manufacturer. The fuse carrier is designed so that its
impossible to insert a fuse element of incorrect rating.
ADVANTAGES:
- The rating is accurately known

- The fuse element is less prone to deteriorate.
DISADVANTAGES:
- The fuse element is more expensive than the rewirable type.

- It is unsuitable for use where extremely high values of fault current may
occur.
APPLICATION:
Both rewirable and cartridge fuses are widely used for protecting domestic
installations and smaller industrial loads.
HIGH RAPTURING CAPACITY FUSE [HRC]
This overcomes the disability of rodinary fuses of destroying themselves in the
event of a heavy overload.the fuse element here is a silver strip of special
shape with a low melting point riveted in the centre. The strip is entirely
sorrounded by chemically purified silica to prevent arc formation in the event
that a fault current flows to operate the fuse. This overheating of the fuse and
its surrounding is prevented. These fuses are often used to protect large
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industial loads mains cables and in other situations where very large fault
currents can occur.
indicator
Ceramic body Fusible element
ADVANTAGES:
- Its xristics can be designed to suit the nature of the load.

- It’s capable to clear heavy currents safely.
- Easy to change.
DISADVANTAGES:
- It’s more expensive as compared to either rewirable or Catridge fuse.

- Relatively bulky.
MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKERS [M.C.B]

They provide close excess current protection. A c.b is essentially a switch which
may be;
- open and closed manually
- open automatically when overloaded.
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Tripping xristics may be either magnetic or thermal. Protection against

sustained over current is given by the bending of a bimetallic strip whereas
high speed protection against short circuit is given by magnetic operation.
ADVANTAGES
- The overload xristics are set by the manufacturer and cannot be altered.
- The xristics are such that the c.b will trip for small sustained overload
but not on harmless transients overloads the operation is instantaneous
when a short cct occurs.
- Faulty ccts can be easily identified.
- Supply can be quickly and easily restored when the fault has been
cleared.
DISADVANTAGES
 Must be checked from time to time to ensure that it will operate
correctly where faulty occurs.
 Mechanism can become sluggish and unreliable if left unused for a long
period.
 Very much expensive than a fuse of the same rating.
 More bulky than a fuse of the same rating.
EARTHING
TERMINOLOGIES:
Earth: a connection to the general mass of earth by means of an earth
electrode.
Earthed: used to denote an object connected electrically to an earth electrode.
Solidly earthed: connected electrically to an earth electrode without a fuse,
switch, circuit-breaker, resistor or impedance in the earth connection.
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Earth electrode: a metal plate, rod or other conductor buried or driven into the
ground and used for earthing metal work.
Earthing lead: the final conductor means of which the connection to earth
electrode is made.
Earth-continuity conductor (ecc): the conductor including any clump
connecting to the earth lead or to each other those parts of an installation
which are required to be earthed. The ECC may be whole or in part of the
metal conduct, the sheath of cables or the special continuity conductor of a
cable or flexible cord incorporating such a conductor.
Live metalwork: an object is said to be live when – a difference in potential
exists between it and earth or it is connected to common return or the neutral
of a supply system in which is, not permanently and solidly earthed.
Continuous neutral earthing (CNE): when CNE system of earthing is used as a
means of protection against earth faults in appliances in consumer’s premises,
the framework of such appliances is connected to the neutral wire of the
supply authority’s network.
Earth resistance: the ohmic resistance between an earth-electrode system and
the general mass of the earth.
Earth resistivity: the resistance in ohms per cubic centimeter (R/cm³) of a
sample of earth.
Bond: to connect together electrically two or more conductors.
Approximate values for soil resistivity:
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Description Ohm-cm
Marshy ground 200-350
Loam and clay 400-15,000
Chalk 6000-40,000
Sand 9000-800,000
Pearl 5000-50,000
Sandy gravel 5000-50,000
Rock 100,000 upwards
Reasons for earthing
1) To maintain the potential of any part of a system as a definite value w.r.t

earth.
2) To allow current to flow to earth in the event of a fault so that the
protective gear will operate to isolate the faulty connection.
3) To make sure that in the event of a faulty apparatus normally ‘dead’
cannot reach a dangerous potential w.r.t. earth.
IEE REG:
 Where metalwork other than current –carrying conductors is liable to

become charged with electricity in such a manner as to create a
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danger if the insulation of a conductor should become defective or if

a defect should occur in any apparatus the metal work shall be
earthed in such a manner as will ensure immediate electrical
discharge without danger.
 Every item of apparatus and every conductor shall be prevented from
giving rise to earth-leakage currents by all insulated construction by
double insulation, by isolation or by earthing of exposed metal ports.
 Extraneous fixed metalwork which cannot be effectively segregated
from the metal work of the installation should be bonded to the
earth- continuity conductor.
 The consumer’s earthing terminal to which the earth-continuity
conductor shall be provided near to the consumer’s terminal.
 Consumers earthing terminal shall be bonded to the metal work of
public gas and water services as near as possible to their points of
entry into the premises.
 The C.S.A of every copper earthing lead shall not be less than 6mm²
with a maximum size of 70mm² except for the earthing of a TX
neutral or an electrode boiler which is 2.5mm².
 One point of the secondary winding and noncurrent carrying parts of
the metalwork of any transformer shall be connected to the earth
continuity conductor.
There are several methods used to achieve the earthing of an

installation which include:
A] Connection to the metal sheath and armoring of a supply
authority’s underground supply cable. The provision of a cable
sheath as an earth electrode connection is very common nowadays
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but incase the earthing is proved ineffective the authority is not held
responsible.
B] CONTINOUS EARTH WIRE [CEW]

Connection to the continuous earth wire (CEW) provided by a supply
authority where the distribution of energy is by overhead lines. CEW
is not always provided by the authority except in those areas which
have extremely high values of soil resistivity e.g. peat and rock.
C] Connection to an earth electrode sunk in the ground for the

purpose.
Connection to an earth electrode sunk in the ground is the most
common means of earthing and the earth electrode can be in four
forms:
i) Pipe
It’s a 200mm diameter cast-iron pipe, 2 metres long and buried in a

coke-filled pit. It requires a certain amount of excavation to make the
pit where the earth plate is installed and since iron is prone to
corrosion especially if the coke has high content of sulphur it’s highly
insulated as shown below.
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Earth conductor vulcanized

rubber or PCP in
Coke filled pit
Electrode
connected bitumen insulation
Cast iron earth plate
[Ii] Plate
Plate electrodes are normally of cast iron buried vertically with the centre
about one meter below the surface. (Copper may also be used).
The plate’s electrodes provide a large surface area and are used mainly where
the ground is shallow i.e. where the resistivity is low near the surface but
increases rapidly with depth.
Excavation is also required and care is needed to protect the earth-electrode
connection from corrosion.
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i) Strip
Earth strip
Copper strip is most useful in shallow overlying rock. The strip should be buried
to a depth of not less than 50 cm.
ii) Rods
They are very economical and require no excavation for their installation. They
are of standard lengths and made from hard drawn copper. They have a
hardened steel tip and a steel driving cap. Sometimes the CU rod has a steel
rod running through its centre for strength while it is being driven into rocky
soil
Gunmetal connecting cap
38mm
1.22m Earth wire
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Advantages
a) The buried length allows soil contact with the rod to be close and
definite.
[D] CONTINOUS NEUTRAL EARTHING
The CNE method gives protection against earth-fault conditions and uses
the neutral of incoming supply as the earth point or terminal where all
protected metalwork is connected by means of the installation ECC’s to the
neutral- service conductor at the supply- intake position. This makes line to
earth faults converted to line- to neutral faults which ensures that sufficient
current will flow under fault conditions to blow a fuse or trip an overload cb
thus isolating the faulty connection from the supply.
Supply authority L
TX
Consumers wiring
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[E] PROTECTIVE MULTIPLE EARTHING (P.M.E)

The principle of this system is that the earth continuity is connected to the
neutral service conductor at the supply intake position and the neutral
conductor is being connected to earth at regular intervals as shown.
L
Earth continuity
Conductor
bonded to neutral multiple earth electrodes
Advantages
i) There is low impedance path for fault current to flow via the neutral
conductor.
ii) The impedance to earth is low even though individual earth
impedance may be high since many earth connections are made in
parallel.
Disadvantages
i) The shock risk that may arise if any earthed metal work associated
with the system is not bonded to the neutral conductor or if the
neutral conductor is broken.
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ii) Earth currents may circulate between the multiple earth electrodes
causing interference with telephone systems. There are two
dangerous conditions when P.M.E is in use which are
a) Fault to earth metal work not bonded to neutral.
b) Broken neutral conductor and because of these inherent dangers
which can arise with this system it is essential that the IEE reg
concerning it are strictly observed some include:
 The use of this system must be authorized by the minister
of power with the concurrence of the post master general
(Reg 4 electricity supply Reg 1937)
 All premises supplied must be connected so as to use the
P.M.E system of earthing.
 The maximum resistance from neutral to earth must not
exceed 10R
 No fusible cut out, automatic CB, removable link or single
pole switch shall be included in the neutral conductor.
 Earth continuity conductors must have a resistance of less
than 1/2ohm which must be tested by passing a current of
not less than to 10A for a period of at least five minutes.
In general the above requirements limit the application of P.M.E to new

networks since it is usually V, expensive to adapt all the installations connected
to an existing network to meet all the necessary requirements.
[F] INSTALLATION OF AUTOMATIC FAULT PROTECTION

It is obtained by use of earth leakage connection breakers which are of two
forms.
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 Voltage operated cct breaker:
They are designed to be directly responsive to fault voltages which appear

on protected metalwork caused by earth leakage currents.
L limiting resistor load

----------------
protected metal work
N --- ----------
Operating coil
This fault voltage is V=IR where R is resistance of the earth, I the leakage
current. They operate on currents as low as 50mA and their operating time
is too little e.g. BS 842 unit has less than one cycle. The trip coli is connected
btwn protected metal work and earth in the same way a voltmeter is
connected to measure the voltage btwn the earth and the metalwork. If a
fault occurs, the current will flow through the trip coil to energize it and so
trip the breaker contacts. Voltage operated E.L.C.B.S are used in domestic
and small industrial installations to give protection against shock risk where
good earth cannot be obtained.
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 Current operated ELCB

primary coil protected metal work
-------------
Sec coil test wdg
------------- Primary coil load

Operating coil limiting
resistor
The basic principle of operation depends upon more current flowing into the
live side of primary winding than leaves the neutral or the return [earth]
conductor. The essential part of it is a TX with opposed wdgs carrying the
incoming and outgoing current. In a healthy cct where values of current in the
wdgs are equal the magnetic effects cancel each other out but when a fault
occurs it will cause an out of balance condition and create a magnetic effect In
the tx core which links with the turns of a small sec wdg. An e.m.f is induced in
this wdg which is permanently connected to the trip coil of the c.b and causes
a current to flow in the trip coil which energizes the coil to trip the breaker
contacts.
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INSTALLATION TESTING AND INSPECTION;

Inspection:
It’s looking closely at the electrical work inorder to discover if there are defects
which may cause the
Electrical installation becomes dangerous to human life e.g. a broken switch
base, an exposed earth continuity conductor to mechanical damage. The
electrical properties cannot be seen they can only be measured hence
need for testing instruments.
The main purpose for installation testing is to detect faults before dangerous
situations arise. The main factors against which an installation must be
protected are:
i. Earth leakage
ii. Danger of electric shock
iii. Excess current, moisture and corrosion.
 Testing should be carried out on new installations and on

additions to existing installations.
 The official test that is carried out by the electricity supply
authority before the installation is connected to the mains.
 Periodically on existing installations to ascertain its condition.
The tests which are carried out are:
 Verification of polarity
 Insulation resistance test
 Continuity test
 Test of effectiveness of earthing.
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VERIFICATION OF POLARITY:
This is carried out to ensure that all fuses, single pole switches and centre
connections of screw lamp are connected in the live conductor only. Also the
outer contacts of lamp holder [Edison screw are connected in the neutral or
earthed conductor and plugs, s/o are correctly wired.]
There are two methods of carrying out this test:
 Testing of polarity with cct live:
Steps on how to carry out this test:
 The consumers main switch should be ON

 All the switches should be ON
 All lamps should be out.
A test lamp is used. The end of one lead is connected to the earthed conductor
or the neutral at the main switch, and the other lead is touched to the single
pole switch terminals, fuse terminals and centre connections of screw lamp
holders. The test lamp should light.
 Testing of polarity with cct dead:
To carry out this test all fuses should be out, switches off, all lamps out and
appliances out. One lead is connected to the phase of the outgoing side of the
main fuse. The other lead is connected at the terminals of single pole switch in
turn provided the polarity is correct, the instrument reading will be less than
1Ω since its measuring the resistance of the cct wiring. The instrument used is
ohmmeter or bell set.
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INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST

The purpose of this test is to ensure that the quality of insulating material used
in the installation is good. It ensures that there is no possibility of leakage
currents flowing between insulated conductors and also btwn the conductors
and the general mass of the earth.
This test is done in two ways:
 Btwn earth and all non earthed conductors connected together

 Btwn the live and neutral conductor.
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Insulation resistance test btwn conductors and earth:

Before testing:
 Disconnect main supply by opening main switch and removing main

fuses.
 Make sure that all lamps are in their holders.
 Place all switches in the ON position. See that all fuses are wired and
insulated in their place in the D.F.B.
 On incomplete installation the ends of conductor at each outlets points
and switch position must be stripped and joined together.
Method:
Join together the neutral and live terminals on the installation site of the main
switch. The instrument used is a megger.
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TEST OF EFFECTIVENESS OF EARTHING:

The reasons for carrying out earthing tests are:
 To measure the resistance of the earth continuity conductor [metal
conduit, trunking, and metal sheathed or the special conductor ECC]
which connect to the earthing lead to those parts of an installation
which requires to be earthed.
 To check that the earth continuity conductor is capable of clearing heavy
leakage current.
 To ensure that the earth electrode is effectively connected to the
general mass of the earth.
Measuring the resistance of ECC:
The instrument used is ohmmeter.
Method:
Main supply should be off
Find the resistance of the ohmmeter leads [by shorting them]
Measure the resistance of the earth continuity conductor from the main
supply to the furthest point of the installation.
The maximum allowable resistance on the installation using steel conduit is
0.5Ω for copper is 1Ω where copper ecc is used.
IEE REG FOR ECC:
 Where separate ecc is used, the minimum allowable size is 1.0mm2
and maximum of 70mm2 but it must not be less than half the c.s.a of
the conductor to be protected.
 All joints in the ecc must be mechanically and electrically sound and
must be protected against corrosion.
Testing that the ecc is capable of clearing heavy current:
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It is achieved by injecting current in the earth continuity conductor. In this

method an alternating current 1.5 times of the final subcct current or a
maximum of 25A is injected through the ecc. The impedance should not be
greater than 1Ω.
Apparatus used are: a double wound TX 240 – 40v, an ammeter 0 -30A,
variable resistor and a voltmeter 0 – 50v.
Method:
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CONTINUITY TESTER
The instrument is used for testing the electrical continuity of conductors. The
readings are in the low ohms range. They consist of a direct reading ohmmeter
and a small dry battery usually 4.5v flash type. The scale for continuity testing
is from zero to 100Ω whereas that for insulation testing from zero to infinity.
EARTH TESTING INSTRUMENTS

These instruments are used for testing the resistance of the earth electrode
resistance area. The principle involved in the tests is that a current is passed
thru the electrode under test and the earth to a distance auxiliary electrode.
The potential is measured btwn the electrode under test and a central
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potential electrode. The resistance is obtained by dividing the voltage reading

thus obtained by the current flowing in the cct.
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EARTH LOOP IMPENDANCE TESTERS

They are used to measure the resistance of the earth fault loop. This comprise
the line conductor from the point of fault back to the supply transformer, the
path thru the tx winding , the earthed neutral point of tx, the path from the
consumers earth lead, the earth lead itself, and the earth continuity conductor
to the point of fault.
86

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Electrical Installation Notes 3-1

Electrical power generation (Kenya Industrial Training Institute)

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 In this installation good ventilation is necessary to reduce the building up

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Factors determining the severity of shock:

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Methods of artificial respiration

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2. Mouth to mouth [kiss of life]:

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- Blisters should not be broken.

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Type of extinguisher Most suited for Class of Color band

Water Wood paper textile A Signal red

Carbon dioxide Petrol paint oil B Black

Foam[h20 or co2] Petrol, paint, oil B Pale cream

Powder Wood, petrol, A,B,C French blue

Halogenated Petrol, oil, electric B,C Emerald green.

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conducting materials which are not intended to become ‘alive’. Insulation is

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A cable is a length of insulated conductor solid or stranded of two or more of

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Nominal x- No. and Current Application

0.75 › 5A Bell and alarm ccts

1.0 1/1.13 11 Lighting ccts[solar]

1.5 1/1.38 3/0.029 13 Lighting ccts

2.5 1/1.78 7/0.78 18 Power ccts [s/o]

4 7/0.85 24 Cooker ccts

6 7/1.04 31 Mains to ccu supply

10 7/1.35 42 Mains supply, floodlights

16 7/1.70 56 Underground cables from

25 7/2.14 73 the transformer to the

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CABLE ABBREVIATIONS INITIALS

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 Wiring cables; this includes switchboard wiring, farm wiring, domestic

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 Twin twisted; this consist of two single insulated stranded conductors

CABLE RATINGS AND SIZES

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conductor depends on both the amount of current flowing and the

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Actual maximum current

Or use a table for diversity.

2A 1.75A 1.5A 1.25A 1.0A 0.75A 0.50A 0.25A

The allowable volt drop is 2.5% =240x 2.5/100 =6v

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AB = 40x 2x 6 = 480mv =0.48v

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The v.d = 16x 19.5x 20 = 6.24v

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