Electrical Engineering Form Two

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Electrical Engineering
DO NOT DUPLICATE
for Technical Secondary Schools

Student’s Book
Form Two
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Tanzania Institute of Education
ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 1 11/7/22 3:51 PM

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©Tanzania Institute of Education NOT DUPLICATE
Published 2022
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ISBN: 978-9987-09-486-8
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P.O. Box 35094
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
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Mobile numbers: +255 735 041 168 / +255 735 041 170
E-Mail: director.general@tie.go.tz
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Website: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. No part of this textbook may be reproduced, stored in any
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retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic,

mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission
of the Tanzania Institute of Education.
Electrical Engineering ii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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DOTable
NOT of contents
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Acronyms and abbreviations.................................................................................v

Acknowledgements............................................................................................... vii
Preface....................................................................................................................viii
Chapter One: Nature of electricity..........................................................................1
The concept of electricity.....................................................................................1
Matter...................................................................................................................1
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Electrical materials...............................................................................................8
Electron flow and conventional current...............................................................9
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Chapter summary................................................................................................11
Revision exercise 1.............................................................................................12
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Chapter Two: Electrical quantities and units.........................................................13
Basic concepts of electrical quantities and units.................................................13
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Electrical quantities.............................................................................................13
Electrical units....................................................................................................14
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Chapter summary................................................................................................17
Chapter Three: Magnetism and electromagnetism................................................20
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The concepts of magnetism and electromagnetism............................................20

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Magnets...............................................................................................................20
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Magnetic induction.............................................................................................27
Electromagnetism...............................................................................................28
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Chapter summary................................................................................................37
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Chapter Four: DC circuits.....................................................................................40
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Basic concepts of electrical circuits....................................................................40

Analysis of DC circuits.......................................................................................50
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Demonstration of Ohm’s law..............................................................................69

Chapter summary................................................................................................74
Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) iii Electrical Engineering

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Chapter Five: Electrical measurements.................................................................76
Basic concepts of electrical measurements and instruments..............................76
Classification of electrical measuring instruments.............................................77
Chapter summary................................................................................................92
Chapter Six: Cells and batteries.............................................................................95
Basic concepts of cells and batteries...................................................................95
Cells....................................................................................................................95
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Batteries.............................................................................................................114
Chapter summary...............................................................................................125
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Revision exercise 6............................................................................................126
Chapter Seven: Electricity generation and utilisation...........................................127
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Basic concepts of electricity generation and utilisation.....................................127
Forms of energy.................................................................................................128
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Sources of electricity..........................................................................................129
Energy conversion.............................................................................................131
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Methods of producing electricity.......................................................................133
Electrical energy storage....................................................................................135
Utilisation of electricity.....................................................................................137
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Chapter summary...............................................................................................145
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Revision exercise 7............................................................................................146

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Answers to numerical questions..........................................................................147

Glossary.................................................................................................................150
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Bibliography..........................................................................................................154
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Index.......................................................................................................................156
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Electrical Engineering iv Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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Acronyms
DO NOTand abbreviations
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A Ampere
AC Alternating Current
Ah Ampere-hour
amu atomic mass unit
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C Coulomb, Capacitor, Capacitance, Heat capacity
Cp Specific heat capacity
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DC Direct Current
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DIT Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology
E Energy, Voltage (electromotive force)
e.m.f. electromotive force

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e charge of electron
G Conductance, Galvanometer
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HPP Hydro Power Plant

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I Current
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ICE Internal Combustion Engine

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J joule
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K Kelvin
kg kilogram
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kW kilowatt
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kWh kilowatt-hour
L Inductance
Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) v Electrical Engineering

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Light-Emitting Diode
MUST Mbeya University of Science and Technology
P Power
p.d. potential difference
PMMC Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
PV photovoltaic
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Q Charge, Heat
R Resistance, Resistor
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s second
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S Siemens
SLI
SAUT
Starting, Lighting and Ignition SE
St. Augustine University of Tanzania
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t time
TIE Tanzania Institute of Education

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UDSM University of Dar es Salaam

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UV Ultra-violet
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V volt, voltage
W watt
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Wh watt-hour
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Ws watt-seconds
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Electrical Engineering vi Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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Acknowledgements
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The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the contributions
of all the organisations and individuals who participated in designing and developing
this textbook. In particular, TIE wishes to thank the Dar es Salaam Institute of
Technology (DIT), University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), Mbeya University of
Science and Technology (MUST), St. Augustine University of Tanzania (SAUT)
and technical secondary schools. Besides, the following categories of individuals
are acknowledged:
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Writers: Dr Sosthenes F. Karugaba (DIT), Dr Mathew R. Msukwa (UDSM),
Mr Joel F. Mushi (DIT), Mr Mahmoud T. Maulid (DIT) and Mr
Onesford O. Haule (Ifunda Technical Secondary School)
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Editors: Dr Maurice O. Ogeta (SAUT), Mr Wilbert D. Ruta (MUST) and
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Mr Maziku M. Mrisho (DIT) - language
Designer: Mr Silvanus A. Mihambo
Illustrators:
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Mr Silvanus A. Mihambo and Dr Sosthenes F. Karugaba
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Coordinator: Dr Sosthenes F. Karugaba (DIT)
TIE also appreciates the participation of the technical secondary school teachers and
students in the trial phase of the manuscript. Likewise, the Institute would like to
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thank the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology for facilitating the writing
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and printing of this textbook.

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Dr Aneth A. Komba
Director General
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Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) vii Electrical Engineering

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Preface
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This textbook, Electrical Engineering for Technical Secondary Schools, is

written specifically for Form Two students in the United Republic of Tanzania.
It is written in accordance with the 2019 Syllabus for Technical Secondary
Schools, Forms I-IV, issued by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.
The book consists of seven chapters, namely Nature of electricity, Electrical
quantities and units, Magnetism and electromagnetism, DC circuits, Electrical
measurements, Cells and batteries, as well as Electricity generation and
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utilisation. Each chapter contains illustrations, activities and exercises. You are
encouraged to do all the activities and exercises as well as any other assignments
provided by your teacher. Doing so will enable you to develop the intended
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competencies.
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Electrical Engineering viii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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Chapter
Nature of electricity
One
Introduction
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Electricity is used in electrical appliances such as cookers,
lamps, irons, washing machines, radios and televisions. It
is therefore important to learn how electricity is related to
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different materials. In this chapter, you will learn about the
concept of electricity, matter, electrical materials, electron
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flow and conventional current. The competencies developed
will enable you to identify and select the appropriate
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materials for use in various areas and appliances which
consume electricity.
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The concept of electricity
Electricity is the flow of electric charges carried by free-flowing electrons.
Negatively-charged electrons are loosely held to atoms of conducting materials.
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With a little force, free electrons can move from atoms and flow in a generally
uniform direction. In this case, electric charge refers to a fundamental property of
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matter that can either be a positive or negative charge. The electrons of different
types of atoms have different degrees of freedom to move around. With some types
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of materials, such as metals, the outermost electrons in the atoms are so loosely
bound that they disorderly move in the space between the atoms of that material
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by the influence of room-temperature. These virtually unbound electrons are called

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free electrons because they are free to leave their respective atoms and float around
in the space between adjacent atoms. To understand electricity, first, you should
understand the concept of matter which contains electrons.
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Matter
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Matter is any substance that has mass and occupies space. It is made up of small
particles known as atoms.
Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) 1 Electrical Engineering

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States of matter DO NOT DUPLICATE
A state of matter is one of the distinct forms in which matter can exist. There are
three distinct physical states of matter namely, solid, liquid and gaseous states.
Solid state
Matters which have fixed volume and shape are called solids and they are in solid
state of matter. Examples of solids are common table salt, table sugar, ice cubes,
frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice), glass, rock, metals and wood.
Liquid state
Matters which have fixed volume but indefinite shape are called liquids and they are
in liquid state of matter. Examples of liquids are water, milk, blood, urine, gasoline,
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juice and wine.
Gaseous state
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Matters which have indefinite shape and volume are called gases and they are in
gaseous state of matter. Examples of gases are air, carbon dioxide and water vapour.
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Figure 1.1 (a) shows pieces of wood which demonstrate an example of matter in
a solid state.Figure 1.1 (b) shows a glass of milk which is an example of matter in
liquid state. Figure 1.1 (c) shows water vapour (steam) escaping from a cooking pan
which is an example of matter in a gaseous state. SE
water vapour
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(a) Solid state (b) Liquid state (c) Gaseous state

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Figure 1.1: Three states of matter

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In a solid-state, particles are tightly packed together and they cannot move freely,
but they can only vibrate. As a result, matter in a solid state is stable and has a
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definite shape and volume. Figure 1.2 shows tightly packed particles of the solid
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state of matter.
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particles of matter
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Figure 1.2: Tightly packed particles of matter in solid state
Electrical Engineering 2 Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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In a liquid state, particlesDO
are NOT
looselyDUPLICATE
packed together and adapt the shape of the
container in which they are placed. They can move within a liquid, but they are
packed densely enough that the volume of the liquid is maintained. Figure 1.3 shows
loosely packed particles of the liquid state of matter.
particles of matter
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Figure 1.3: Loosely packed particles of matter in liquid state
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The gaseous state of matter is composed of particles that are free to move randomly
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such that they neither have a defined shape nor a defined volume. Gas can be
compressed or expanded to occupy the volume and shape of its container. The
container must be properly sealed to prevent the gas from escaping from it. Figure
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1.4 shows free particles of the gaseous state of matter with enough space for free
movement.
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particles of matter
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Figure 1.4: Freely moving particles of matter in gaseous state

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Atomic structure of matter

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An atom is the smallest particle of matter. The arrangement and composition of these
particles give the chemical and physical properties of matter. The atom is composed
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of tiny charge-carrying particles known as electrons and protons as well as neutral

particles known as neutrons. The protons and neutrons form the centre of the atom
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called nucleus. Nucleus is surrounded by orbits or shells containing negatively

charged electrons. These basic components of an atom are shown in Figure 1.5.

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Electron
Nucleus
Proton
Neutron
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Figure 1.5: Structure and composition of an atom
The smallest amount of charge that exists in an atom is carried by electrons and
protons. Each proton carries a positive charge of 1.602×10–19 C and each electron
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carries an equal and opposite charge of 1.602×10–19 C. This property makes an
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atom to be electrically neutral in its normal state. An atom can either gain or lose
electrons to form ions which can either be positive, when an atom loses an electron
or negative, when an atom gains an electron. The atom in Figure 1.5 contains a
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nucleus with six protons and six neutrons as well as two orbits with a total of six
electrons. The number of electrons and their arrangements in the orbits determine
the electrical conduction and insulation properties of materials.
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The atoms of the same type make an element. Different elements are arranged
according to their chemical properties in a periodic table.
Periodic table
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The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabular display
of the chemical elements which are arranged by atomic number and electron
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configuration. Elements with the same number of electrons in the outermost shell
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form a group and exhibit similar chemical properties. Groups are numbered from 1
to 7, then 0 or 8. The rows of elements in the periodic table are called periods. The
elements in a row (period) have the same number of electron shells.
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An element is a pure substance that consists of only atoms that have the same numbers
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of protons in their atomic nuclei such as hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium and
oxygen.
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The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom
that defines the element. It is also equal to the number of electrons in an electrically
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stable atom.
The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus is known as the mass
number of an element. It represents the mass of the atom’s nucleus in atomic mass
units (amu). The sum of the mass number and the atomic number for an atom

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DO NOT
corresponds to the total number DUPLICATE
of sub-atomic particles present in the atom, which
are protons, neutrons and electrons. An example is the atomic symbol of sodium
element, 2311
Na , with its mass number and atomic number. The atomic number
appears as subscript in the atomic symbol of the element, while the atomic mass
appears as a superscript. For this element, the number of protons is equal to 11
and the number of electrons is also equal to 11, whereas the number of neutrons is
equal to 12. Having an equal number of protons and electrons makes it electrically
neutral since the total positive charge of protons is balanced with the total negative
charge of electrons. In the periodic table, sodium is found in group 1 (since it has
one electron in its outer most shell) and period IV (since it has four electron shells).
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Electronic configuration of elements
This is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule (or other physical
structure) in atomic or molecular orbitals (or shells). An electron shell is the outside
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part of an atom around the atomic nucleus. It is a group of atomic orbitals with the
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same value of the principal quantum number n, which is the number indicating the
energy level and relative distance of the electron from the nucleus (centre) of an atom.
Electron shells have one or more electron sub-shells. The electronic configuration
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for each of the first twenty elements together with their respective atomic structure
is shown in Table 1.1, where electrons are arranged in shells with each shell having
a maximum number of electrons it can carry. The first shell holds a maximum of 2
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electrons, the second holds 8, the third 18 and the fourth 32 electrons. This results
into the arrangement of electrons as shown in the electronic configuration notation
in Table 1.1. This notation enables one to put elements in groups and periods in the
periodic table.
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The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the group of an element
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and the number of shells determines its period. For example, hydrogen has an
atomic number equal to one. Therefore, it has one electron in its outermost shell and
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consequently has one shell. This is why hydrogen is found in the first period of the
first group. The electronic configuration in Table 1.1 shows names and symbols of
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the first twenty elements in the periodic table. The electrons in the outermost shell
determine the chemical properties of an element. This outermost shell is called the
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valence shell.
The first twenty elements in the periodic table are hydrogen (H), helium (He), lithium
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(Li), beryllium (Be), boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), fluorine (F),
neon (Ne), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), silicon (Si), phosphorus
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(P), sulphur (S), chlorine (Cl), argon (Ar), potassium (K) and calcium (Ca). These
elements are shown in Table 1.1.

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Table 1.1: The first twenty elements withDUPLICATE
their respective atomic structures
H He
Hydrogen Helium
1 2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

Lithium
2:1 2:2 2:3 2:4 2:5 2:6 2:7 2:8
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Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon

2:8:1 2:8:2 2:8:7 2:8:8
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2:8:3 2:8:4 2:8:5 2:8:6
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K Ca
Potassium Calcium
2:8:8:1 2:8:8:2 SE
Most of these elements are very useful in our daily life. For example, aluminium is
used in the manufacturing of electrical power transmission line conductors. Elements
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are further classified as metals and non-metals. In the periodic table shown in Table
1.2, metals are located on the left of the stepped line and non-metals on the right.
As one moves from left to right, along the period in the periodic table, the elements
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become less metallic and the number of electrons in the outer shell increases by one
from one element to the next. These elements are used to produce different electrical
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materials.
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Table 1.2: Periodic table with the first twenty elements

Stepped line
1 2
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Hydrogen Helium
H He
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3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Li Be B C N O F Ne
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11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
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19 20
Potassium Calcium
K Ca

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Metals and non-metals DO NOT DUPLICATE
All elements in the periodic table can be classified into metals and non-metals
based on their chemical properties. These properties are characterised based on
the following criteria: solidity, melting and boiling point, conductivity, density,
malleability and ductility.
Metals
These are electropositive elements that form positive ions by losing electrons during
their chemical reactions. Examples of metals from the first twenty elements in the
periodic table are lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminium, potassium
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and calcium. These metals have the following properties:
(a) They are solid at room temperature except for mercury, which is liquid at room
temperature.
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(b) They have high melting and boiling point. The atoms in metals are closely
packed. So, they need more energy to move them apart and convert them into
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liquid.
(c) They are good conductors of electricity and heat. This is because at least one
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electron per atom is free and it is not tied to any particular atom, but is, instead,
able to move freely throughout the metal.
(d) They have high density. This is due to the fact that they have many atoms packed
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very closely into a small space.
(e) They are malleable and ductile, that is, they can withstand hammering and can
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be made into thin sheets and drawn into wires.

(f) They have a metallic lustre and reflect light. The free electrons in metals vibrate
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easily in response to light. The vibrating electrons, in turn, produce light of their
own, resulting in a reflection or lustrous shimmer.
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Non-metals
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These are elements that tend to gain electrons to form negative ions during their
chemical reactions. Examples of non-metals from the first twenty elements of the
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periodic table are hydrogen, helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, neon,
phosphorous, sulphur, chlorine and argon. Non-metals exist in two of the three
states of matter at room temperature, for example, oxygen exists in gaseous state and
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carbon exists in a solid state at room temperature. Non-metals have the following
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properties:
(a) They have low melting and boiling points.
(b) They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. This is because electrons in

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non-metals are held tightly; NOT
are DUPLICATE
not allowed to move freely.
(c) They have low density. The bonding between the atoms in the non-metals is
weak and there is a negligible attraction force between them.
(d) They are very brittle and can neither be rolled into wires nor pounded into
sheets. They are formed of weak attractive forces and thus can be easily broken
if any external force is applied.
(e) They have no metallic lustre and do not reflect light. Since non-metals do not
have any free electrons, the light falling on non-metals does not reflect thus they
are not shiny.
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Electrical materials
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For some materials, the application of external force leads to the detachment of
electrons and results into conduction of electricity. In other materials, the application
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of external force does not lead to the detachment of electrons since they are quite tight
and are not free to move easily. The former types of materials are called conductors
and the latter are called insulators. When an impurity is added to some elements, like
silicon, the semiconductor materials are formed.
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Conductors
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A conductor is a type of material that allows the flow of an electric charge (electric
current) in one or more directions. Examples of conductors from the first twenty
elements of the periodic table are lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, silicon,
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potassium and calcium. Metals like iron, copper, aluminium or their alloys are good
conductors of heat and they have many applications in our daily life. They are used
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to make cooking utensils, electrical kettles, electrical irons and wires.

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Insulators
An insulator is a material that does not conduct electricity or heat. The most effective
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electrical insulators are glass, air, plastic, rubber, ceramic and wood. These insulators
are often used to make handles of kitchen utensils, which prevent heat from reaching
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the cook’s hands. The plastic coating is used to cover most of the electrical wires in
appliances for protection against electrical shock. An example of an insulator from
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the first twenty elements of the periodic table is carbon.
Semiconductors
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A semiconductor is a material that has conductivity between conductors (generally

metals) and insulators (such as rubber or ceramics). An example of a semiconductor
based on the first twenty elements of the periodic table is silicon (Si). Another

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example of a semiconductor NOT the
DUPLICATE
first twenty elements of the periodic table
is germanium (Ge). Semiconductors can be pure elements such as silicon and
germanium or compound elements such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide.
Semiconductors are used in the manufacturing of various electronic components
such as diodes, transistors, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and integrated circuits
which are essential parts of radios, televisions, mobile phones and computers.
Activity 1.1: Identifying different electrical materials

Required materials: Safety gears, copper wire, rubber, diode, transistor, paper and
wood
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Procedures:
1. Investigate all the provided materials.
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2. Identify and group the electrical materials into (a) conductors (b) insulators and
(c) semiconductors.
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3. List down the identified materials in their categories.
4. Present your findings in class.
5. Submit a report to your teacher for assessment.
Electron flow and conventional current

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In a conductor, sub-atomic particles like electrons move in all directions randomly
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at all times. The magnitude of this random movement depends upon temperature.
However, when they are in the presence of an electrical field, the electrons move in
random motion but they slowly tend to drift in one direction. When electrons move,
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they result into the creation of holes that carry positive charges. The direction of
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flow of electrons is determined by the polarity of the electrical field. The average
drift velocity of the electrons or sub-atomic particles in an applied electrical field is
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proportional to the field itself. Figure 1.6 shows how the electrons and holes move
when an electric field is applied.
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Flow of electrons Flow of holes

Hole
Free electrons
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Conventional current
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Battery
Figure 1.6: Movement of electrons and holes in a conductor

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The electrons flow from negative DUPLICATE
terminal to the positive terminal of a voltage
source while the conventional current flows out of the positive terminal through the
circuit to the negative terminal of the source.
Electric charge and current
A fundamental property of the elementary particles of which matter is made up
of and gives rise to attractive and repulsive forces is called an electrical charge.
Charge is the fundamental electrical quantity. The rate of flow of electric charge is
called an electric current. The flow of electrons in an electric circuit leads to the
establishment of current. The equation relating electrical charge, current and time is
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Electric charge (Q) = Electric current (I) × time (t)
Q = It

Q
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I=
t
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where Q is the charge in coulomb (C), I is the current in ampere (A) and t is the time
in seconds (s). As charge is associated with some electrons flowing in an electric
circuit times the total time taken where the electron always possesses a constant
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charge of 1.6×10-19 C, then the total charge can also be found by
Q = ne

where n is the number of electrons and e is the charge of an electron.
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Example 1.1
Draw the following diagram and label the directions of flow of both electrons and
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conventional current in the circuit.

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Battery Load
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Solution:
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Electron flow Conventional current flow

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Battery Load
Conventional current flow Electron flow

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Example 1.2 DO NOT DUPLICATE
Four electrons are flowing through a conductor in one second. Calculate the
established current.
Solution
Given: The number of electrons, n = 4 , Time, t = 1 s
Recall: Charge of an electron, e = 1.6 × 10−19 C
Required I
Total charge, Q = ne
Q = 4×1.6×10−19 = 6.4×10−19
Current, I = Q = 6.4×10
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−19
C
= 6.4×10−19 A
t 1s
Example 1.3
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Calculate the number of electrons which are required to carry a charge of 105 C.
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Solution:
Given: Q = 105 C ; Recall e = 1.6 × 10 -19 C is the charge per electron.
Required number of electrons, n
Therefore, the number of electrons is
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Q 105 C
n= = = 6.6 × 10 20 electrons
e 1.6 × 10 C
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−19
Example 1.4
If a charge of 105 C flows in 15 seconds, calculate the current.
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Solution:
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Given electric charge Q = 105 C, time t = 15 s, the current is

Q 105 C
=7 A
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I= =
t 15 s
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Chapter summary
1. Properties of matter, atomic structure of matter and periodic table are the basic
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concepts of electricity.
2. An atom is the smallest particle of matter. It is composed of tiny charge-carrying
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particles known as electrons and protons as well as neutral particles known as

neutrons.
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3. Elements in the periodic table are classified into metals and non-metals. Metals
can conduct electricity and heat while non-metals can not conduct electricity
and heat.

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4. Materials used in electrical DUPLICATE
engineering are conductors, insulators and
semiconductors. Conductors allow flow of electric current and heat while
insulators do not. Semiconductors act as conductors or insulators at specific
temperature.
5. Electrons flow from negative to positive terminal of the DC source while
conventional current flows from positive to negative terminal of the DC source.
6. It is stated that, the flow of electrons in an electric circuit establishes the current.
This phenomenon is expressed by the electric charge, current and time equation
as Electric charge (Q) = Electric current (I) × time (t).
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Revision exercise 1
1. Differentiate the three states of matter.
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2. With the aid of a diagram, describe an atom.
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3. Give a brief explanation on the three sub-atomic particles of an atom.
4. Describe the characteristics of electrons, protons and neutrons.
5. Fill the properties of sub-atomic particles in the following table.
Particle
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Electrical charge (Coulomb) Location in the atom
Electron
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Proton
Neutron
6. Identify the number of protons, 8. With examples, explain the meaning

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electrons and neutrons in the of semiconductor materials.

9. What are the characteristics of
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following figure.
insulators?
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10. Use a clear labelled illustration to

-
-
differentiate the direction of flow of
electrons and conventional current?
N
+
+ 11. The current of 5 A is passing through
O
+ +
a conductor for 60 seconds. Calculate
the charge flowing to establish that
- current.
R
- 12. Calculate the number of electrons

that result into the charge obtained
FO
in question 11.
7. List any four differentiating properties 13. Calculate the number of electrons that
between metals and non-metals. would establish a current of 10 A in
2 seconds.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Chapter
Electrical quantities and units
Two
Introduction
You may be familiar with electrical appliances such as
LY
Derive lamps, irons and television sets. When you observe each of
d units
Q these appliances you will notice that they are labelled with
Coulom
b (C)
E numbers combined with letters or symbols. These numbers
joule (J
N
P ) together with letters or symbols represent the electrical
watt (W
) quantities and units as rating for each appliance. In this
O
V
volt (V chapter, you will learn about basic concepts of electrical
R )
ohm (Ω quantities and units, electrical quantities and electrical
G )
mho (Ʊ
)
SE
units as they are used in measurements. The developed
competencies will enable you to select and use electrical
appliances safely according to their ratings.
U
Basic concepts of electrical quantities units of measurements. There are two
and units main types of electrical quantities, which
As any beginner in electrical engineering are: basic and derived quantities.
E
would know, each physical quantity Basic electrical quantities

N
is necessarily linked up with its unit. These are fundamental physical quantities
Therefore, a measurement unit is a that are not dependent in terms of other
LI
standard quantity used to express quantities. An example of a basic electrical

a physical quantity. In the field of quantity is electrical current.
N
electrical engineering, the basic electrical

quantities are electric current, voltage,Derived electrical quantities
O
electric charge, resistance, capacitance,These are all electrical quantities that can
inductance, conductance and electrical be expressed in terms of basic quantities
power. or other derived quantities. Examples of
R
derived electrical quantities are voltage,

Electrical quantities power, electrical charge, resistance,
FO
These are properties and characteristics conductance and electrical energy. These
of electricity that can be measured in quantities are defined below together
given numeral values based on some with their relationship among them.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Current DO NOT DUPLICATE
Electrical power and energy
Current is defined as the rate of flow of Energy is the ability of doing work while
charge. The standard symbol of current power is the rate of doing work. The
is I and it is measured in amperes (A). standard letter symbols for energy and
It is related to charge by the following power are E and P, respectively. Energy
formula Q
is measured in Joules and is given by the
I= following expression
t
where Q is electric charge in coulombs
(C) and t is time in seconds (s). From the above expression, power is
LY
given by the following expression
Voltage
Voltage is the driving force of charge E VIt ⎛V ⎞ V2 E VIt
P= = = VI = V ⎜ ⎟ = or P = = = VI =
t t ⎝ R⎠ R t t
N
or current through a conductor. The
or
standard symbol of voltage is V and it is 2
⎛V ⎞ V
O
E VIt E VIt
P = (V).
measured in volts VI = Vby
= It is=given ⎜ the
⎟ = or P = = = VI = ( IR ) I = I 2 R
t t ⎝ R⎠ R t t
formula E
V = Electrical units
Q
where E is the energy in Joules (J).
SE
A unit is a defined magnitude or size
of a physical quantity that is used as a
Resistance base value from which all measurements
U
Resistance is the opposition offered of that quantity are expressed. All other
by materials to the flow of electrical magnitudes of quantities are expressed
current or charge through them. The as multiples of the defined unit. All
E
units of measurements are adopted from

standard symbol of resistance is R and it
N
an international system of units known

is measured in ohms (Ω). It is given by
as SI system (Systéme International
the formula
LI
V d’Unités). For every physical quantity,

R=
I there is a standard unit known as SI unit
N
Conductance from which all other units of that quantity

Conductance is a measure of the ease are obtained. Examples of SI units for
O
with which materials allow electrical electrical quantities are: volt for voltage,
ampere for electrical current, ohm for
current to flow through them. The
R
electrical resistance, watt for electrical

standard symbol for conductance is G
power, Joule for electrical energy and
and it is measured in Siemens (S) or mho
FO
coulomb for electrical charge. In science

(Ʊ). It is given by the expression
and engineering, units are divided into
1 two major types which are basic units
G=
R and derived units.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Basic units DO NOT DUPLICATE
These are units of fundamental quantities as defined by the International System of
Units (SI Units). They act as building blocks from which all other units are expressed.
Basic quantities with their respective basic SI units are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Basic quantities, units and symbols
Basic quantities Units Symbols
Current ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Time second s
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Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Luminous intensity candela cd
N
Matter (amount of substance) mole mol
O
Derived units
These are units derived from other units and are used to express the magnitudes of
SE
derived quantities. For example, electrical charge Q (C) = current (A) × time (s).
The derived electrical units and quantities are shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Derived quantities, units and symbols

U
Derived quantities Derived units Symbols
Electrical charge coulomb (C) Q
Electrical energy Joule (J) E
E
Electrical power watt (W) P

N
Voltage volt (V) V

Electric resistance Ohm (Ω) R
LI
Conductance mho (Ʊ) G

N
Multiples and sub-multiples of electrical units

Expressing electrical quantities in their respective SI units may be too complex when
O
their values are very large or very small. In this case, prefixes as those shown in Table
2.3 are used together with basic units to indicate the number to be multiplied to get
R
the exact value. The advantage of this is that it provides simplicity in expressing
very small or very large values compared to SI units. Therefore, multiples are factors
FO
used to create larger forms whereas sub-multiples are factors used to create smaller
forms of SI units.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
Table 2.3: Prefixes, symbols, meaning DUPLICATE
and multiplier
Prefix Symbol Meaning Multiplier
tera T multiply by 1000000000000 1012
giga G multiply by 1000000000 109
mega M multiply by 1000000 106
kilo k multiply by 1000 103
hecto h multiply by 100 102
deca da multiply by 10 101
deci d divide by 10 10-1
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centi c divide by 100 10-2
milli m divide by 1000 10-3
micro µ divide by 1000000 10-6
N
nano n divide by 1000000000 10-9
pico p divide by 1000000000000 10-12
O
Example 2.1
Convert 2.5 kV into volts.
Solution:
Given 2.5 kV
SE
Recall 1 kV = 1000 V
U
2.5 kV = 2.5 × 1000 V = 2.5 × 10 3 V = 2,500 V
Example 2.2
E
Convert 5000 mA to amperes.

N
Solution
Given: 5000 mA
LI
Recall 1 A = 1000 mA
Required I in amperes
N
current in milliampere 5000 mA

Then, current in ampere = =5 A
O
=
1000 mA / A 1000 mA / A
R
Example 2.3
Complete the following table.
FO
150 mA ……… A
……… kW 1500 W
6.240 kJ ……… J

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Solution: DO NOT DUPLICATE
150 mA 0.15 A
1.5 kW 1500 W
6.240 kJ 6240 J
Exercise 2.1
1. Define the term “unit” as used in electrical engineering.
2. Name the measurement units of the following quantities: (a) electrical current
(b) time (c) electrical charge (d) electrical power (e) voltage (f) electrical energy.
LY
3. Explain the difference between basic units and derived units.
4. Describe different types of electrical quantities.
N
5. Differentiate between resistance and conductance.
6. Match the quantities given in list X against units in list Y. Select your answers
O
using the codes given in the question.
List X List Y
i.
ii.
Voltage
Temperature
A.
B.
SE
Joule
Ohm
iii. Electric charge C. farad
U
iv. Electric energy D. Kelvin
v. Resistance E. candela
F. coulomb
E
G. volt
N
7. State one advantage of using prefixes to represent multiples and sub-multiples

of electrical quantities.
LI
Chapter summary
N
1. The common electrical quantities are current, voltage, resistance, conductance,

O
electrical power and electrical energy.

2. Electrical units for various electrical quantities include basic units, derived
units, multiples and sub-multiples of electrical units.
R
3. Electrical quantities are properties and characteristics of electricity that can be

FO
measured in given numeral values based on some units of measurements.

4. Basic electrical quantities are fundamental physical quantities that are not
dependent in terms of other quantities, for example, electrical current.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO are
5. Derived electrical quantities NOT DUPLICATE
all electrical quantities that can be expressed
in terms of basic quantities or other derived quantities. Examples of derived
electrical quantities are voltage, power, electrical charge, resistance, conductance
and electrical energy.
6. A unit is a defined magnitude or size of a physical quantity that is used as a basic
value from which all measurements of that quantity are expressed.
7. Multiples of electrical units are the factors used to create larger forms of SI units
whereas sub-multiples are factors used to create smaller forms of SI units.
Revision exercise 2
LY
1. Name the physical quantities measured by the following units:
(a) Ohm
N
(b) watt
O
(c) volt and
(d) ampere
2. SE
State whether the following units are basic or derived:
(a) Ohm
(b) watt
U
(c) volt and
(d) ampere
E
3. Match the items given in list X against the items in list Y.

List X List Y
N
i. ampere A. resistance
LI
ii. kilowatt-hour B. capacitance

N
iii. metre C. electric energy

iv. Ohm D. pressure
O
v. volt E. length
R
F. electric current
G. voltage
FO
H. illumination

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOforNOT
Choose the correct answer DUPLICATE
questions 4 and 5.
4. Which of the following are the multiple units of voltage?
(a) kilovolt and megavolt
(b) millivolt and microvolt
(c) milliwatt and megawatt
(d) kilo-ohm and mega-ohm
(e) milliampere and microampere.
5. Which of the following is correct?
LY
(a) 3.2 mA = 0.032 A (d) 600 µV = 0.06 mV
(b) 0.456 kΩ = 456 Ω (e) 20 kW = 0.2 MW
(c) 1244 C = 12.44 mC
N
6. How much electrical power is dissipated in a 9 Ω load, if the current in the load
O
is 300 mA?
7. The quantity of electricity passing through a circuit in a time interval of 2
minutes and 20 seconds is 2400 C. Determine the current flowing in the circuit.
8.
9.
SE
What is the difference between derived quantities and fundamental quantities?
Mention the physical quantities measured by the following units and state
whether they are fundamental or derived: (a) joule (b) coulomb and (c) Kelvin.
U
1J
10. Prove that 1 W = .
1s
11. Express the following in terms of their numerical values and write, after each,
E
the appropriate unit symbol: (a) Forty-three mega ohms (b) Eleven kilovolt (c)
Two million volt amperes.
N
12. The potential difference across a resistor is 5200 mV when carrying a current of
LI
1.2 kA. Calculate the power consumed by the resistor in watts.

13. Describe the terms multiple and sub-multiple of electrical quantities.
N
14. Write one example of multiple and sub-multiple of electrical quantities of the
following units:
O
(a) volt (b) ampere

R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Chapter
Magnetism and electromagnetism
Three
Introduction
LY
Have you ever come across devices or appliances such
as speakers and electric bells? These devices work under
the principles of magnetism and electromagnetism. In this
N
chapter, you will learn about the concepts of magnetism
and electromagnetism, magnets, magnetic induction and
O
electromagnetism. The competencies developed will enable
you to construct and operate different kinds of electrical
SE
devices which work under the principles of magnetism
and electromagnetism such as electrical bells, electrical
generators and motors.
U
E
The concepts of magnetism and electromagnetism

The tendency of certain materials to attract metallic materials was discovered in the
N
ancient world when people noticed that lodestone naturally magnetized pieces of
minerals such as magnetite, which later on could attract or repel iron. This property
LI
of certain materials to attract other materials is called magnetism. The material

which attracts or repels other materials is called magnet.
N
Magnets
O
A magnet is a material that produces a magnetic field that can attract or repel
magnetic materials. This property of magnets arises around its poles. Figure 3.1
R
shows a typical example of a bar magnet. The movement of electrons around their
orbits produces magnetic field. The direction of magnetic field depends on the
FO
movements of electrons.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
South pole North pole
Figure 3.1: Bar magnet
Types of magnets
Magnets are generally divided into two types, namely permanent magnets and
temporary magnets.
Permanent magnet
LY
A permanent magnet has a long lasting magnetism. It is usually made from strongly
magnetised materials (ferromagnetic materials) such as steel. These materials have
N
a better capacity for retaining magnetism. The molecules of steel are comparatively
close to each other hence require greater force to be applied for them to settle in an
O
order. On the other hand, the molecules of iron are placed comparatively far from
each other and can be disturbed easily. Therefore, permanent magnets are made up
SE
of steel or other steel-alloys. Bar magnets and horse shoe magnets are examples of
permanent magnets.
A permanent magnet always causes a force on other magnets or magnetic materials.

U
All permanent magnets have the following characteristics:
(a) They can remain magnetised after the magnetising field is zero.
(b) They are not easily demagnetised by an external field.
E
(c) They have the ability to produce their magnetic fields.

N
(d) They have the ability to maintain their magnetic fields all the time.
If a magnet is cut into two or more pieces, each piece becomes a permanent magnet
LI
with two poles, a north pole and a south pole. No matter how many times a magnet
is broken, each piece will contain N-pole at one end and S-pole at the other end as
N
shown in Figure 3.2.

O
N S
R
N S N S
FO
N S N S N S N S
Figure 3.2: A bar magnet broken into pieces

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Temporary magnet DO NOT DUPLICATE
A temporary magnet loses its magnetism when the magnetising source is removed.
It is made of a soft iron bar which is placed inside a DC current-carrying solenoid or
coil. Figure 3.3 shows how to make a temporary magnet. When the switch is closed,
the current flows through the iron nail which becomes magnetized and starts to attract
the pins. When the switch is open, the iron nail loses magnetism and pins drop off.
Temporary magnets are used in electromagnets, motors, generators, electrical bells,
relays, cranes, lifts, telephones, telegraphs and overload release coils.
Iron nail
Pin attracted to
Wire wound on nail
LY
magnetised nail
N
O
Switch
SE Pins
Batteries
U
Figure 3.3: A nail is temporarily magnetised
Table 3.1 presents the difference between permanent and temporary magnets.
E
Differences between permanent and temporary magnets

N
Table 3.1: Differences between permanent and temporary magnets

LI
No. Permanent magnet Temporary magnet

Its magnetism can be reduced or
1 It has stable magnetism.
N
removed completely.
2 Its polarity remains fixed. Its polarity can be changed.
O
It is made by passing electrical current

3 It is made by rubbing methods. in a coil placed around magnetic
materials.
R
It is used in small machines such as It is used in heavy machines such as

4
FO
bicycle dynamos, metres and toys. motors, generators, lifts and cranes.
5 It has low cost. It is costly.
It requires sufficient time for It requires almost no time for
6
magnetisation. magnetisation.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Characteristics of magnets
The following are the characteristics of a magnet:
(a) Attraction: A magnet attracts pieces of iron. The pieces of iron are magnetic
materials.
(b) Poles: A magnet has two poles, which are North and South poles.
(c) Magnetism retention: If a bar magnet is broken into many pieces, each piece
will have two poles and its own magnetic field strength. The broken pieces of
magnets cannot be rejoined or returned into their original form. The magnetic
field strength of the broken pieces is less than that of the original bar magnet.
LY
(d) Attraction and repulsion of poles: Like poles repel each other while unlike poles
attract each other. When like poles of two bar magnets face each other, the lines
of forces are in opposite direction, resulting in repulsion. When unlike poles
N
of two bar magnets face each other, the magnetic lines of force are in the same
O
direction, resulting into attraction.
(e) Direction: A freely suspended magnet will always rest in a north-south direction.
(f) Loss of magnetism: Magnetism of a magnet can be destroyed by heating,
hammering or dropping it on a hard surface.
SE
(g) Magnetisation: Magnetism can be gained by induction, stroking and passing
U
direct current through a conductor wrapped around a magnetic material.
(h) Strength: The two poles of a magnet are of equal strength.
(i) Magnetic lines: The magnetic lines around the bar magnet form a closed loop.
E
When two bar magnets are placed close to each other, the unlike poles attract each
other as shown in Figure 3.4. If the like poles of bar magnets are placed close to each
N
other they repel and form the neutral point as shown in Figure 3.5.
LI
N
O
R
FO
Magnetic field
Figure 3.4: Attraction of two bar magnets with unlike poles

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Neutral point
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Magnetic field
Figure 3.5: Repulsion of two bar magnets with like poles
N
The phenomenon illustrated in Figure Magnetic field
3.4 and Figure 3.5 is known as the law of The region around a magnet where a
O
magnetic attraction and repulsion, which force of magnetism acts on another
states that “Like poles repel while unlike magnet or on a magnetic material is
poles attract each other”. SE
called a magnetic field. The magnetic
field is invisible but it can be detected
Activity 3.1: Demonstrating the using a magnetic compass, or any
U
behaviour of magnets magenic material.
Required materials: Two bar magnets,
a string and compass Magnetic lines of force indicate the
direction and magnitude of magnetic
E
Procedures:
fields. When two magnets are nearly
1. Place the bar magnets with like
N
placed to each other or in contact, they

poles facing each other and record
exert a force on each other. This force is
LI
the observation.
called the magnetic force. When a magnet
2. Place the bar magnets with unlike
is placed on a smooth cardboard and
N
poles facing each other and record

some iron filings are sprinkled around
the observation.
O
the magnet, then on gently tapping the

3. Tie a string at the middle of the bar
cardboard the iron filings will arrange
magnet. Suspend it until it rests and
themselves into chains known as lines
R
record the observation.

of force. These lines are imaginary in
4. Write a report and submit it to your
FO
character and they always travel from

teacher for assessment.
the north pole to the south pole outside
the magnet and from the south pole to

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
the north pole inside the magnet. DUPLICATE
Figure magnetic field becomes weak.
3.6 shows the magnetic field around a (g) They pass more easily through
bar magnet. magnetic materials like iron than
Magnetic field non-magnetic materials like air.
The direction in which the magnetic field
acts at a particular point is given by the
direction in which an isolated North pole
would move when placed at that point.
Magnetic field lines of force always
LY
radiate from North pole to the South pole
and back to the North pole through the
magnet. The strongest part of a magnetic
N
field is at the poles, as shown in Figure
O
Figure 3.6: Magnetic lines of force 3.6.
Characteristics of magnetic field lines Activity 3.2: Demonstrating behaviour

of force
The magnetic field lines of force exhibit
SE
of magnetic field lines of force
Required materials: One bar magnet,
the following characteristics: iron filings and cardboard
U
(a) They form a closed loop that always
Procedures:
moves from north to south outside
1. Place the bar magnet on a smooth
the magnet and south to north inside
cardboard.
E
the magnet.
2. Sprinkle the iron filings around the
(b) They do not intersect each other,
N
magnet.
that is, they move parallel to one
3. Gently tap the cardboard.
LI
another.
(c) They emerge at right angles from a 4. Record the observation.
N
bar magnet. 5. Write a report and submit it to your

(d) They have a tendency of bulging teacher for assessment.
O
at the edges when they are formed

The magnetic materials
between two opposite poles.
Any substance which has the property of
R
(e) When they are moving in the same being attracted or repelled by a magnet is
direction they repel one another.
FO
called a magnetic material. For example,

(f) When they are close together, the iron, nickel, cobalt and alloys of these
magnetic field becomes strong and elements have the properties of being
when they are well spaced out, the attracted by a magnet.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Based on their magnetic DO NOT DUPLICATE
properties, Diamagnetic materials
all materials are subdivided into the These are the materials which are repelled
following three classes: ferromagnetic, by a magnet. Examples of such materials
paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials. are copper, silver, zinc, mercury, lead
and sulphur. Some characteristics of
Ferromagnetic materials
diamagnetic materials are:
These are the materials which are
(a) When placed in a non-uniform
strongly attracted by a magnet. Examples magnetic field, they tend to move
of such materials include iron, steel, away from the field.
cobalt, nickel and some of their alloys. (b) They are magnetised in the direction
LY
Some characteristics of ferromagnetic opposite to that of the magnetic
materials are: field.
(a) When placed in a non-uniform (c) When suspended freely in a uniform
N
magnetic field, they have a tendency magnetic field, they set themselves
to move from the weaker part to the perpendicular to the direction of the
O
stronger part. magnetic field.
(b) They are strongly magnetised in the
Exercise 3.1
direction of the field. SE
(c) When suspended freely in a uniform 1. Briefly explain the following terms:
magnetic field, they set themselves (a) magnet (b) magnetic field (c)
U
parallel to the direction of the magnetic lines of force.
magnetic field. 2. State five (5) characteristics of
Paramagnetic materials magnetic field lines of force.
E
These are materials which are not strongly

3. State five (5) characteristics of a
attracted by a magnet. Examples of such
N
magnet.
materials are aluminium, platinum, tin
and manganese. Some characteristics of 4. What is a permanent magnet?
LI
paramagnetic materials are: 5. Explain the poles of a magnet and

(a) When placed in a non-uniform
N
their characteristics.
magnetic field, they tend to move
6. Differentiate between magnet and
O
from the weaker part to the stronger

magnetic materials.
part.
7. Explain three types of magnetic
(b) They are weakly magnetised in the
R
direction of the field. materials and mention at least two

characteristics of each.
FO
(c) When suspended freely in a uniform

magnetic field, they set themselves 8. Explain the difference between
parallel to the direction of the permanent and temporary magnets.
magnetic field.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Magnetic induction DO NOT DUPLICATE
induced magnets when they are near
Magnetic induction is the process by a magnet.
which an object or material is magnetised
Activity 3.3: Demonstrating the
by an external magnetic field. A magnetic
behaviour of magnetic materials
material acquires magnetic properties
Required materials: A stand, nail, iron
temporarily due to the presence of the
pins and a bar magnet
magnet close to it. Figure 3.7 shows a
magnetised nail and other two nails Procedures:
which have been attracted and induced 1. Take a long nail and put it on the
by magnetism from the first iron nail. arm of the stand as shown in Figure
LY
3.8 (a).
2. Spread some iron pins on the base of
the stand.
N
S 3. Record the observation.
O
Magnet 4. Now place a magnet near the end of
N
the nail as shown in Figure 3.8 (b).
S
Iron nails become
N
S
induced magnets SE
5. Record the observation.
6. Remove the magnet as shown in
Figure 3.8 (c).
U
N 7. Record the observation.
8. Write a report and submit it to your
Figure 3.7: Magnetic induction
teacher for assessment.
E
Thus, if an iron or steel bar is brought

near to any pole of a magnet, then the Figure 3.8 shows the effect of magnetic
N
iron or steel bar gets magnetised with induction from activity 3.3.
opposite polarities. It should be noted
LI
that the iron bar is only brought near

to a magnet but it does not touch the
N
magnet at all. Magnetic induction has Stand Nail

O
the following characteristics:

(a) An induced magnet only becomes
a magnet when it is placed in a Pins
R
magnetic field.
FO
(b) The induced magnetism is quickly No pin cling to the nail

lost when the magnet is removed
(a)
from the magnetic field.
(c) The magnetic materials become

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Electromagnetism
N S
Magnetism can be derived from
S materials that exhibit magnetic
Magnet properties. It is from these materials
that permanent magnets are made for
different purposes. Magnetism can
N
also be derived from electrical current
and it is this relationship that provides
us with a vast majority of applications
Some pin cling to the nail in electrical engineering. Electrical
LY
generators, motors and transformers
(b)
utilise this relationship between
electricity and magnetism. Therefore,
N
electromagnetism is the branch of
O
Physics that deals with the relationship
between electricity and magnetism.
Thus, magnetism is derived from
SE
electricity.
Magnetic effect of electric current
It has been found through experiments
U
On removal of the magnet,
that a current flowing through a
pins fall down
conductor establishes a magnetic field
(c)
around it. In this region, magnetic lines
E
Figure 3.8: Observation expected from activity of force are formed around the current-
3.3
N
carrying conductor in concentric circles.

Exercise 3.2 This is illustrated by Figures 3.9 (a) and
LI
1. Define magnetic induction. (b) where a carrying-current conductor

is shown to form magnetic lines of
N
2. Explain how iron filings are attracted

force around it in concentric circles.
by a magnet.
The direction of magnetic lines of force
O
3. Differentiate between magnetic

depends on the direction of current. In
induction and magnetic field.
Figure 3.9, it can be seen that when
R
4. Draw lines of magnetic force around the direction of current is changed, the
a bar magnet. direction of magnetic lines of force also
FO
5. State three characteristics of changes.

magnetic induction.

Form Two
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DUPLICATE
Magnetic field
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(a) Current flowing upwards (b) Current flowing downwards
Figure 3.9: Magnetic field around a current carrying conductor
N
The direction of magnetic field lines of fingers will point in the direction of
O
force can be identified by the Maxwell’s the magnetic lines of force.” This is
corkscrew rule and Right-hand grip rule. shown in Figure 3.11.
(a) The Maxwell’s corkscrew rule
states that “If a right-handed screw
is placed along a conductor and
SE Direction of
current flow
screwed towards the direction of the
U
current then the direction of rotation
of the screw is the direction of the
magnetic lines of force.” This is Direction of
E
shown in Figure 3.10. magnetic field

Direction of
Figure 3.11: Right-hand grip rule
N
magnetic field
From these two rules, the direction of the
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magnetic lines of force can be obtained

in any orientation of a current-carrying
N
conductor. Generally, whenever there is

Direction of magnetism, a force of either attraction or
O
current flow repulsion is formed.
Figure 3.10: Maxwell’s cork screw rule Activity 3.4: Identifying the direction
R
of magnetic field lines of force

(b) The Right hand grip rule states that
Required materials: Iron filings,
FO
“If a conductor carrying current

conductor, power source (battery), switch,
is held on the right hand with the
magnetic compass (plotting compass),
thumb pointing in the direction
ammeter, rheostat and cardboard
of the current then the rest of the

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Procedures DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. Connect the given components as shown in the circuit in Figure 3.12.
2. Place cardboard through the conductor and place it with its axis vertical as
shown in Figure 3.12.
3. Sprinkle iron filings on top of the cardboard.
4. Switch on the circuit.
5. Gently, tap on the cardboard until the iron filings form circular patterns.
6. Use the magnetic compass to determine the direction of the iron filings.
7. Change the terminals of the battery and do this process again.
LY
8. Draw the circular patterns of the iron filings and show their directions.
9. Write a report and submit it to your teacher for assessment.
N
O
Cardboard
Switch
SE
A
U
I
E
Rheostat
E
N
LI
N
Figure 3.12: Demonstration of magnetic field around a current carrying conductor

O
Electromagnetic forces
Electromagnetic forces are forces exhibited in a magnetic field formed by a
current-carrying conductor or from interaction with magnetic field from permanent
R
magnets. They can be either attractive or repulsive. These are formed and they
occur between charged particles responsible for conduction. Electromagnetic forces
FO
can be formed between a current-carrying conductor and a magnetic material or

between two current-carrying conductors. The following are the characteristics of
electromagnetic forces.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
(a) They are repulsive orDO NOT When
attractive. DUPLICATE
the currents of two parallel conductors
flow in the same direction, the magnetic fields will be opposite at the point of
interaction and, in-turn, cause the conductors to attract each other as shown in
Figure 3.13 (a). The two conductors will repel each other if the currents are
flowing in the different directions as shown in Figure 3.13 (b).
(b) They are of long-range forces, that is, they act at extremely large distances.
(c) They are both conservative and central forces.
(d) Electromagnetic forces are much stronger than comparable gravitational forces.
Electromagnetic forces can exist between two current-carrying conductors and a
LY
permanent magnet. Electromagnetic forces between two current-carrying conductors
are illustrated in Figures 3.13 (a) and (b) with their respective magnetic fields.
N
Force
O
Current
SE
Force
Force Current Force

U
Current
Current
E
Force
(a) Current in the same direction (b) Current in opposite direction
N
Figure 3.13: Forces between two current-carrying conductors

LI
Figure 3.13 (a) demonstrates attractive force between current-carrying conductors

and the pattern of magnetic field formed. This occurs when two conductors carrying
N
current in the same direction are in close proximity to each other.

O
Figure 3.13 (b) demonstrates the repulsive force between current-carrying conductors
and the pattern of magnetic field formed. This occurs when two conductors carrying
current in opposite directions are placed in close proximity to each other.
R
Activity 3.5: Demonstrating the attraction or repulsion of current-carrying

FO
conductors
Required materials: Safety gears, two conductors, power source (battery), resistor,
two switches and retort stands

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Procedures: DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. Connect the switch at the positive terminal of the battery.
2. Connect the resistor in series with the switch and battery.
3. Connect the first conductor in series with the resistor through the bottom part of
the retort stand holders.
4. Connect the second conductor in series with the first conductor through the
upper part of the retort stand holders.
5. Complete the circuit by connecting the second conductor to the negative
terminal of the battery as shown in Figure 3.14 (a).
6. Turn on the switch S to allow the current to pass through the circuit.
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7. Record the observation on the two wires.
8. Repeat steps 1 and 2.
N
9. Connect the first conductor in series with the resistor through the bottom part of
the retort stand holders to the negative terminal of the battery.
O
10. Connect the second conductor in series with resistor through the upper part of
the retort stand holders to the negative terminal of the battery such that the two
SE
conductors are in parallel as shown in Figure 3.14 (b).
11. Turn on the switch S to allow the current to pass through the circuit.
12. Record the observation on the two wires.
U
13. Write the conclusion from your observations and submit to your teacher for
assessment.
Switch (S) E Switch (S) E
I I
E
Wire 1
Wire 1
N
R I R
I I I
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Holder Holder Holder Holder

Wire 2 Wire 2
N
(a) Current in the opposite direction (b) Current in the same direction
Figure 3.14: Demonstration of attraction or repulsion of current-carrying conductors

O
Electromagnetic forces due to permanent magnet and current carrying-

conductor
R
Electromagnetic forces that exist between a current-carrying conductor and a

FO
magnetic field of a permanent magnet are shown in Figure 3.15. The conductor will
experience a force that is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet. Its direction changes when either the direction of the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet or the current through the conductor changes.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Current-carrying
conductor
N S
Direction of force
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Figure 3.15: Force on a current-carrying conductor in a permanent magnet’s field
If a vertical section is taken from Figure 3.15, the magnetic field will be as shown
N
in Figures 3.16 (a), (b) and (c). Figure 3.16 (a) shows the field from the permanent
magnet, Figure 3.16 (b) shows the field from the current-carrying conductor going
O
into the page and Figure 3.16 (c) shows the interaction which results into force.
This uniform field on this field produces this resultant field

SE
U
E
Magnetic field due to

N
current down through

paper
Force on wire
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(a) Magnetic field of a (b) Magnetic field of a current (c) Interaction of two magnetic
permanent magnet carrying conductor fields
N
Figure 3.16: Current-carrying conductor and permanent magnet

O
The direction of the force can be identified by Fleming’s left hand rule which states
as follows: “When three fingers of the left hand (the thumb, fore finger and middle
finger) are held mutually perpendicular to one another with the fore finger pointing
R
in the direction of magnetic field, the middle finger pointing in the direction of
FO
current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the force established”. This is
illustrated in Figure 3.17.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Motion
Lines of flux
Field
Motion
Current
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Field (Direction)
Current
N
Figure 3.17: Demonstration of Fleming’s left hand rule
O
Example 3.1 Remember: Magnetic lines of force
In the diagrams given in Figures 3.18 move from north to south regardless of
(a), (b), (c) and (d), determine the the orientation.
direction of the electromagnetic forces
on the conductor and for each draw the
SE
(a) By Fleming’s left hand rule, the
direction of the force is going to be
diagram showing the direction of both upwards as the current is moving
U
magnetic field and force. The symbol X toward the viewer and the magnetic
represents current moving away from the field is from left to right, as shown
viewer (into the page) and the symbol in Figure 3.19.
E
represents current moving towards the Force

viewer (out of the page).
N
(a) S N S N
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S N S N
(b) S N x S N
N
Direction of magnetic field

O
(c) N S N S
Figure 3.19: Direction of force when
current is moving out of the paper and the
R
(d) N S x N S field is from left to right

(b) By Fleming’s left hand rule, the
FO
Figure 3.18: Illustration for example 3.1

field on the conductor is from left
Solution to right since the current is flowing
Use Fleming’s left hand rule for each away from the viewer and the field
case.
is from top to bottom, as shown in

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Figure 3.20. DO NOT DUPLICATE
Direction of magnetic field current is moving into the paper and the
field is from right to left
S N x S N Activity 3.6: Demonstrating the force

on a current-carrying conductor in a
uniform magnetic field
Force
Required materials:
Safety gears, conductors, mercury,
current is moving into the paper and the
permanent magnet, power source
LY
field is from bottom to top
(battery), variable resistor, switch,
(c) By Fleming’s left hand rule, the flexible joint and retort stand
force on the conductor is from top to Procedures:
N
bottom since the current is moving 1. Connect the switch into the positive
O
towards the viewer and the field is terminal of the battery.
from right to left, as shown in Figure 2. Connect the variable resistor
3.21. (rheostat) in series with the switch.
Direction of magnetic field SE
3. Using the given conductors,
connect the rheostat to the flexible
N S N S joint of the retort stand.
U
4. From the flexible joint of the retort
stand, connect a straight wire
Force (conductor) such that it touches the
E
mercury placed in the container in

between the u-shaped permanent
N
current is moving out of the paper and the

magnet.
field is from right to left
5. Connect another wire (conductor)
LI
(d) By Fleming’s left-hand rule, the to the negative terminal of the

force on the conductor is from battery and insert the other end of
N
bottom to top since the current is the conductor into the mercury.
O
moving away from the viewer and 6. Complete the set up as shown in
the magnetic field is from right to Figure 3.23.
left, as it is illustrated in Figure 3.22. 7. Switch on the circuit to allow the
R
Force flow of current.

8. Record the observation and draw
FO
the diagram showing the direction

N S x N S of force, current and magnetic
field.
Direction of magnetic field

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
9. Change the direction of current DUPLICATE
by changing terminals on the battery.
10. Record the observation and draw the diagram showing the direction of force,
current and magnetic field.
11. Write the report and submit it to your teacher for assessment.
Flexible
joint
Straight wire
LY
N
O
Switch
Mercury
SE E
Rheostat
U
Figure 3.23: Setup for activity 3.6
Application of electromagnetism
E
Electromagnetism has many applications in electrical engineering. For example,

it forms the basis for operation of equipment and devices such as electrical fans,
N
compressors, electrical water pumps, conveyor belts, lifts, escalators, cranes,

electrical vehicles (trains and electrical cars) and moving coil instruments. The
LI
basic application of electromagnetism is demonstrated by a coil in a uniform

magnetic field as shown in Figure 3.24. The coil is connected to a power source
N
via commutators (metal rings separated by an insulator) and mounted on a shaft in

O
a magnetic field so that it can rotate freely. Figure 3.24 shows that when current
is allowed to pass through the coil, a magnetic field is set up in parts A-B and C-D.
This field interacts with the field from a permanent magnet and produces forces (F).
R
According to Fleming’s left-hand rule, these forces are equal and opposite. Since the
FO
forces (F) obtained are equal and opposite, the coil is made to rotate freely in space.
The commutators which connect the coil to the conductor via carbon brushes allow
it to move freely in space.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Axis of
rotation
B
C
F I
F
N A
D S
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Commutator
Brush
N
O
Figure 3.24: Moving coil in a permanent magnet’s field
Exercise 3.3
SE
Chapter summary
1. What is electromagnetism? 1. The concepts of magnet and
U
2. Use diagrams to explain how to magnetism include the characteristics
determine the direction of magnetic of magnets, different properties of
field in a current-carrying conductor. magnet and their magnetic fields.
E
3. Explain the rules which are applied 2. The magnetic properties of a

N
to determine the direction of magnet include attraction, repulsion,

magnetic field in a current carrying magnetisation and demagnetisation.
LI
conductor. 3. A magnet has two poles known as

4. Define electromagnetic forces and North pole and South pole. When
N
explain the two conditions in which unlike poles of two different magnets
O
they occur. are brought close to each other they

5. Demonstrate the Fleming’s left-hand do attract whereas like poles repel.
R
rule. 4. The magnetic field is the region

6. Explain how a current-carrying coil around a magnet where a force of
FO
can rotate in a magnetic field. magnetism acts on another magnet

7. List down five applications of or on a magnetic material.
electromagnetism.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
5. The direction and magnitude of DUPLICATE
5. What are the four characteristics of
magnetic field are indicated by the magnetic lines of force?
magnetic lines of force. 6. Differentiate permanent magnet from
6. Magnetic materials are materials temporary magnet.
with magnetic properties. Magnetic
7. What is magnetic induction?
materials are sub-divided into
ferromagnetic materials, paramagnetic 8. With an aid of a diagram, briefly
and diamagnetic materials. explain what happens when a bar
magnet is placed in contact with a
7. There are mainly two types of magnets
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nail for a while and then the nail is
which are permanent magnet and
placed in a container with iron pins.
temporary magnet.
9. Mention properties of magnetic
N
8. Magnetic induction is defined as the
induction.
process by which an object or material
O
is magnetized by an external magnetic 10. What will happen if there is no
field. electromagnetism in the world?
exhibited in a magnetic field formed

SE
9. Electromagnetic forces are forces 11. Mention and state the rules used to
identify the patterns of a magnetic
by a current-carrying conductor or field around a current-carrying
U
from interaction with magnetic field conductor.
from permanent magnets. 12. How are the electromagnetic forces
produced?
E
10. Electromagnetism finds its application

in the operation of electrical 13. With the aid of a diagram, show how
N
equipment and devices such as fans, the two current-carrying conductors

LI
compressors, water pumps, lifts and interact when:

escalators. (a) The currents move in the same
N
direction.
Revision exercise 3
(b) The currents move in the
O
1. What is a magnet? opposite direction.

2. Mention three classes of magnetic 14. Explain how one would identify the
R
materials. direction of the force on a current-

FO
3. What is a permanent magnet? carrying conductor in a uniform

4. Clearly draw a diagram of a bar magnet magnetic field from a permanent
showing its poles and magnetic lines magnet. State any law that may help
of forces. you to explain this.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
15. Explain the mechanism of NOT DUPLICATE
a moving coil in a permanent magnetic field.
16. Mention five applications of electromagnetism.
17. Write TRUE for a true statement and FALSE for a false one.
(a) A magnet can attract diamagnetic materials strongly.
(b) A magnetic field is a region around a conductor with no current.
(c) Ferromagnetic materials are made into permanent magnets.
(d) If you cut a permanent magnet it forms other magnets.
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(e) Magnetic lines of force move from the south pole to the north pole inside
the magnet.
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Chapter
DC circuits
Four
Introduction
Direct Current (DC) devices such as torches, stopwatches,
VS
LY
I
radios, motors, generators, cell phones, laptops, and solar

cells are commonly found in our daily applications. Such
R1
devices are either sources or loads in a DC circuit. In this
N
chapter, you will learn about DC circuits, the relationship
O
among electrical quantities namely current, voltage,
R2
resistance, power and energy and the different DC circuit

connections. You will also learn about the application of
SE
Ohm’s law in DC circuits. The competencies developed will
R3
enable you to select appropriate DC sources and circuit

connections in providing electrical power to different DC
U
loads.
R4
Basic concepts of electrical circuits

E
The term “electrical circuit” refers to an interconnection of components forming a

N
closed path through which electrical current flows. If the flowing current is DC, the
circuit formed is called a DC circuit. The interconnection of circuit components
LI
determines the relationship among electrical quantities of current, voltage and

resistance. For the current to flow in an electrical circuit, there must be a source of
N
electricity, an electricity utilising device or appliance, i.e., load and a closed loop of
O
conducting materials such as wires. Figure 4.1 shows a simple DC electrical circuit
with a battery as a source of electricity and a lamp as the load. In this circuit, the lamp
lights up after electricity is delivered from the battery through the interconnecting
R
wires when the switch is turned on.

FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOTSwitch
DUPLICATE
Battery Wires Lamp
Figure 4.1: Electrical circuit
Components of electrical circuit
LY
The main components of electrical circuits are power sources, switches, wires
(conductors) and loads.
N
Power sources
Power sources are the components of electrical circuits where energy is converted
O
from other forms into electrical energy. They are classified according to the type of
electricity they produce such as Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC)
power sources. SE
DC power sources: These produce electricity that does not change with time.
Examples of these sources include electric cells, batteries, solar cells and dc
U
generators. Figures 4.2 (a) and (b) show examples of electric cell or battery and a
solar panel which are used as DC power sources, respectively.
E
N
LI
N
O
(a) Cell or battery (b) Solar panel

R
Figure 4.2: Examples of DC sources

FO
AC power sources: These produce electricity that changes with time.

An example of these sources include AC generators as shown in Figure
4.3(a). Figure 4.3(b) shows a circuit symbol of an AC power source.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
AC
(a) An AC petrol generator (b) Circuit symbol of an AC source

Figure 4.3: AC source
LY
Switches
This is a controller of the electrical circuit. It is used to turn on and off the circuit.
Figures 4.4 (a) and (b) show the switch in an ON and OFF position, respectively.
N
Figure 4.4 (c) shows the circuit symbol of a switch.
O
SE
U
(a) The switch is ON (b) The switch is OFF (c) Circuit symbol of a switch
Figure 4.4: Examples of an electrical switch
E
Wires (conductors)
N
A wire is a material that allows the passage of electricity and is used to interconnect
circuit components. It can be used either in a bare or an insulated form. Examples
LI
of conductors used commercially include aluminium and copper. Figure 4.5(a) shows
typical conductors with their insulations. Figure 4.5(b) shows a circuit symbol of a wire.
N
O
R
FO
(a) Insulated wires (b) Circuit symbol of a wire

Figure 4.5: Electrical wires (conductors)

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Loads DO NOT DUPLICATE
Loads are appliances that convert electrical energy delivered from the source to
other useful forms. For example, a lamp lights up when connected to a battery. This
means it converts electrical energy delivered from the battery into light energy. Other
examples of electrical loads include a fan, an iron and a speaker as shown in Figure
4.6. The electrical loads are divided into DC and AC loads. DC loads are supplied
from DC power sources while AC loads are supplied from AC power sources.
LY
N
O
(a) Electrical fan SE
(b) Electrical iron (c) Electrical speaker
Figure 4.6: Examples of electrical loads
Activity 4.1: Identifying of electrical components

U
Required materials: Three batteries (one size AAA battery, one car battery and
one size D battery), one incandescent lamp, one fluorescent lamp, copper wires and
E
small radio
Procedures:
N
From the given list of required materials:

LI
1. Identify the power sources.

2. Identify the conductors.
N
3. Identify electrical loads.

4. Write a report and present your findings in class.
O
5. Submit the report to your teacher for assessment.
Active and passive circuit components

R
Components connected in a circuit can be classified into two types namely, active
components and passive components.
FO
Active components
Active components are the ones that can generate or supply electrical energy in a
circuit. Therefore, all power sources fall under this category. Active components can

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
be two-terminal or three-terminal DUPLICATE
devices. Most DC active components have two
terminals. There are some active components like batteries and cells which store
energy in a different form for later use. Others like generators can generate energy
for immediate use. Figure 4.7 shows examples of active components such as battery
and AC generator.
LY
(a) Battery (b) AC generator
N
Figure 4.7: Active components
O
Passive components
These are the ones that cannot generate/supply electrical energy. Conductors and
SE
loads in a circuit fall under this category. Loads can be classified into three types
depending on their properties. These are resistors, inductors and capacitors.
Resistor: This is a two-terminal passive component with the ability to oppose the
U
flow of electrical current. Most DC circuit components act as resistors. Figure 4.8
shows a resistor and its respective circuit symbols. The opposition offered to the
flow of electrical current is known as resistance. This is a measurable quantity
represented by the letter R and its SI unit is Ohm (Ω).
E
N
LI
or
N
(a) Physical pictures (b) Circuit symbols

O
Figure 4.8: The resistor

Capacitor: This is a two-terminal passive component with the ability to store
R
electrical charge. Capacitors are different from batteries in that they do not convert
energy from one form to another but rather store electricity delivered from a source.
FO
Most capacitors are manufactured to be used in circuits with both DC and AC

sources. Figure 4.9 (a) shows a typical capacitor whereas Figure 4.9(b) shows the
circuit symbol of a capacitor.

Form Two
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(a) Physical picture (b) Circuit symbol
Figure 4.9: The capacitor

The ability of a material to store electrical charge is known as capacitance. It is a
measurable quantity represented by the letter C and its SI unit is farad (F).
LY
Inductor: An inductor is a two-terminal passive component that can store electrical
energy in a magnetic field. The inductor is essentially an insulated wire wound into
a coil as shown in Figure 4.10 (a) and its circuit symbol is shown in Figure 4.10 (b).
N
O
(a) Physical picture
SE (b) Circuit symbol
Figure 4.10: The inductor
U
The ability of a material to store electrical energy in a magnetic field is known as
inductance. It is a measurable quantity represented by the letter L and its SI unit is
henry (H). Table 4.1 shows the differences between active and passive elements.
E
Table 4.1: Differences between active and passive elements

N
Basis of Active elements Passive elements

comparison
LI
Nature of source Deliver power or energy to the circuit Utilise power or energy
N
from the circuit
Examples Diodes, transistors, silicon controlled Resistors, capacitors and

O
rectifiers (SCR) or thyristor, integrated inductors

circuits, batteries and generators
R
Function of the Produce energy in the form of voltage or Either dissipate or store
component current energy in a magnetic
FO
field or electric field
Flow of current Can control the flow of current Cannot control the flow
of current

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOand
Activity 4.2: Identifying active NOT DUPLICATE
passive components
Required materials: Three batteries (1 size AAA battery, 1 car battery and 1 size D
battery),1 lamp, 3 resistors, 2 transistors, 2 capacitors and 2 inductors
Procedures:
From the list of the given materials:
1. Identify active components.
2. Identify passive components.
LY
DC circuit diagrams
A DC circuit diagram is an electrical circuit supplied by or connected to a DC power
N
source. In order to draw a DC circuit diagram, the following procedures should be
followed:
O
1. Identify the given circuit components.
2. Identify their respective circuit symbols and their terminals.
3. Draw the identified symbols. SE
4. Interconnect accordingly the symbols by straight lines.
Figure 4.11 shows a complete circuit diagram with a DC source as an active element
U
(Vs) and resistor (R), inductor (L) as well as capacitor (C) as passive elements.
Switch
E
N
L
R
LI
VS C
N
O
Figure 4.11: An example of a DC circuit diagram with active and passive elements
R
Activity 4.3: Drawing a simple DC electrical circuit diagram

FO
Required materials: Sources (batteries), resistors, inductors, capacitors and wires

Procedures:
1. Identify the given circuit components.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOcircuit
2. Identify their respective NOTsymbols
DUPLICATE
and their terminals.
3. Draw the identified symbols.
4. Connect accordingly the components by straight lines.
Types of electrical circuits

There are two ways used to categorise electrical circuits. These are circuit condition
and nature of connection between components.
Based on circuit condition
LY
There are three types of electrical circuits under this category. These are closed
circuits, open circuits and short circuits.
Closed circuit: This is an interconnection of components in a circuit leaving no
N
breakpoints. This occurs when the components are completely connected allowing
electricity to flow through the circuit as shown in Figure 4.12.
O
Switch closed
Battery
SE Lamp
U
Figure 4.12: Closed circuit diagram

E
Open circuit: This is the one in which the continuity is broken and there is no flow of
N
electrical current. A good example is a circuit that consists of a battery, lamp and a
switch that is not turned ON. In this case, the switching point is open and therefore,
LI
no electricity can flow. Figure 4.13 shows an open circuit diagram.

N
Switch open
O
R
Battery Lamp
FO
Figure 4.13: An open circuit diagram

Form Two
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DOis NOT
Short circuit: A short circuit a lowDUPLICATE
resistance connection between the two
conductors supplying electrical power to the circuit. This results in an excessive
current flow from the power source through the short-circuiting branch and may
even cause the power source to be destroyed. Figure 4.14 shows a short circuit.
Switch closed
Short circuit
Battery Lamp
LY
N
Figure 4.14: A short circuit diagram
O
Based on the nature of connection
Under this category, there are three major types of electrical circuits. These are series
circuits, parallel circuits and series-parallel circuits.
SE
Series circuit: This is a type of connection in which circuit elements are connected
end to end such that there is only one path for electrical current to flow. Figure 4.15
U
shows resistors R1, R2, and R3 connected in series to one another.
R1 R2 R3
E
I
N
VS
LI
N
Figure 4.15: Series circuit connection

O
Parallel circuit: A parallel circuit is a type of connection in which some elements are
connected between two common points such that each element provides a separate
R
path for the current. Figure 4.16 shows resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel
to one another.
FO

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I
VS R1 R2 R3
Figure 4.16: Parallel circuit connection

In practice, series and parallel circuits are just building blocks of a much more
complex circuits. The most practical applications use circuits composed of parallel
LY
components or series components or a combination of both. Figure 4.17 shows an
example of such circuits where two series resistors R1 and R2 are in series with a
N
parallel combination of two resistors R3 and R4 .
R1 R2
O
I
VS
SE R3 R4
U
Figure 4.17: Series-parallel circuit connection
E
Exercise 4.1
1. What is an electrical circuit?
N
2. Explain three types of electrical circuits based on the nature of connection.

3. With the aid of the diagram, explain the following:
LI
(a) Closed-circuit
(b) Open circuit
N
(c) Short circuit

O
4. Mention the major parts of an electrical circuit and provide two (2) examples for
each.
5. Identify the types of power sources and provide one example for each.
R
6. Write TRUE for correct statements and FALSE for incorrect ones.
(a) Capacitance is the ability to oppose the flow of current.
FO
(b) Inductance is the ability to store electrical charge.

(c) Resistors have two terminals.
(d) Battery, resistor and transistor are active devices.
(e) A generator is a load in a circuit.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Analysis of DC circuits DO NOT DUPLICATE
The term analysis of a DC circuit refers to the process of determining the currents
and voltages associated with it when the type of connection and circuit resistances
are known.
The analysis of DC circuits will base on Ohm’s law. Ohm’s law states that “The
voltage, V, across the terminals of a conductor is directly proportional to the current,
I, passing through the conductor provided all physical factors remain constant.”
Mathematically, Ohm’s law is represented as
V I
V = kI
LY
where α is a symbol for proportionality, k is a constant of proportionality and is
equal to the resistance (R).
Therefore, the relationship among voltage, current and resistance becomes
N
V = IR
O
The circuit diagram in Figure 4.18 shows a DC source (battery) with e.m.f., E
supplying a current I to the resistors R1 and R2. The voltage from the supply acts at
the terminals of the resistors resulting in what is known as potential difference (p.d.).
SE
For the circuit shown in Figure 4.18, potential differences are marked as the voltages
V1 and V2 across the resistances R1 and R2 respectively. These are the potential
differences between points A and B (VAB for V1) and points C and D (VCD for V2).
U
For the resistors R1 and R2 , the potential difference across them is also known as the
voltage drop.
From Ohm’s law, the potential differences VAB and VCD are given by
E
VAB = V1 = IR1
VCD = V2 = IR2
N
where I is the current drawn from the source.

V1 V2
LI
I A B C D
N
R1 R2
O
E
R
FO
Figure 4.18: Ohm’s law and the potential difference (p.d.)

The following are conditions for applying Ohm’s law:
(a) It can be applied to the entire circuit or part of circuit, depending on the
requirements.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
(b) When it is applied to DO
a partNOT DUPLICATE
of a circuit, part resistance and potential difference
should be used.
(c) It is applicable in both DC and AC circuits.
Ohm’s law cannot be applied in circuits with changing temperature, changing
physical conditions, semiconductor materials and conducting gases. These circuits
have non-linear characteristics such that the voltage and current are not directly
propotional to each other.
Examples 4.1
You are provided with two coils of unknown resistances. The first coil draws a
LY
current of 20 mA from a 120 V dc supply and the second coil draws the current of
400 µA from a 120 V DC supply. How would you express the resistance of each
coil?
N
Solution:
(a) Given: I = 20 mA and V = 120 V
O
Recall Ohm’s Law
V = IR
V
∴R =
I
SE
120 V
R=
20 × 10−3 A
U
= 6,000 Ω or 6 kΩ
(b) Given: I = 400 ma and V = 120 V
E
Recall Ohm’s Law V = IR

V
N
∴ R=
I
LI
120 V
R=
400 × 10−6 A
N
R = 300,000 Ω = 300 kΩ = 0.3 MΩ

O
Examples 4.2
R
Determine the voltage which must be applied to a 5 kΩ resistor for a current of 20

mA to flow.
FO
Solution:
Given: I = 20 mA and R = 5 Ω
Recall Ohm’s Law
V = IR

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
V = (20 × 10 ) × (5 × 10 ) V
−3 3
V = 100 V

Examples 4.3
A 50 V DC battery is connected across a resistor and causes a current of 5 mA to flow.
(a) Determine the resistance of the resistor.
(b) If the voltage is now reduced to 5 V, what will be the new value of the current
flowing through the resistor?
Solution:
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(a) Given: I = 5 mA and V = 50 V
Recall Ohm’s Law.
N
V = IR
V
O
∴ R=
I
50 V
R = 5 × 10−3 A SE
R = 10,000 Ωor 10 kΩ
U
(b) When the source is changed to V = 5 V, the resistor is the same.
From Ohm’s Law, the current is given by:
I = V
E
R
N
Since the resistor has not been changed, the resistance remains the same as
obtained in part (a), that is, R = 10 × 103 Ω
LI
5V
I=
N
10 × 10−3 Ω
O
I = 5 × 10 or 0.5 mA
−4
Therefore, the new current when the source is 5 V for the same resistor is 0.5 mA.
R
Application of Ohm’s law to different circuit connections

FO
Circuit components can be connected in the following ways: series connection,

parallel connection and series-parallel connection. In order to apply Ohm’s law to
such connections, the equivalent resistance of the circuit must first be determined.
The equivalent resistance is the total opposition offered to the flow of electric current

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
in a DC circuit. It is used toDO NOT
replace DUPLICATE
multiple connected resistors with a single resistor
whose value is known as equivalent or effective or total resistance.
Series connected resistors
In a DC circuit, two or more resistors are connected in series in order to reduce the
current flowing in the circuit. Such connections are shown in Figure 4.19 in which
three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series.
Characteristics of a circuit with series resistors
This type of connection exhibits the following characteristics:
(a) The current flowing in the circuit components is the same. The current I from E
LY
is the same through R1, R2 and R3.
(b) The voltage from the source is divided among the respective components. The
N
source voltage E is the sum of the voltages across R1, R2 and R3., that is,
E = V1 + V2 + V3.
O
(c) Total resistance is equal to the sum of individual resistances.
(d) Total resistance is more than the largest resistance in the circuit.
SE
Figure 4.19 shows resistors R1 , R2 and R3 connected in series to one another.
V
U
V1 V2 V3
A B
R1 R2 R3
E
RT
E
N
LI
N
Figure 4.19: Series connected DC electric circuit

O
Equivalent resistance of series connected resistors

It can be determined as follows: Figure 4.19 shows a source with voltage and
supplying a current to series resistors R1 , R2 and R3 . The voltages V1 , V2 and
R
V3 are the potential differences (voltage drops) across the resistors R1 , R2 and R3 ,
FO
respectively. The voltage V is the potential difference between the two points A
and B . This potential difference is equivalent to the voltage across the resistance
RT .
Note that the current is the same but the voltage is different in series components.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Since Ohm’s law applies for each part in a circuit, therefore, let V1 , V2 and V3 be
DO NOT DUPLICATE
the potential difference across R1 , R2 and R3 , respectively. The current through all
resistors is the same. Applying Ohm’s law on each resistor, the potential differences
are given by:
V = IR1
1
V2 = IR2
V3 = IR3
These voltages across the resistances add up to the total voltage, VT , which is the
potential difference between points A and B , that is, the voltage across the total
resistance RT :
V = V = V + V + V
LY
T 1 2 3
where VT is the total voltage.
N
Substituting the equations for V1 , V2 and V3 into the equation for V gives:

IRT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
O
Factoring out the current, I, gives:
IR = I(R + R + R )
T 1 2 3 SE
And by dividing throughout by I gives the equivalent resistance RT as:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
U
where RT is the equivalent (total) resistance.
This formula for equivalent resistance can be used for any number of resistors
E
connected in series. For example, for n resistors in series, the equivalent resistance
is given by the following expression:
N
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn
LI
where n is the total number of resistors connected in series.

Referring to Figure 4.19, it is important to note that the total potential difference is
N
equal to the voltage of the source E .

Advantages of series circuit
O
The series circuit has numerous advantages in electrical engineering as follows:

(a) It is used in heating circuits to increase heat generation.
R
(b) Several voltage sources are connected in series in applications requiring a higher
voltage supply.
FO
Disadvantages of series circuit

(a) If a break occurs in any part of the circuit, no current will flow and the whole
circuit will become useless.
(b) All devices connected in series must be designed to function at the same current.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Find the current flowing in the following electric circuit.
R1 R2
330 Ω 120 Ω
R3 1.5 kΩ
9V
LY
R6 R5 R4
180 Ω 390 Ω 47 Ω
N
Solution:
O
Given: Voltage of the supply E = 9 V
Resistance R1 = 330 Ω, R2 = 120 Ω, R3 = 1.5 k Ω, R4 = 47 Ω, R5 = 390Ω,
and R6 = 180Ω,
SE
Recall: Equivalent resistance RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn
U
In this case n = 6
∴ RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6
RT = 330 Ω + 120 Ω + 1500 Ω + 47 Ω + 390 Ω + 180 Ω
E
RT = 2,567 Ω ≈ 2.57 Ω
N
Recall: Ohm’s law V = IR

LI
V
I=
RT
N
9V
I=
2567 Ω
O

I = 3.51 × 10−3 A or 3.51 mA

R
Example 4.5
FO
If the total resistance in the following circuit is 200 Ω, find:

(a) The p.d. across resistor R3.
(b) The current flowing through R1.
(c) The value of R2.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
R1 DO NOT DUPLICATE
R2 R3
I
10 V 4V V3
25 V
Solution:
LY
Given:
Total resistance RT = 200 Ω
Source of voltage E = 25 V, the potential differences across the resistors R1 and
N
R2 are V1 = 10 V and V2 = 4 V, respectively.
O
(a) It is required to find V3 which is the p.d. across R3.
For the series connected circuit,
E = V + V + V
1 2 3 SE
∴ 25 V = (10 + 4) V + V3
V3 = 25 V – 14 V
U
V3 = 11 V
Therefore, the p.d across R3 is 11 V.
E
(b) It is required to find the current flowing through R1 :

N
For the series circuit, the current is the same through all series connected components.
If V is the total potential difference and RT is the total (equivalent) resistance, then
LI
V = IRT

V
N
I=
RT
O
V = E = 25 V
R
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 200 Ω
E 25 V
FO
∴ I = =
RT 200 Ω
I = 0.125 A

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
(c) From V2 = IR2 in series NOT DUPLICATE
circuit
Since V2 = 4 V and I = 0.125 A
V
R2 = 2
I
4
R2 =
0.125
R2 = 32 Ω

Parallel connected resistors
LY
In a DC circuit, two or more resistors are connected in parallel if they share the same
voltage across them and thus increase the amount of current drawn from the source
(supply). Such a connection is shown in Figure 4.20 in which three resistors R1 , R2
N
and R3 are connected in parallel to each other.
Characteristics of a circuit with parallel connected resistors
O
This type of a circuit exhibits the following characteristics:
(a) The voltage across each resistor is the same, that is, V1 = V2 = V3 = V.
SE
(b) The total current flowing in the circuit is equal to the sum of the currents in
parallel branches, that is, I = I1 + I2 + I3.
(c) The currents through the parallel branches are inversely proportional to the
U
individual branch resistances (I α 1/R).
(d) The reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of
individual resistance.
E
(e) The equivalent resistance is always less than the smallest resistance.
(f) As the number of parallel branches is increased, the total resistance of the circuit
N
is decreased.
LI
V
R1
N
I1
O
I2 R2
A B
I
R3
I3
R
E
FO
RT
Figure 4.20: Parallel connected DC electric circuit diagram

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Equivalent resistance ofDO NOT DUPLICATE
parallel V = IRT
connected resistors
The total current is therefore
It can be determined as follows: In Figure V
4.20, a source with e.m.f., E is supplying I=
RT
a current to three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 .
The current I at point A is divided into Substituting the equation for I into the
three parts: I 1 , I 2 and I 3 through the equation for V gives
resistors R1 , R2 and R3 , respectively. V V V V
These three parts recombine at point B = + +
RT R1 R2 R3
to give the same current I. Therefore,
Factoring out V on the right hand side
LY
the total current entering the parallel
branches at point A is given by results into
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 V ⎛ 1 1 1⎞
=V ⎜ + + ⎟
N
RT ⎝ R1 R2 R3 ⎠
Note that if the resistances of the parallel
O
components are not equal, then each
Dividing throughout by V , the equation
component will have a different value of
becomes
current flowing through it. The voltage
across parallel components is the same
regardless of their resistances.
1 ⎛ 1SE
=⎜ +
R ⎝R R R ⎠
T 1
1 1⎞
+ ⎟
2 3
Since Ohm’s law applies for each part in The above equation can be further re-
U
a circuit, the expressions for the currents written as
through each of the parallel resistors will
1 R R + R1 R3 + R1 R2
be given by = 2 3
V RT R1 × R2 × R3
I1 =
E
R1
1 R R + R1 R3 + R1 R2
= 2 3
N
V
I2 = RT R1 R2 R3
R2
LI
V
I3 = The reciprocal of the above equation
R3
becomes
N
R1 R2 R3
Substituting equations for I 1 , I 2 and I 3 RT =
R2 R3 + R1 R3 + R1 R2
O
into the equation for I results into

The equation for RT gives the equivalent
V V V
I= + + (total) resistance of three resistors in
R
R1 R2 R3
parallel shown in Figure 4.20. For n
Let RT be the equivalent (total) resistance resistors in parallel, the total resistance
FO
in the parallel combination. Then, the becomes

total potential difference (voltage drop) 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... +
across the parallel branch is given by RT R1 R2 R3 Rn

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO resistance
Hence, the equivalent (total) NOT DUPLICATE I1 R1
for n parallel resistors becomes
1
RT =
1 1 1 1 I I
+ + + ... + A B
R1 R2 R3 Rn
I2 R2
A special case is for two resistors in
parallel. In this case, n = 2 , giving rise to Figure 4.21: Parallel connection for example 4.6
1 Let R1 = 4 Ω and R2 = 10 Ω
RT =
1 1 Equivalent resistance for 2 resistors is
LY
+
R1 R2 calculated as follows:
RR
1 RT = 1 2
RT = R1 + R2
N
R +R 1 2
R1 R2 4 Ω × 10 Ω
RT =
O
4 Ω + 10 Ω
R1 R2 RT = 2.86 Ω
RT =
R1 + R2
Advantages of parallel circuits
SE
Recall Ohm’s law: The voltage across
the parallel combination is
V = RT I
(a) Each load is supplied at the same
U
voltage level hence the appliances V = 10 A × 2.86 Ω =
rated for the same voltage but 28.57 V
different powers can be connected Recall, the voltage across the parallel
E
in parallel without disturbing the resistors is the same for each resistor:
performance of each.
N
(b) The turning off or on of one load V = V = V = V = 28.57 V V

LI
R1 R2 AB
does not affect other loads.
V V
Example 4.6 ∴ I1 = and I 2 =
R1 R2
N
Two resistors 4 Ω and 10 Ω are connected

28.57 V
in parallel. If a current of 10 A is entering I1 = = 7.14 V
O
the combination, determine the current 4 Ω

in each resistor. The current through R1 (the 4 Ω resistor)
is I1 = 7.14 A
R
Solution: 28.57 V
I2 = = 2.86 A
Given 10 Ω
FO
Current I = 10 A
The current through R2 (the 10 Ω
The circuit is shown in Figure 4.21.
resistor) is I2 = 2.86 A

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
Note: The sum of the currents NOTalways
should DUPLICATE
be equal to the total current entering
or leaving the combination of parallel resistors.
Example 4.7
Three resistors with 20 Ω, 5 Ω and 10 Ω are connected in parallel. Find the equivalent
resistance of the combination.
Solution:
Let R1 = 20 Ω, R2 = 5 Ω and R3 = 10 Ω
Recall 1
LY
RT =
1 1 1
+ + + ... + Rn
R1 R2 R3
N
For n = 3 ,
1
RT =
1 1 1
O
+ +
R1 R2 R3
RT =
1
1
1
+ +
1
= 2.86 Ω SE
20 5 10
U
Series-parallel connected resistors
A series-parallel circuit is a circuit which is composed of series parts in parallel or
E
parallel parts in series. Figure 4.22 shows an example of such circuits where two
series resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series with a parallel combination of
N
two resistors R3 and R4 .

LI
Vs
R1 R2
N
Is V1 V2 Ip1 Ip2
O
V3 R3 V4 R4
Battery
R
FO
Figure 4.22: Electric circuit with series-parallel connected resistors

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
The following are some characteristics of series–parallel circuits:
(a) The current flowing in the series components in the circuit is the same through
that particular set of components. The current Is is the same through R1 and R2.
(b) The current flowing in parallel components adds up to the total current entering
that particular part of the combination, that is, Is = Ip1 + Ip2.
(c) The total voltage in the series part is the sum of individual component voltages,
that is, Vs = V1 + V2 = IsR1 + IsR2.
(d) The voltage in the parallel part is the same for all components in parallel, that
is, V3 = V4 = Ip1R3 = Ip2R4.
(e) The total resistance is obtained by finding the sum of equivalent resistances in
LY
series and parallel parts.
In a circuit given in Figure 4.22, the equivalent resistance is obtained in the following
manner:
N
First, find the equivalent resistance of the parallel part, which is obtained as follows:
O
Let RT 1 be the equivalent resistance of the two parallel resistors, given by

RT 1 =
R3 R 4
R3 + R 4
SE
U
Let RT 2 be the equivalent resistance of the two series resistors, given by
RT 2 = R1 + R2
Then, find the total resistance for the two combinations. Therefore, the overall
E
equivalent resistance RT will be given by

N
RT = RT 1 + RT 2

LI
Remember: To determine the equivalent resistance in a series-parallel circuit, you

must reduce the circuit by finding the equivalent resistance of each sub-parts.
N
Series-parallel circuits have a wide range of applications in electrical engineering.

The following are some of the examples:
O
(a) In starting vehicles: lighting and ignition systems are joined to make the series-
parallel circuit.
(b) Radio and television receivers contain some separate circuits that make up a
R
series-parallel circuit.
(c) Power sources are connected in series to get a higher voltage and they are
FO
connected in parallel to get a higher current.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Find the equivalent resistance in the following circuits (a) and (b):
10 Ω 8Ω 10 Ω
8Ω 6Ω
5Ω 5Ω 6Ω
(a) (b)
Solution:
(a) Let R1 = 8 Ω, R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 5 Ω and R4 = 6 Ω
LY
The resistors R2 and R3 are in parallel, whereas the resistors R1 and R4 are
in series.
R R
N
Equivalent resistance of parallel part RT 1 = 2 3
R2 + R3
O
10 Ω × 5 Ω
RT 1 =
10 Ω + 5 Ω
RT 1 = 3.33 Ω SE
Equivalent resistance of series part RT 2 = R1 + R4
U
RT 2 = 8 Ω + 6 Ω = 14 Ω
The equivalent resistance RT = RT 1 + RT 2
E
RT = 3.33 Ω + 14 Ω
N
R = 17.33 Ω
T
LI
Equivalent resistance RT = 17.33 Ω
(b) Let R1 = 8 Ω, R2 = 5 Ω, R3 = 10 Ω and R4 = 6 Ω

N
In the circuit in Figure (b), R1 and R2 are in parallel.

O
The equivalent resistance in the first part is given by
R1 R2
R
RT 1 =
R1 + R2
FO
R = 8 Ω × 5 Ω
T1
8 Ω+5 Ω

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
R DO NOT
= 3.08 Ω DUPLICATE T1
Also R3 and R4 are in parallel
The equivalent resistance of the second part is given by
R R3 R 4
T2 =
R3 + R 4
10 Ω × 6 Ω
LY
RT 2 =
10 Ω + 6 Ω
RT 2 = 3.75 Ω
N
Equivalent resistance RT = RT 1 + RT 2
O
RT = 3.08 Ω + 3.75 Ω
R = 6.83 Ω
T
Example 4.9
SE
Use the following figure to find the current I and the voltage across the 8 Ω resistor
U
when the switch S is:
(a) open
E
(b) closed
N
4Ω
5Ω S
LI
I 8Ω
N
40 V
O
R
Solution:
FO
Given: Voltage E = 40 V
Let R1 = 5 Ω , R2 = 4 Ω and R3 = 8 Ω

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
(a) When the switch S is open no current flows through R2 . Therefore, the resulting
circuit becomes:
R1 R3
40 V
Equivalent resistance RT = R1 + R3
LY
R = 5Ω + 8Ω
T
R = 13 Ω
T
N
Current E
I = R
O
I = 40 V
13 Ω
I = 3.08 A
SE
The voltage is given by
U
VR3 = IR3 = 3.08 × 8 = 24.64 V
(b) When the switch S is closed, the current also flows through R2.
E
R2
N
I2
I R1 I3
LI
40 V R3
N
O
I R1 RT1
R
40 V
FO
Equivalent resistance
RT = R1 + RT 1

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
where DO NOT DUPLICATE
4. Fix the components and connect
R 2 R3 them accordingly by using wire.
RT 1 =
R 2 + R3 5. Switch ON and OFF the lamp to
4Ω ×8 Ω observe the effect.
RT 1 =
4 Ω+8 Ω
RT 1 = 2.67 Ω 6. Write your findings and present your
results in class.
Equivalent resistance
Exercise 4.2
RT = R1 + RT 1 = 5 Ω + 2.67 Ω 1. State Ohm’s law.
LY
RT = 7.67 Ω 2. Mention conditions under which
Ohm’s law is applicable.
The required current is given by 3. Mention conditions under which
N
V 40 V Ohm’s law is not applicable.
I= =
O
RT 7.67 Ω 4. State two applications for each of
the following types of electrical
I = 5.22 A circuits:
The voltage drop across the parallel
branch is
SE
(a) series circuit (b) parallel circuit
(c) series-parallel circuit
VR = VR = VR = 40 − IR1
5. Derive an expression for equivalent
U
23 2 3
resistance in a series circuit with
VR = 40 V − 5.22 A×5 Ω
23
two resistors.
VR = 40 V − 26.10 V 6. Use the following figure to find: (a)
E
23
VR = 13.90 V the value of the resistor R1 if the

N
23
equivalent resistance is 100 Ω; (b)
Activity 4.4: Drawing a schematic current through the resistor R1 (c)
LI
diagram and wiring diagram for a DC the voltage across the resistor R1.
circuit 25 Ω I
N
R 1
Required materials: DC source, wire,

100 V
O
switch, holder, lamp

Procedures:
1. Identify the given circuit
R
7. Derive an expression for equivalent

components.
resistance in a parallel circuit with
FO
2. Identify their respective circuit three resistors.

symbols.
8. Use the following figure to find: (a)
3. Draw the wiring diagram for
the equivalent resistance RT (b) the
switching or controlling the lamp.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
source voltage V (c) the currents in each resistor R1 , R2 and R3 if the current
from the source is 2.5 A.
R1 = 5 Ω
R2 = 12 Ω I = 2.5 A
V R3 = 20 Ω
LY
9. Use the following figure to determine: (a) the equivalent resistance R (b) the
N
current from the supply (c) the current in each resistance.
O
2Ω 4Ω
27 V
I 5Ω
SE
4Ω 8Ω
U
E
Determining electrical power and energy in DC circuits

The electrical current in a circuit results from the movement of electrical charge.
N
For the movement of electrical charges to occur, some work should be done. This
work requires electrical energy.
LI
Electrical energy is the energy used in moving charges in a circuit. Its SI unit is joules
(J). In terms of electrical quantities, energy is given by the following expression:
N
Energy = Current × Voltage × time

O
Mathematically, it becomes
E = IVt
Recall: V = IR. Therefore,
R
E = I(IR)t
FO
E = I 2 Rt

The above equation can also be written in terms of voltage, V .

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Watt-sec (Ws) or Joules (J)
Recalling that: I = V , then The unit of energy is obtained directly
R from Pt = E when electrical power of
2
⎛V ⎞ one watt is delivered in one second.
E = ⎜ ⎟ Rt
⎝ R⎠ (1W)(1 s) = E
2
V E = 1 Ws
E= t
R 1 J = 1 Ws
Electrical power is the work done in
Watt-hour (Wh)
moving electrical charges per unit
Energy is also measured in watt-hour
time. Its SI unit is watt (W). From the
LY
definition, (Wh), where a watt-hour is obtained
Energy when power of one watt is delivered in
Power =
Time one hour.
N
E=P×t
Mathematically, it becomes
E = (1 Wh) × (1 h)
O
E
P= E = 1 Wh
t
IVt In terms of watt-sec,
P=

P = IV
t SE E = (1 W) × (3600 s)
E = 3600 Ws
∴ 1 Wh = 3600 J
Recalling that: V = IR, the power equation
U
can be written as Alternatively, energy is also measured
P = I(IR) in kilowatt-hour (kWh), where a kWh is
Alternatively, obtained when power of one kilowatt is
E
delivered in one hour.

P = I 2R
N
V E = P×t
Recall that: I = . Substituting it in the E = (1k W)×(1 h)
R
LI
above equation, results into E = 1 kWh

In terms of watt-sec, 1 kWh
N
⎛V ⎞
2
= (1000 W) × (3600 s)
P=⎜ ⎟ R E = 3,600,000 Ws
⎝ R⎠
O
Therefore,
which gives 1 kWh = 3,600 Ws
R
or
V2 1 kWh = 3,600,000 J
P=
FO
R
The following points should be noted
The SI unit of energy can be represented about the power and energy analysis in
in terms of power as shown below. DC circuits:

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
(a) the total power or energy in an DUPLICATE P = 25 W
electrical circuit is equal to the
(b) Recall: Electrical energy E = P × t
sum of power/energy of individual
components in that circuit. This E = 25×600 s
relationship is the same for series E = 15,000 J
and parallel circuits.
E = 15 kJ
(b) the expressions of energy and power
with resistance are specifically
used for resistive loads and heating Example 4.11
effects of current. Given the circuit in the following
LY
(c) the expression of power P = IV figure, determine the power delivered to
and energy E = IVt can be used for resistor R1 and the value of R1 when a
any types of loads. current of 10 A flows from the source.
N
Power rating of electrical devices
I2 R 2 I1 R1
O
Power rating is the amount of power R3
required by an instrument to work I 5Ω
I3 12 Ω
sufficiently. Knowing power rating of a
device enables prevention of supplying
more or less power than required. In
90 V SE
most electrical devices, power rating is
U
given along with the working voltage. Solution:
From the circuit
Example 4.10
I = I = 10 A, V = 90 V
E
2 s
A DC source of 50 V is connected to an Let R2 = 5 Ω , R3 = 12 Ω
appliance with a resistance of 100 Ω for
N
R1 = ?
a period of 10 minutes. Calculate: (a) the Let I 1 and I 3 be the currents through R1
LI
power delivered to the appliance (b) the and R3 , respectively. Also let V1 , V2 and
electrical energy used during that time. V3 be the voltages across the resistors
N
Solution: R1 , R2 and R3 , respectively.

Given: Voltage of source V = 50 V ,
O
Power delivered to R1 is given by

Resistance R = 100 Ω
V12
P1 = I R1 or P1 = I 1V1 or P1 =
2
R
1
Time t = 10 min = 600 s R1
V2
(a) Recall: Power P = Since R1 is unknown, we use P1 = I 1V1
FO
R
502 V 2 From the circuit, V2 = I 2 R2 but I = I 2
P=
100 Ω
V2 = 10 A×5 Ω

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOV NOT DUPLICATE
V2 = 50 Exercise 4.3
1. Define the terms electrical energy
From the parallel part V1 = V3
and electrical power and state their
∴ Vs = V2 + V1 SI units.
V1 = Vs − V2 2. Show that 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ.
V1 = 90 V − 50 V 3. The DC circuit given in the

following figure shows a 25 V DC
V1 = 40 V source connected to a lamp. If the
∴ V3 = 40 V current flowing in the circuit is 5 A,
LY
find: (a) the power delivered to the
From Ohm’s law
lamp (b) the energy delivered, if the
V3 lamp was ON for 12 minutes (c) the
N
∴ I3 =
R3 power dissipated, if a resistor of 5 Ω
40 V
O
I3 = is connected in series with the lamp.
12 Ω
∴ I 3 = 3.33 A I=5A
From the circuit
I = I1 + I 3
SE
25 V
Lamp
I1 = I − I 3
U
I1 = 10 A − 3.33 A
4. Three 20 W lamps are connected
I1 = 6.67 A
to a 100 V DC source. Find the
E
Power delivered in R1 is given by current drawn from the source, if the

P1 = I 1V1
N
lamps are connected in (a) series (b)

P1 = 6.67 × 40 parallel.
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P1 = 266.8 W Demonstration of Ohm’s law

N
2
From P1 = ( I 1 ) R1 Ohm’s law can be demonstrated using
O
an electrical circuit diagram containing

a DC source, resistance, ammeter,
266.8 W = ( 6.67 A) × R1
2
and voltmeter. The DC source can be
R
constant or variable. The resistance can

266.8 W
FO
R1 = also be constant or variable.

44.4889 A2
R1 = 5.997 Ω ≈ 6 Ω

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO Ohm’s
Activity 4.5: Demonstrating NOT DUPLICATE
5. Use the readings obtained in each
law using variable DC source case to calculate the resistance by
Required materials: Variable DC applying Ohm’s law.
Power source, copper wire, one resistor, 6. Compare the readings from the
switch, voltmeter and ammeter graph to those obtained through
Procedures: calculation.
1. Connect the components of the 7. Write a report and present your
circuit shown in the following results in class.
figure. 8. Submit the report to your teacher
LY
2. Vary the DC power source to obtain for assessment.
at least five values as shown in the
table that follows.
N
Variation of current with voltage
3. Record the readings of the Ammeter
The expression of Ohm’s law is given
O
and the Voltmeter for each value of
as V α I. This statement means that as
the source voltage as shown in the
current increases, voltage also increases
table.
4. Draw a graph using the Ammeter
and Voltmeter readings.
SE
and vice versa. This type of variation is
referred to as linear variation. That is,
a straight-line relationship between two
U
Voltmeter
quantities such that when one increases
V
the other also increases.
Various expressions of Ohm’s law can
E
A Ammeter Resistor be obtained for the following three

N
cases:
Battery 1. When resistance is constant:
LI
V = RI
V = kI
N
DC Ammeter Voltmeter where k = R

O
Supply readings readings In this case, when current increases,

E1 I1 V1 voltage also increases. Therefore, voltage
R
E2 I2 V2 is linearly proportional to current. Figure

4.23 shows an example of a graph of
FO
E3 I3 V3
linear relationship between current and
E4 I4 V4
voltage.
E5 I5 V5

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO(I)NOT
Current DUPLICATE
as a function of load voltage (VL)
6
4
Current [A]
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0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Load voltage [V]
N
Figure 4.23: Current-voltage linear relationship with constant resistance
O
2. When current is constant:
V = RI
V = kR
where k = I
SE
In this case, when resistance increases, voltage also increases. Therefore, voltage is
linearly proportional to the resistance. Figure 4.24 shows this relationship.
U
Load voltage (VL) as a function of variable resistance (Rh)
700
E
600
N
500
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Voltage [V]
400
N
300
O
200
100
R
0
FO
0 20 40 60 80 100
Variable resistance [ ]
Figure 4.24: Voltage-resistance linear relationship with constant current

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3. When voltage is constant:
V = RI
k = RI
where k = V k
1=
R
In this case, when resistance increases, current decreases. This is known as inverse
variation and is referred to as non-linear relationship between current and resistance.
Figure 4.25 shows the inverse relationship between current and variable resistance.
Current (IL) as a function of variable resistance (Rh)
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6
N
4
Current [A]
O
2
0
0 20 40 60
SE 80 100 120
U
Variable resistance [ ]
Figure 4.25: Current-resistance inverse nonlinear relationship with constant voltage
Alternative demonstration of Ohm’s law

E
Ohm’s law can also be demonstrated by assuming a constant source voltage and
N
varying the current using a variable resistor. Such a setup is shown in Figure 4.26.
LI
S IL
A
Rh B
N
O
Vbt RL V
R
FO
Figure 4.26: Experimental set-up for demonstrating Ohm’s law

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO following
The circuit contains the NOT DUPLICATE
linearly proportional to the current IL
equipment:
since the load resistance RL is constant.
(a) DC power source
When plotting the graph of the current
(b) Resistor RL acting as a load
I L versus the load voltage V L , it should
(c) A variable resistor Rh that is used
be expected that the graph is a straight
to vary the value of resistance and
line since VL and I L are linearly
therefore giving a variation of
related.
current in the circuit
(d) An ammeter for measurement of Activity 4.6: Demonstrating Ohm’s
current law using variable resistor
LY
(e) A voltmeter for measurement of
Required materials: Power source
voltage
Vbt (12 V), unknown resistor, variable
(f) Conductors (wires) for connecting
resistor, ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter,
different components
N
conductors (copper wire or connecting
(g) Plug key/switch S for connecting or
leads) and plug key or switch
O
disconnecting the circuit
The circuit in Figure 4.26 can be used to Procedures:
derive the expression of Ohm’s law and 1. Set the value of the variable
circuit connections as follows:
In the circuit, let the source voltage
SE resistance at its maximum value.
2. Using the ohmmeter, record the
be Vbt , the load voltage be VL , the maximum value of the variable
resistance.
U
load resistance be RL and the variable
resistance be Rh . 3. Reduce the value of the variable
At any given instance, the equivalent resistance until it is 25% of the
maximum value. Place a mark at
E
resistance RT is given by
RT = RL + Rh that point.
4. Set the value of the variable
N
From Ohm’s law, the voltage, current

resistance at its maximum value.
and resistance relationships are:
LI
5. Connect the given components in

Vbt = RT I L
series.
Vbt = (RL + Rh )I L
N
6. Connect the measuring devices, the

Vbt ammeter in series and the voltmeter
IL =
O
RL + Rh in parallel across the load.

7. Turn on the switch.
VL = RL I L
8. Record the values of the ammeter
R
where I L is the current in the circuit. and voltmeter.

From the above equations, if voltage 9. Step by step change the value of the
FO
source Vbt is constant and the variable variable resistance.

resistance Rh changes, the current I L 10. For each step, record the ammeter
will also change inversely proportional to and voltmeter readings.
Rh. The load voltage VL will also change 11. Keep on varying the resistance and

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
taking the reading until DO NOT DUPLICATE
the variable parallel and combination of series-
resistance is 25% of its maximum parallel connection.
value. 6. DC loads (resistances) may be
(a) Plot the graph of VL against I L connected in series or parallel or
(current-voltage characteristics). the combination of series – parallel
(b) Determine the value of load connections.
resistance. (a) If n loads are connected in
12. Write a report and present your series, their total resistance
result in class. (equivalent resistance) is given
LY
13. Submit the report to your teacher for as RT = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
assessment. (b) If n loads are connected in
parallel, their total (equivalent)
Chapter summary
N
resistance is given as
1. A DC circuit is the closed path of
1 1 1 1
O
electric circuit in which current = + + ... +
flows through. It consists of DC RT R1 R2 Rn
source and DC load interconnected
with wires.
2. The relationship among DC source,
SE
Revision exercise 4
1. With the aid of diagrams, explain
the term electrical circuit.
load and current is explained using
U
the Ohm’s law which states that the 2. Write TRUE for the correct statement
current through a conductor between and FALSE for the incorrect one.
two points is directly proportional (a) A short circuit occurs when a
E
to the voltage across the two points, switch is turned OFF.

N
that is, I = V/R. (b) An open circuit should not

3. Examples of DC sources are the occur in a circuit.
LI
batteries and solar cells whereas (c) A closed circuit is a complete

examples of DC loads are the path that allows the flow of
N
DC lamps, DC fans and electrical current.

speakers. (d) A circuit has three parts which
O
are divided into two categories:

4. Most sources are called active
active and passive elements.
components since they generate
R
(e) Copper is an example of the

electrical energy whereas most
material that can be used as a
loads are called passive components
FO
conductor.
as they absorb electrical energy.
(f) A socket on the wall provides
5. The DC electrical circuits can be DC electricity.
classfied as closed, open, series,

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
(g) A load is a source of NOT
energy DUPLICATE
in a circuit.
(h) An electrical circuit can only have a source and load.
3. Briefly explain why a lamp goes off when a switch is turned OFF.
4. Explain why a capacitor is not considered as an active element while it stores
charge.
5. State Ohm’s law.
6. Find the current passing through a 7 Ω resistor with a potential difference of
0.49 V across its terminals.
7. Mention the types of electrical circuit connections and differentiate three of
LY
them.
8. The equivalent resistance of the following circuit is 50 Ω. Determine the value
of R1 and R2 if R1 = 2R2.
N
R1
O
10 Ω 5Ω
R2 SE
9. The data for the circuit in the following figure is given as currents I1 = 2 A,
U
I2 = 3 A and I3 = 1 A; voltages; V1 = 4 V, V2 = 6 V and V4 = 2 V. Determine:
(a) the total current I from source
E
(b) the voltage of source

(c) equivalent resistance, RT
N
(d) the power delivered from the source

LI
(e) the total energy, if the circuit was ON for 2 minutes

I1 V1 V4
N
R1 R4
O
I2 V2
I R2 I
R
I3 V3
FO
Vs
R3

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Chapter
Electrical measurements
Five
Introduction
It is important to be aware of the values (magnitudes) of the
LY
electrical quantities such as voltage, current and resistance
for appropriate use of the electrical devices and appliances.
These values are obtained through measurements using
N
electrical measuring instruments. In this chapter, you will
O
learn about the basic concepts of electrical measurement and
instruments, as well as classification of electrical measuring
instruments. The competencies developed will enable you
SE
to use electrical measuring instruments to measure voltage,
current and resistance in electrical circuits.
U
Basic concepts of electrical measurements and instruments
Nowadays, the measurement of electrical quantities is an essential part of almost
any electrical engineering system. In electrical engineering, the term “measurement”
E
refers to the process of determining the value of electrical quantities such as current,
N
voltage, resistance, power and energy. An “instrument” is a device that is used to

determine the magnitude or value of the quantity to be measured.
LI
The essential requirements for any electrical measuring instruments are:

N
(a) When an instrument is used in a circuit, the circuit conditions should not be
altered and therefore the quantity to be measured goes unaffected.
O
(b) It should consume low power.

(c) It should have the capacity to provide information about the smallest possible
R
magnitude of the quantity being measured.

(d) The output should be linearly proportional to the input.
FO
(e) It should be less affected by unwanted electrical disturbances.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
Classification of electrical NOT DUPLICATE
measuring instruments
Electrical measuring instruments are classified according to the type of measured
quantity, form in which measured value is presented, nature of current and the
principle of operation.
Classification depending on the type of measured quantity

Based on the type of measured quantities, electrical instruments are classified into
the following:
(a) Ammeter for measuring electrical current;
(b) Voltmeter for measuring electrical voltage;
LY
(c) Ohmmeter for measuring resistance of an electrical component;
(d) Wattmeter for measuring power; and
N
(e) Moving coil galvanometer for indicating the passing of current in a DC circuit.
O
Ammeter
An ammeter is used to measure electrical current in amperes (A). It is connected
SE
in series with the load whose current is being measured. A circuit symbol of an
ammeter is the letter A inside a circle as shown in Figure 5.1. Figure 5.2 shows
the connection of an ammeter for measuring the current through the lamp in the
U
electrical circuit.
A
E
Figure 5.1: Circuit symbol of an ammeter

N
LI
Ammeter
N
A
I
O
Battery Lamp
R
Figure 5.2: An ammeter connected in series

FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Voltmeter DO NOT DUPLICATE
a circle as shown in Figure 5.5. Figure 5.6
shows the connection of the ohmmeter
A voltmeter is used to measure the voltage
for the measurement of resistance of an
across an electrical circuit element or
electrical component.
the potential difference (p.d.) between
two points. It is therefore connected Ω
in parallel with the load on which the
Figure 5.5: Circuit symbol of an Ohmmeter
measurement is made. In an electrical
circuit, the voltmeter is represented
by a circle with the letter V inside as Ohmmeter
LY
shown in Figure 5.3. Figure 5.4 shows Ω Resistance
the parallel connection of a voltmeter
for measuring the voltage (potential
N
difference, p.d.) between points A and B,
that is, the voltage across the lamp in the Figure 5.6: An Ohmmeter connected
O
electrical circuit. across the resistance
Wattmeter
V
Figure 5.3: Circuit symbol of a voltmeter

SE
A wattmeter is used to measure the power
consumed by a particular load or part
of the electrical circuit. It is connected
U
both in series and parallel with the load
A
or part of the circuit whose power is to
Battery Lamp be measured. In an electrical circuit, the
V
wattmeter is represented by a circle with
E
Voltmeter
B the letter W inside it as shown in Figure
N
5.7. Figure 5.8 shows the connection of

Figure 5.4: A voltmeter connected in
wattmeter for measurement of power
LI
parallel between two points

consumed by the electrical lamp.
across an electrical circuit
W
N
Ohmmeter
Figure 5.7: Circuit symbol of Wattmeter
An ohmmeter is used to measure
O
the resistance between two points of

A W C
an electrical circuit. It is therefore B
Battery
R
connected in parallel with the load on Lamp

which the measurement is made. The
FO
resistance is measured in a dead circuit,

that is, a circuit whose power source is Figure 5.8: A wattmeter for power
disconnected. The graphical symbol of measurement of the lamp
an ohmmeter is an omega symbol inside

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
A moving-coil galvanometer or as multifunction instruments such
This is used to indicate the passing of as multimeters. The multimeter is an
current in a DC circuit. It is used mainly electrical measuring instrument that can
in connection with laboratory testing be used for the measurements of several
work and for cable fault testing. Figure
quantities such as voltage, current and
5.9 shows the circuit symbols of a
resistance.
galvanometer.
These instruments are used for measuring
G or several electrical quantities such as DC
and AC current, DC and AC voltage,
LY
Figure 5.9: Circuit symbols of a
resistance as well as DC and AC power.
galvanometer
A galvanometer is also used in measuring Analogue electrical measuring
N
very small values of voltage and current. instruments
Therefore, a galvanometer shows both the These are the ones whose output is a
O
magnitude and direction of the current. continuous function of time and has
Figure 5.10 shows a galvanometer that a constant relation to the input. They
is used for measuring and indicating the
presence of current.
SE
use pointer and scale to indicate the
value of the quantity being measured.
The analogue measuring instruments
U
for voltage, current and resistance are
shown in Figure 5.11 (a), Figure 5.11 (b)
and Figure 5.11 (c), respectively. Figure
E
5.11(d) shows an analogue multimeter

N
and Figure 5.11(e) shows an analogue

wattmeter.
LI
Figure 5.10: A galvanometer Digital electrical measuring instruments

N
These are the ones which represent the

Classification depending on the form measured value in the form of numerical
O
in which measured value is presented digits. The value of the measured quantity
This criterion classifies electrical is shown on the display screen. Figure 5.11
R
measuring instruments into analogue and (f) shows a digital multimeter. Some of
digital measuring instruments. the measurements that can be made using
FO
these types of instruments are both AC and

Both analogue and digital instruments can DC voltage measurements; both AC and
be used as single-function instruments DC current measurements and resistance
such as ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter measurements.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
(a) Analogue DC voltmeter (b) Analogue DC ammeter
N
O
SE
U
(c) Analogue ohmmeter (d) Analogue multimeter

E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
(e) Analogue DC and AC wattmeter (f) Digital multimeter
Figure 5.11: Analogue and digital electrical measuring instruments

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Activity 5.1: Measuring DO NOTcircuit
electrical DUPLICATE
quantities
Required materials: Two DC voltage sources, wires (connecting leads), three
resistors (R1, R2 and R3), switch, three voltmeters (V1, V2 and V3), three ammeters (I1,
I2 and I3) and ohmmeters
Procedures:
Set up an experiment for determining the electrical quantities as shown in Figure 5.12.
1. Select three different resistors.
V1
I1
LY
A1
A R1 B I2 I3
A2 A3
N
C E
Vs
O
R2 V2 R3 V3
D F
SE
Figure 5.12: Experimental set up of activity 5.1
U
2. Measure the resistances of the three selected resistors using an ohmmeter and
record their values.
3. Make circuit connections except for the DC voltage source (Vs).
E
4. With the help of a switch, connect the first DC voltage source (Vs1) to the circuit.
N
5. Record the readings for the ammeters (A1, A2, A3) and voltmeters (V1, V2, V3) and
fill in the Table 5.1.
LI
6. Connect the two DC voltage sources in series to obtain a new supply voltage
and call it Vs2. Repeat the procedure in (5).
N
7. Compare the observations made from the measured values and those obtained
from Ohm’s law.
O
8. Assuming the same DC voltage sources (Vs1 and Vs2) as applied in the above
experiment, calculate the theoretical values for the currents I1, I2 and I3 and the
R
potential differences V1, V2 and V3 and fill in Table 5.2.

9. What observations can be made by comparing the measured values and the
FO
theoretical ones?
10. Write a report and present your results in class.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
Table 5.1: Readings of ammeters DUPLICATE
and voltmeters
DC Supply Ammeter readings Voltmeter readings Ohm’s law
I1 V1 I1R1
Vs1 I2 V2 I2R2
I3 V3 I3R3
I1 V1 I1R1
Vs2 I2 V2 I2R2
I3 V3 I3R3
LY
Table 5.2: Theoretical determination of electrical quantities
DC supply Calculated currents Calculated potential differences
N
I1 V1
O
Vs1 I2 V2
I3 V3
Vs2
I1
I2
SE
V1
V2
I3 V3
U
Classification depending on the nature of current
Based on the nature of the current, electrical instruments can be classified into the
following DC instruments, AC instruments and DC and AC instruments.
E
DC instruments
N
These are measuring instruments which are used to measure the DC electrical
quantities only. Examples are DC ammeters, DC voltmeters and DC wattmeters for
LI
measuring DC current, DC voltage and DC power, respectively, in a DC electrical

circuit.
N
AC instruments
O
These are measuring instruments which are used to measure the AC electrical
quantities only. Examples are AC ammeters, AC voltmeters and AC wattmeters for
measuring AC current, AC voltage and AC power, respectively, in an AC electrical
R
circuit.
DC and AC instruments
FO
These are measuring instruments which are used to measure both AC and DC
electrical quantities. Examples of these instruments are the analogue and digital
multimeters which are used to measure both DC and AC currents and voltages in the
respective electrical circuits.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Classification dependingDO NOT
on the DUPLICATE
operating principle
Based on the principle of operation, electrical instruments can be classified into
permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) instruments and moving iron instruments.
Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) instruments

The operation of these types of instruments depends on the magnetic effect of current
and it is used for direct current and direct voltage measurement only.
Moving iron instruments

The operation of these types of instruments depends on the magnetic effect of current
LY
and is used for measurement of both direct and alternating current and voltage.
Construction of moving coil instruments
Moving coil instrument consists of a permanent shoe magnet, a light rectangular
N
coil of many turns of fine wire wound on a light aluminium former and an iron core
O
inserted inside the coil to reduce reluctance for the magnetic lines of force. The coil
is mounted on the spindle and acts as a moving element. The force produced is in
form of a deflecting torque. This force causes the pointer to move over the scale. The
SE
constructional view of a moving coil instrument is shown in Figure 5.13.
U
Upper control spring
Pointer
E
Soft-steel ring
N
LI
Permanent magnet
N
N
Core
S
O
Moving coil
Lower control spring

R
(a) Side view

FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Amperes
Scale
Pointer
Permanent magnet
LY
Spring
N S
Soft iron core
N
Coil
Pole piece
O
(b) Top view
Figure 5.13: Constructional details of a moving coil instrument
SE
The basic principles of the moving coil ammeter and voltmeter are the same. They are
all current-operated devices. The deflecting torque is produced when current flows
through their operating coils. In the ammeter, the deflecting torque is produced by
U
the current to be measured while in the voltmeter, the deflecting torque is produced
by a current that is proportional to the potential difference to be measured. For
this case, the same instrument can be used as an ammeter or voltmeter with proper
E
design. Examples of moving coil instruments include the ammeter, galvanometer

N
and voltmeter.
Operation of moving coil instruments

LI
Moving coil instruments are mainly used in measuring of DC quantities only. The
working principle of the moving coil instrument is based on the fact that when
N
a current-carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field, a force is produced

O
and exerted on the conductor. The produced force moves the coil away from the
magnetic field. With the movement of the coil, the pointer moves over the scale to
indicate the electrical quantity being measured. The different types of moving-coil
R
instruments are permanent magnet moving-coil instruments (PMMC), which are

used for DC quantities only, and dynamometer type, which is used for both AC and
FO
DC quantities.
Controlling systems: An indicating moving coil instrument essentially consists of
a moving part and a stationary part. A pointer is attached to the moving part which

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
indicates the electrical quantity to beDUPLICATE
measured on a graduated scale. To ensure
proper operation of the indicating instruments, the following torques are required:
deflecting or operating torque, controlling or restoring torque and damping torque.
Deflecting torque: Acts on the moving part of the instrument to give the required
deflection and indicates the corresponding electrical quantity to be measured on a
graduated scale. It exists as long as the instrument is connected to the supply. For
a moving coil instrument, the deflecting (or operating) torque is produced by the
magnetic effect. When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic
field, it experiences a force which causes the conductor to move. An example of
such instrument is the permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) instrument.
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Controlling torque: In this case, the controlling or restoring torque is the one which
opposes the deflecting torque. When the deflecting torque and the controlling torque
are equal then the pointer comes to rest at the position corresponding to the measured
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electrical quantity. When the instrument is disconnected from the supply, the
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controlling torque is responsible to bring the pointer to its original position (usually
zero position). The controlling torque can be produced through two methods, namely
spring and gravity control.
SE
Spring control is a type of control in which two helical springs are connected to the
spindle of the moving part, as shown in Figure 5.14. When the pointer moves, the
springs are twisted in the opposite direction and thus affecting the movement of the
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system.
E
5 Spring
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Scale
4
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3
2
N
1
Pointer Balance weight
0
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Spring
Spindle
R
Figure 5.14: Spring control

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Gravity control is a type of control in which small adjustable weights are added to the
moving part such that whenever the pointer moves, the weights also are deflected.
The illustration of this method is shown in Figure 5.15.

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Balance weight
5 Pointer Spindle
Scale
4
3
2
1
0
Control weight
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Figure 5.15: Gravity control
Damping torque: A damping system is the one which produces the damping torque.
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The damping torque is responsible for reducing the oscillations of the pointer and
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bringing the pointer to the final position.
As shown in Figure 5.16, the damping system has three characteristics:
(a) Under-damped system: It occurs when sufficient damping torque is not produced.
SE
In this case, the pointer makes under-damped oscillations before reaching the
steady deflection.
(b) Over-damped system: It occurs when the damping torque is more than the
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required value. In this case, the pointer becomes sluggish and takes longer than
the required time to reach the final deflection.
(c) Critically damped system: It occurs when the magnitude of damping torque
E
is sufficient enough to make the pointer to read the correct reading without
passing or oscillating about it.
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Under damping
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Deflection
Steady deflection
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Over damping
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Critical damping
0 Time
Figure 5.16: Characteristics of the damping torque

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The damping torques canDO
be NOT DUPLICATE
produced (ii) Fluid-friction damping
through the following three methods, In fluid-friction damping method,
namely air-friction damping, fluid-friction a light vane attached to the spindle
damping and eddy-current damping. of the moving part is dipped into a
(i) Air-friction damping pot of damping oil and is completely
submerged by the highly viscous oil as
There are two air friction damping methods. shown in Figure 5.18. As the pointer
In the first method, a light aluminium moves, friction between the vane and
piston is attached to the moving system and viscous oil is produced. This friction
moves in an air chamber closed at one end opposes the motion of the pointer which
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as shown in Figure 5.17 (a). The pointer provides the required damping.
is attached to the piston. The cushioning
Rotation of spindle
action of air on the piston damps out the
N
oscillations and thus preventing the pointer
from oscillating about its final deflected
O
position. Spindle
In the second air-friction damping method,

one or two light metal vanes are attached at
the spindle, which also holds the pointer as
SE Vane
shown in Figure 5.17(b). When the pointer Damping oil

U
moves, the vanes swing, compressing the
Figure 5.18: Fluid-friction damping
air. The pressure from the compressed air
provides the necessary damping to prevent (iii) Eddy-current damping
E
the oscillations of the pointer. There are two methods of eddy-current

Air chamber
damping. The first one uses a thin
N
Piston aluminium or copper disc which is

LI
Spindle attached to the moving part as shown in

Pointer
Figure 5.19(a). The disc is allowed to
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pass between the poles of a permanent

(a) Piston and air chamber
magnet. As the pointer moves, the disc
O
cuts across the magnetic field and eddy

currents are induced in the disc. The
Sector shaft box
R
induced eddy currents react with the

Spindle field of the magnet to produce a force
FO
which opposes the motion of the pointer.

Vane
Thus, the eddy-current damping torque
(b) Metal vanes spindle helps to reduce the oscillations of the
moving pointer.
Figure 5.17: Air-friction damping

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Spindle Motion of coil
Damping force
Disc
Metal former
(b) Using a metal former
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(a) Using a metal disc
Figure 5.19: Eddy-current damping types

In the second eddy-current damping method, the coil which produces the deflecting
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torque is wound on the metal former as shown in Figure 5.19(b). When the coil
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moves in the field of the instrument, the eddy currents are induced in the metal
former to provide the necessary damping torque.
Example 5.1 SE
An electrical circuit is supplied from a dc source with E = 48 V for measurement
of current and voltage. The ammeter and voltmeters are connected as shown in the
following figure. The circuit parameters are such that R1 = 4 Ω, R2 = 6 Ω and R3 = 2 Ω.
U
Determine the readings of the ammeter A1 , the voltmeters V1 and V2.
V1
E
I1
A1
A B
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R1 R2
C
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E R3 V2
N
D
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Solution:
R
The circuit elements E, R1, R2 and R3 are all connected in series. Therefore, the
given electrical circuit is a series circuit in which the application of Ohm’s law
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gives
E = I1 (R1 + R2 + R3 )
E 48 V 48 V
I1 = = = =4 A
R1 + R2 + R3 (4 + 6 + 2) 12 Ω

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The ammeter A1 will be measuring the current I 1 . Therefore, the reading of A1 is 4 A.
The voltmeters V1 and V2 will be measuring the potential differences across the
resistors R2 and R3 , respectively.
Let the potential difference across R2 be VR2 and the potential difference across R3
be VR3 . From Ohm’s law, the potential difference across each of the two resistors is
given by V =I R
R2 R2 2
V R3 = I R3 R3

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Where I R 2 is the current through the resistor R2 and I R3 is the current through the
resistor R3 . Since these resistors are connected in series, the same current passes
through them. Hence, I R2 = I R3 =I1 = 4 A which is the reading of ammeter A1 . Thus,
N
VR2 = I R2 R2 =I1 R2 = 4 A×6 Ω = 24 V

O
VR3 = I R3 R3 =I1 R3 = 4 A×2 Ω = 8 V
Therefore, the voltmeter readings are V1 = 24 V and V2 = 8 V

SE
Check: E = I1 R1+I1 R2 +I1 R3 = 4 A×4 Ω + 4 A×6 Ω + 4 A×2 Ω = (16 + 24 + 8) V = 48 V
Exercise 5.1
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1. Define the term measuring instrument.
2. Give the classification of measuring instruments according to their applications.
3. Explain with the aid of diagram how you can connect the meter to measure the
E
following quantities: (a) current (b) voltage (c) resistance

N
4. The following figure shows an electrical circuit that is supplied from a battery
with the e.m.f. E = 24 V. The values for the resistors R1 and R2 are 2 Ω and 4 Ω,
LI
respectively. Determine the ammeter reading.

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I1
A1
R1 R2
O
R
E
FO

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5. Determine the ammeterDO
andNOT DUPLICATE
voltmeter readings in the following figure, if
E = 12 V, R1 = 2 Ω and R2 = 4 Ω.
V1
I1
A1
R1 A R2 B
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N
O
Activity 5.2: Measuring electrical quantities in a series circuit
Required materials: DC power source, ammeters, voltmeters, ohmmeters, resistors
and connecting conductors
Procedures:
SE
1. Select four resistors with R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 15 Ω, R3 = 20 Ω and R4 = 25 Ω.
U
2. Use an ohmmeter to measure the resistance of each resistor.
3. Connect all the four resistors in series and measure the resultant resistance.
E
4. Connect a series circuit with all four resistors connected in series as shown in
N
the following figure.

5. Measure the current flowing in the circuit.
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6. Measure the potential difference across each resistor.

N
7. Measure the total potential difference across the combination of the series
resistors.
O
8. From the values obtained in steps 5 and 7, calculate the total circuit resistance.
9. Find the difference between the source voltage and the value obtained in step 7.
R
10. Determine the theoretical values and compare them with the results obtained in
steps 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8.
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11. Write your findings and present them in class.

12. Re-draw the complete circuit diagram with all measuring instruments.
13. Submit your report to your teacher for assessment.

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R1 R2 R3 R4
Activity 5.3: Measuring electrical quantities in parallel circuit
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Required materials: DC voltage source of 12 V, ammeters, voltmeters, ohmmeters,
four resistors and connecting conductors
Procedures:
N
O
3. Connect all the four resistors in parallel and measure the resulting resistance.
4. Connect a parallel circuit (with all four resistors connected in parallel) across a
SE
12 V DC supply as shown in the following figure.
5. Measure the current flowing through each resistor.
7. Measure the total circuit current.
U
8. Measure the total potential difference across the combination of parallel
resistors.
E
N
steps 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8.
11. Re-draw the complete circuit with all measuring instruments.
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12. Present your findings in class.

N
R1
O
R2
R
R3
FO
E
R4

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Activity 5.4: Measuring electrical DUPLICATE
quantities in a series-parallel circuit
Required materials: DC voltage source of 12 V, ammeters, voltmeters, ohmmeters,
four resistors and connecting wires
Procedures:
3. Connect R1 and R2 in series, and R3 and R4 in parallel.
4. Connect the combination in step 3 in series, that is, the series connected resistors
in series with the parallel resistors and measure the total resistance.
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5. Complete the circuit as shown in the following figure.
6. Measure the current flowing through each parallel resistor.
N
8. Measure the total circuit current.
O
9. Measure the total potential difference across the combination of the series-
parallel resistors.
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steps 4, 6, 7 and 8.
12. Re-draw the complete circuit with all measuring instruments.
U
13. Present your results in class.
Rp1
E
Rs1 Rs2
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Rp2
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E
N
O
Chapter summary
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1. Electrical measurement refers to the process of determining the value of

FO
electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance, power and energy.

2. Electrical measuring instruments are classified according to the nature of current,
type of measured quantity, principle of operation and construction features as
well as form in which the information being measured is presented.

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3. Current, voltage andDO NOT DUPLICATE
resistance are main electrical quantities in electrical
circuits. Current is measured using ammeter that is connected in series with the
load to be measured.
4. Voltage and resistance are measured by voltmeter and ohmmeter respectively. A
voltmeter is connected in parallel with device whose voltage is to be measured.
Also an ohmmeter is connected in parallel with the device whose resistance is
to be measured.
Revision exercise 5
1. With examples, describe a moving coil instrument.
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2. Briefly explain the construction of a moving coil instrument.
3. Explain the principle of operation of a moving coil instrument.
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4. What is the function of a control system in the moving coil instrument?
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5. Explain the types of control systems in moving coil instruments.
6. What is the function of the damping systems in moving coil instruments?
7. Explain different types of damping systems in moving coil instruments.
8.
SE
How is an ammeter connected in an electrical circuit?
9. What electrical quantity is measured by an ammeter?
U
10. How is a voltmeter connected to an electrical circuit?
11. What electrical quantity is measured by a voltmeter?
12. Draw an electrical circuit with a DC source supplying power to a lamp of
E
resistance R. Show the connection of an ammeter and a voltmeter for measuring

the current through the lamp and the potential difference across the lamp,
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respectively.
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13. How would you connect an ohmmeter to measure the resistance of the lamp in
question 12?
N
14. The electrical circuit provided in figure (a) shows a series-parallel combination.
An ammeter is connected to measure the current delivered by the source. You
O
are required to measure the potential difference across the 3 Ω resistor and the
current through the 5 Ω resistor. (a) Show the connection of the measuring
R
instruments to the circuit. (b) What will be the ammeter and voltmeter readings?
(c) Use the readings obtained in (b) to determine: (i) the current through the 2
FO
Ω resistor (ii) the voltage across the 5 Ω resistor (iii) the potential difference
across the 3 Ω resistor and 2 Ω resistor.

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5Ω
A1
3Ω 2Ω
4V
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(a)
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15. An electric lamp whose resistance is 20 Ω and a conductor of 4 Ω resistance
are connected to a 6 V battery. An ammeter and two voltmeters are provided to
O
measure the current delivered by the battery and the potential differences across
the lamp and the resistance of the conductor. Draw the electrical circuit showing
SE
the connections of the given elements and the measuring instruments and record
the ammeter as well as voltmeter readings.
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Chapter
Cells and batteries
Six
Introduction
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You have already seen that the DC circuits require a DC
source as a voltage supply for their operation. One of these
DC sources is a battery. In this chapter, you will learn about
N
the concepts of cells and batteries, electrical cells and
O
batteries. The competencies developed will enable you to
select the appropriate combination of cells and batteries and
use them accordingly.
Basic concepts of cells and batteries

SE
The invention of a cell can be traced back in the 1800s after the Italian physician
U
Luigi Galvani started to stumble across electrochemistry in the concept of
electrolysis (reduction and oxidation). Later, Volta was the first person to understand
what Galvani had discovered was an electrochemical cell and he named it voltaic
E
pile. A single unit cell could not provide enough driving force (termed as voltage).
Therefore, multiple cells were combined either in parallel or series to form a single
N
unit called a battery that could provide the required voltage and current for a specific
LI
period. The lead-acid battery is the most enduring battery that was invented in
1859 and it developed the technology of all battery types. In today’s applications,
N
there are different types of cells and batteries ranging from mini, small to large
battery packs. Their applications range from cell phones, radios, watches, e-bikes
O
and electric vehicles to electric grid.
Cells
R
An electrical cell is a device that converts stored chemical energy into electrical
energy. It is an active device with two metallic terminals labelled with positive (+)
FO
sign and negative (-) sign. The standard graphical symbol of the electrical cell is a
pair of long and short parallel lines. The long line is marked with a positive sign and
the short line is marked with a negative sign, as shown in Figure 6.1.

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Figure 6.1: Graphical symbol of an electrical cell
The two terminals of a cell are two dissimilar conductors (metals) referred to as
electrodes. These are dipped into a chemical known as an electrolyte as shown in
Figure 6.2. Electrolyte tends to break down into ions when dissimilar electrodes are
placed in it, and therefore, creating charges. When these electrodes are connected
together, the charge tends to flow between electrodes based on their affinity for
electrons and therefore establishing electrical current. Because of this process, one
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electrode becomes positive and it is called anode and the other becomes negative
and it is called cathode. If a voltmeter is connected between the electrodes, a certain
voltage will be measured and this voltage depends on the pair of metals used as
N
electrodes.
Voltmeter
O
V SE
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Metal 1 (Anode) Metal 2 (Cathode)
E
Electrolyte
N
Figure 6.2: A simple cell

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Types of cells
Electrical cells are classified based on two broad criteria, namely nature of chemical
N
reaction involved and nature of electrolyte used.

O
Classification according to nature of chemical reaction

According to the nature of chemical reaction involved, electrical cells are divided
into primary and secondary cells.
R
Primary cells: These are the ones which cannot be used again once their stored
FO
charge has been used up completely. They are, therefore, often referred to as non-
rechargeable or disposable cells. The main reason for loss of charge is polarisation.
Polarisation is the process whereby one electrode becomes insulated due to emission

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DO NOT
of gases from the electrolyte. DUPLICATE
This can be reduced by adding depolarisers like
manganese dioxide and nitric acid. These types of cells are very common and have
a large number of applications, which include the following:
(a) They are used in clocks and wrist watches.
(b) They are used in small radios.
(c) They are used in television, radio and air conditioner remote control units.
There are many examples of primary cells. These include Leclanché cells, alkaline
cells, lithium cells, silver oxide cells and zinc air cells.
LY
A simple Leclanché cell consists of four components: glass container, electrolyte
(Sal ammoniac), carbon plate (positive electrode) and zinc plate (negative electrode).
The voltage between the plates of a Leclanché cell, without the connection of a load,
N
is 1.5 V. This is termed the open circuit voltage or electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the
cell. The symbol for e.m.f is E. Figure 6.3 shows a simple Leclanché cell.
O
A simple Leclanché cell has two main shortcomings:
Local action: The electrolyte attacks the impurities in the zinc, forming small
SE
cells and corroding the electrode or forming hydrogen bubbles on zinc plate due to
presence of impurities such as iron and carbon.
Polarisation: Bubbles of hydrogen gas (an insulator), which are formed around the
U
carbon electrode when the cell is in use, insulate it and cause resistance to the flow
of the established current.
E
- ve
+ ve
N
LI
N
Zinc rod
Carbon plate
O
Porous pot
Sal ammoniac
R
solution
FO
Manganese
dioxide and
powdered carbon
Figure 6.3: Leclanché Cell

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DO NOT
Alkaline cells are also commonly knownDUPLICATE
as dry cells. They consist of carbon rod
(positive electrode) surrounded by a mixture of powdered carbon and manganese IV
oxide, zinc (negative electrode) and ammonium chloride jelly (electrolyte). Figure
6.4 shows a diagram of a typical alkaline cell which is used for powering remote
control units and has a voltage of 1.5 V.
Brass cap (+ contact)

Insulating top seal
Insulating outer cover
Ammonium chloride jelly
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Zinc can (-)
Carbon rod (+)
Mixture of powdered
N
carbon and Manganese
(IV) oxide
O
Cardboard disc
SE -ve contact made here

Figure 6.4: Typical alkaline cell
Secondary cells: These are the ones which can be recharged multiple times after
U
being used up before they are discarded. They are also known as rechargeable
cells. These cells have high initial cost compared to primary cells but have a much
lower overall cost and they are environmental friendly. Secondary cells have a large
E
number of applications which include the following:

(i) They are used in smart phones and smart watches.
N
(ii) They are used in pacemakers.

LI
(iii) They are used in laptops.

(iv) They are used in cameras.
N
Examples of secondary cells include lead acid cells, lithium ion cells, nickel
cadmium cells and nickel metal hydride cells.
O
Both primary and secondary cells are rarely used as individual units rather in a
combination with other units.
R
Classification according to the nature of electrolyte

An electrolyte is a substance that conducts electricity as a result of its decomposition
FO
into ions (both negative and positive). According to this criterion, electrical cells are
classified into dry cells and wet cells.
Dry cells are the ones consisting of a solid electrolyte which can be either in powder

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DOtheNOT
or jelly form. Dry cells have DUPLICATE
following properties:
(i) They are used in portable applications.
(ii) They are small in size.
(iii) They are easy to handle.
(iv) They cannot withstand overcharging.
(v) Most have high energy density. This is the ratio of energy output to their size.
(vi) They store charge for a long period of time.
Wet cells are the ones which contain liquid solution that acts as electrolyte with
electrodes dipped into it. They have the following properties:
LY
(i) They are mainly used as secondary cells.
(ii) They are fairly affordable, given the amount of power they supply and their
durability.
N
(iii) They are less likely to suffer damage from overcharging.
(iv) They are not easy to handle. Spillage of electrolyte is a common occurrence.
O
(v) They have low energy density.
(vi) They are larger in size compared to dry cells.
Open-circuit and closed-circuit voltage of a cell

SE
Every cell has an internal resistance which is the opposition it offers to the flow
of current due to polarisation effect in the cell. The value of internal resistance (r)
U
should be kept as low as possible as it affects the magnitude of the voltage available
at the terminals of the cell.
E
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the voltage developed between terminals of the cell
when no current is drawn from the cell. It is abbreviated by E as shown in Figure
N
6.5 (a).
LI
N
E r E r
O
V
R
V
R
FO
(a) open circuit (b) closed circuit

Figure 6.5: Equivalent circuit of a cell

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Figures 6.5 (a) and (b) showDO NOTsymbol
the actual DUPLICATE
used to represent a practical cell in
an open and closed circuit, respectively. In an open circuit, no current flows and
no voltage drops across the internal resistance r. Therefore, the terminal voltage V
is equal to electromotive force E of the cell. Here, terminal voltage is equal to the
voltage measured between terminals of the cell.
In a closed circuit, certain amount of current I flows in the circuit causing voltage
drop in internal resistance r and load resistance R. Consequently, the terminal voltage
V is not equal to E as shown mathematically below.

LY
Therefore,

where terminal voltage V is equal to voltage drop across the load resistor R.
N
For open circuit, I = 0 and therefore,
O

Thus, under open circuit condition, the terminal voltage V is equal to the e.m.f, E of
the cell.
Characteristics of electrical cells
SE
Electrical cells have the following characteristics:
U
Electromotive force, e.m.f
This is the voltage produced by an electrical cell. Its magnitude depends on:
Length of time since it was last charged: The cell discharges even if it is left on open
E
circuit after being fully charged.

Density of electrolyte: As the concentration of the electrolyte in the cell increases,
N
the e.m.f of the cell also increases.

LI
Temperature: When there is slight increase in temperature, the e.m.f. also increases.
Terminal voltage
N
The terminal voltage of an electrical cell is different from the open-circuit voltage
because there are some voltage drops due to internal resistance of the cell.
O
Internal resistance
Every electrical cell has an internal resistance that depends on:
R
Area of electrodes: The internal resistance decreases with increase in electrode area.
FO
Spacing between electrodes: The internal resistance decreases with decrease in

spacing between electrodes.
Specific gravity of electrolyte: The internal resistance decreases with increase in
specific gravity of electrolyte.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Capacity of a cell DO NOT DUPLICATE
Capacity of the cell is the measure of amount of charge stored in the cell. It helps to
determine how long it will take before a cell is fully discharged. The unit of capacity
of a cell is Ampere-hour (Ah) and is defined as the amount of time it will take for
a cell to be fully discharged if it supplies a current of 1 A. The capacity of the cell
depends on the following factors:
Rate of discharge: The higher the rate of discharge the less the capacity.
Area of electrodes: The capacity of a cell increases with the electrode area.
Specific gravity of electrolyte: The higher the specific gravity of electrolyte the
LY
higher the capacity.
Efficiency of cell
N
Efficiency is found by dividing the output by the input. There are two methods of
O
measuring the efficiency of a cell. These are:
SE
where Ahout = Iout tout , Ahin = Iin tin , Iout is the output current (A), tout is the number of
U
output hours (hr), Iin is the input current (A) and tin is the number of input hours (hr).
E
where Whout = Iout Vout tout, Whin = Iin Vin tin, Iout is the output current (A), Vout is the
LI
output voltage (V), tout is the number of output hours (hr), Iin is the input current (A),
Vin is the input voltage (V) and tin is the number of input hours (hr).
N
The ampere hour (Ah) efficiency does not take into account the varying voltages of
O
charge and discharge. The watt-hour (Wh) efficiency does so and is always less than
Ah efficiency because the average potential difference during discharging is less
than during charging.
R
Example 6.1
FO
What is the internal resistance of a cell of electromotive force 1.5 V and potential
difference of 1 V if the circuit current is 0.5 A?
Solution: Given e.m.f. = 1.5 V, p.d. = 1 V, and I = 0.5 A

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Recall: DO NOT DUPLICATE
where V = p.d. = 1 V
Then; (1.5 −1) V
r = =1 Ω
0.5 A
Example 6.2
The potential difference across a cell when no current flows through the circuit is 3 V.
When a current of 0.37 A is flowing, the terminal potential difference falls to 2.8 V.
LY
Determine the internal resistance (r) of the cell.
Solution: Given p.d. = 2.8 V, E = 3 V, I = 0.37 A
N
Recall: E = V + Ir

O
where V = p.d. = 2.8 V
Therefore,
r=
(3− 2.8) V
0.37 A
= 0.54 Ω
SE
U
Example 6.3
A Leclanché wet cell with e.m.f. 1.5 V and internal resistance 1 Ω supplies current to
a single-stroke electrical bell of resistance 5 Ω. Calculate: (a) the total resistance of
E
the circuit (b) the current in the circuit (c) the potential difference of the cell.
N
Solution:
LI
Given E = 1.5 V, r = 1 Ω and R = 5 Ω

(a) Total resistance of a circuit
N
(b) The current E 1.5 V

I= = = 0.25 A
RT 6Ω
O
(c) The potential difference of cell

R
FO
V = 1.5 V −(0.25 A×1 Ω) = (1.5 − 0.25) V = 1.25 V
Check: V − IR = 0.25 A × 5 Ω = 1.25 V

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Exercise 6.1 DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. Describe an electrical cell.
2. Draw a graphical symbol of an electrical cell.
3. Make a neat sketch of a simple Leclanché cell and label its parts.
4. Describe the terms “local action” and “polarisation”.
5. List six properties of a dry cell.
6. Mention five properties of a wet cell.
7. Explain the following terms:
(a) Internal resistance
(b) Open-circuit voltage
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(c) Closed-circuit voltage
8. A Leclanché cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5 V and a closed-circuit voltage of 0.5 V with
a current of 1 A flowing. Find the internal resistance of the cell.
N
9. When a cell with an e.m.f. of 2.5 V is connected to a load resistor R, a current of
5 A flows through the circuit. When the cell is connected to two equal resistors,
O
the current flowing is 2.54 A. Determine internal resistance and the value of
load resistance R.
SE
10. Use circuit diagrams to differentiate between electromotive force and potential
difference.
Connection of cells
U
Cells may be connected in three different ways in order to accommodate certain
electrical requirements in a given application. The following are the most common
patterns of connecting cells:
(a) Series connection of cells
E
(b) Parallel connection of cells

N
(c) Series-parallel connection of cells

Series connection of cells
LI
This is a type of connection where cells are connected end-to-end such that the
positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of the other cell
N
as shown in Figure 6.6.

O
r1 r2 r3 rn rT
E1 E2 E3 En ET
R
V
V
FO
R R
(a) n cells connected in seris (b) equivalent circuit
Figure 6.6: Series circuit connection of cells

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
Cells connected in series have theNOT DUPLICATE
(i) The same current flows through each cell.
(ii) The total e.m.f. of the combination is equal to the sum of the e.m.f.’s of all cells.
(iii) Since any current flowing in the circuit will pass through each cell, in turn, the
internal resistances must be added together.
In the circuit shown in Figure 6.6, the formula for total e.m.f., ET and total internal
resistance rT are given as follows:
Given the e.m.f. of n cells connected in series are E1 , E 2 , E3 , ..., E n , the total
e.m.f., ET , is
LY
ET = E1 + E 2 + E3 +  + E n

If E1 = E 2 = E3 =  = E n = E , then;
where n is the number of cells in series.
O
Also, if r1 , r2 , r3 , ..., rn are the internal resistances of n cells connected in series, the
total internal resistance rT will be
rT = r1 + r2 + r3 +  + rn
SE
If r1 = r2 = r3 =  = rn = r , then;
U
rT = nr

If a load resistance R is connected to the circuit, the total circuit resistance RT will
E
be given as
N
RT = R + rT = R + nr

LI
The total current I in the circuit is given by

E
I= T
N
RT
O
Note: If the value of load resistance is much greater than the internal resistance of
FO
the cell, then

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
In this condition, more current can beDUPLICATE
obtained by increasing the number of cells
connected in series.
Example 6.4
Four cells of 1.5 V e.m.f. and 0.4 Ω internal resistance each are connected in series
to a load resistor of 5 Ω. Calculate: (a) the total e.m.f. (b) the total internal resistance
(c) the total circuit current (d) the total voltage drop (e) the terminal voltage (p.d.).
Solution:
Given: e.m.f. of each cell, E = 1.5 V
Internal resistance of each cell, r = 0.4 Ω
LY
Load resistance, R = 5 Ω
Number of cells, n = 4
(a) Total e.m.f. ET = nE
N
ET = 4 × 1.5 = 6 V
O
(b) Total internal resistance, rT = nr
rT = 4 × 0.4 Ω = 1.6 Ω
(c) Total circuit current,
I=
nE
R + nr
SE
6V 6V
I= = 0.91 A
U
=
(5 + 1.6) Ω 6.6 Ω
(d) The total voltage drop Vr = nIr = IrT
Vr = 0.91 A × 1.6 Ω = 1.45 V
E
(e) Terminal voltage,

N
V = E − IrT
LI
V = E −Vr
=66 VV−1.45
Vr = − 1.45
VV= 4.55
= 4.55
V V
N
(For checking, e.m.f. = voltage drop + terminal voltage (p.d.) = 1.45 V + 4.55 V = 6 V)
O
Example 6.5
A primary cell with e.m.f. of 1.5 V and internal resistance 0.2 Ω is connected to a
R
circuit of 20-Ω resistance. Calculate: (a) the current flowing in the circuit (b) the
FO
current in the circuit if supplied from 10 similar cells connected in series.

Solution:
Given: e.m.f. = 1.5 V, internal resistance, r = 0.2 Ω, external resistance, R = 20 Ω.
(a) The current flowing in the circuit,

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
E
I=
R+r
1.5 V
I= = 0.074 A
(20 + 0.2) Ω
(b) If the number of cells connected in series, n = 10, then,
nE
I=
R+nr
10×1.5 V 15 V
I= = = 0.68 A
20 Ω + 10 × 0.2 Ω 22 Ω
LY
Note: The current in (b) has increased by more than nine times the current in (a).
N
Example 6.6
Four primary cells, each having an e.m.f. of 1.4 V and internal resistance of 1 Ω,
O
are connected in series to a circuit of resistance 0.4 Ω. One cell is inadvertently
connected in the reverse direction. Calculate: (a) total internal resistance (b) total
SE
useful e.m.f. in circuit (c) total resistance of circuit (d) the current in the circuit.
Solution:
Given: e.m.f. of each cell, E = 1.4 V, internal resistance, r = 1 Ω, and external
U
resistance, R = 0.4 Ω.
(a) Total internal resistance,
rT = nr
E
rT = 4 × 1 Ω = 4 Ω
N
(b) When one cell is reversed, therefore, E4 = E the total useful e.m.f. is
ET = E1 + E 2 + E3 + E 4
LI
ET = E + E + E E = 2E
ET = 2 × 1.4 V = 2.8 V
N
(c) Total resistance of circuit is

O
RT = R + rT
RT = 4 Ω + 0.4 Ω = 4.4 Ω
R
(d) The current in the circuit is

E
FO
I= T
RT
2.8 V
I= = 0.64 A
4.4 Ω

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
1. Six Leclanché cells of e.m.f. 1.5 V per cell are connected in series and an
external resistor of 6 Ω is connected across the combination. Draw a complete
circuit diagram and calculate: (i) the total resistance of the battery (ii) the current
through the 6 Ω resistor. The internal resistance of each cell is 2 Ω.
2. Four cells of 1.5 V and 0.5 Ω internal resistance each are connected in series to a
load resistor of 5 Ω. Calculate: (a) the total e.m.f. (b) the total internal resistance
(c) the total circuit current(d) the voltage drop of total internal resistance (e) the
terminal voltage (p.d.).
LY
3. A primary cell with e.m.f. of 4.5 V and internal resistance 0.2 Ω is connected to
a circuit of 4.8 Ω resistance. Calculate: (a) the current flowing in the circuit (b)
the current in the circuit if supplied from 10 similar cells connected in series.
N
4. Four primary cells, each with e.m.f. of 1.6 V and internal resistance of 1 Ω, are
connected in series to a circuit of resistance 0.5 Ω. One cell is inadvertently
O
connected in the reverse direction. Calculate: (a) total internal resistance (b)
total useful e.m.f. in the circuit (c) total resistance of circuit (d) the current in the
circuit.
Parallel connection
SE
When two or more cells are connected in such a way that their positive terminals
U
are joined at one point and their negative terminals are joined at another point, then
such an arrangement of cell is called a parallel circuit. Figure 6.7 shows this type of
connection. The cells are generally arranged in parallel when one wants to obtain
E
more amount of current.

N
I1 E1 r1
LI
I2 E2 r2
N
I
O
I3 E3 r3
In En rn
R
I ET rT
FO
V V
R R
(a) n cells connected in parallel (b) equivalent circuit
Figure 6.7: Parallel circuit connection of cells

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Parallel cell connections haveDO
the NOT DUPLICATE
(i) The current flowing through the load is equal to the sum of the current from
each cell in parallel connection.
(ii) For cells with equal e.m.f., the total e.m.f. of the combination is equal to the
e.m.f. of an individual cell.
(iii) The total internal resistance of the combination is equal to the reciprocal of
the sum of reciprocals of individual internal resistances. For equal internal
resistances, the equivalent internal resistance is equal to individual internal
resistance divided by number of cells.
LY
For the circuit diagram of Figure 6.7 (a) in which n cells are connected in parallel,
the total e.m.f., ET is equal to the e.m.f. of an individual cell, provided that they have
the same e.m.f, E .
N
ET = E
O
If the given internal resistances of the n cells in parallel are r1 , r2 , r3 ,..., rn , the
total internal resistance rT is given as follows:
1 1 1 1 1

= + + ++
rT r1 r2 r3 rn
SE
For identical cells with the same internal resistances r1 = r2 = r3 =  = rn = r , the
total internal resistance is given as follows:
U
1 1 1 1 1 n
= + + ++ =
rT r r r r r
Therefore, for n identical cells connected in parallel, the total internal resistance is
E
given by
r
N
rT =
n
LI
If the cells are connected across a load resistor R , then the current flowing through
the circuit becomes
N
E
I=
R + rT
O

E
I=
r
R
R+
n
FO
or
nE
I=
nR + r
where n is the number of cells connected in parallel.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Six cells of 1.4 V e.m.f. and 0.5 Ω internal resistance each are connected in parallel.
The resistance of the load resistor is 8 Ω. Calculate: (a) the circuit current (b) the
voltage drop of the battery (c) the terminal voltage.
Solution:
Given: number of cells, n = 6, e.m.f. of each cell, E = 1.4 V, internal resistance of
each cell, r = 0.5 Ω, load resistance, R = 8 Ω
(a) Circuit current,
nE
LY
I=
nR + r
6 × 1.4 V 8.4 V
I= =
N
6 × 8 Ω + 0.5 Ω 48.5 Ω
I = 0.17 A
O

(b) Voltage drop of the battery,

Vd = IrT
⎛ r ⎞ Ir
Vd = I ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ =
SE
⎝⎜ n ⎠⎟ n
U
0.17 A × 0.5 Ω 0.085 V
Vd = =
6 6
Vd = 0.01 V
E
N
(c) Terminal voltage, V = E − Vd ,

LI
V = 1.4 V − 0.01 V = 1.39 V
Example 6.8
N
Six Leclanché dry cells, each having an e.m.f. of 1.5 V and internal resistance of
O
0.3 Ω, are connected in parallel to supply current to a circuit of resistance 20 Ω.

Calculate: (a) the total e.m.f. of the circuit (b) the total internal resistance (c) the total
resistance of the circuit (d) the current in the external circuit (e) the current if only
R
one cell is used and others are disconnected.

FO
Solution:
Given: e.m.f. of each cell E = 1.5 V, internal resistance for each cell, r = 0.3 Ω and
external resistance, R = 20 Ω.
(a) Since the cells are connected in parallel, the total e.m.f. equals to the e.m.f. of

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
one cell. Therefore, ET =DO
1.5 VNOT DUPLICATE
(b) Total internal resistance for parallel cells is given by
r
rT =
n

(c) Total resistance of the circuit is given by
RT = R + rT

RT = 20 Ω + 0.05 Ω = 20.05 Ω

LY
(d) Total current in the external circuit is given by
E
IT = T
RT
N
1.5 V
IT = = 0.07 A
20.05 Ω
O
(e) The current, if only one cell is used and others are disconnected, will be
Rt = R + r

Rt = 20 + 0.3 = 20.3
SE
Thus, the current is
U
ET
IT =
RT
1.5 V
IT = = 0.07 A
E
20.3 Ω
N
Note: Since the load resistance is much bigger than the internal resistance of each
cell, the current in (d) is approximately equal to the current in (e).
LI
It can be vividly seen that, if the internal resistance of each cell is ignored, then the
total current in the circuit will be
N

E 1.5 V
IT = = = 0.08 A
O
R 20 Ω
This value is very much related to the results of (d) and (e) .
R
Cells in series-parallel connection

FO
The connection of cells is not restricted to series and parallel forms only. A number
of different hybrid connections can be obtained depending on the requirements of a
given application. Figure 6.8 shows one such hybrid connection. In this circuit, there
are p branches in parallel, each having n cells connected in series.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
I1 E11 r11 E21 r21 En1 rn1
I I2
E12 r12 E22 r22 En2 rn2
I3 E13 r13 E23 r23 En3 rn3
Ip
LY
E1p r1p E2p r2p Enp rnp
N
R
O
(a) p parallel-connected branches each having n cells in series
I ET rT
V
R
SE
(b) equivalent circuit
U
Figure 6.8: Series-parallel circuit connection of cells
For similar cells, the internal resistance of the whole combination is equal to the
internal resistance of one series section divided by number of sections. There are n
E
cells in series per section; each cell has e.m.f., E and internal resistance r .
N
Let there be p sections in parallel.

LI
Then the total e.m.f., ET = nE , resulting from the series connected cells. The total
internal resistance is

N
nr
rT =
p
O
where nr is the total internal resistance for series connected cells in each branch.
R
Example 6.9
Twelve dry cells with e.m.f. of 1.4 V and internal resistance of 0.4 Ω each are
FO
connected in series-parallel, in sections of four cells in series, and three sections in

parallel. The terminals are connected to an external resistance of 12 Ω. Calculate:
(a) total e.m.f. (b) total internal resistance (c) current in the external circuit (d) current
in each section (e) potential difference of the battery.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Solution: DO NOT DUPLICATE
Given E = 1.4 V, n = 12, r = 0.4 Ω
(a) The total e.m.f. is given by
ET = nE = 4 × 1.4 V = 5.6 V
(b) The total internal resistance is
nr 4 × 0.4 Ω 1.6 Ω
rT = = = = 0.53 Ω
p 3 3
(c) The current in the external circuit is given by
LY
E ET
IT = T =
RT R + rT
5.6 V
N
IT =

(12 + 0.53) Ω
O
5.6 V
IT = = 0.45 A
12.53 Ω
(d) The current in each section is given by
I
SE
Ip = T
p
U
0.45 A
Ip = = 0.15 A
3
(e) The potential difference of battery is given as:
E
The potential difference (p.d.) of the battery is the same as the terminal voltage
N
V. Therefore,
LI
p.d. = 5.6 V − (0.45 A × 0.53 Ω)
p.d. = 5.6 V − 0.24 V = 5.36 V

N
This potential difference is also obtained from

O
p.d. = IR = 0.45 A × 12 Ω = 5.4 V

R
Exercise 6.3
FO
1. Four cells of e.m.f. 1.5 V and internal resistance of 0.5 Ω each are connected
in parallel across an external resistance of 2.5 Ω. Determine: (a) the current
supplied by the battery (b) the current supplied by each cell (c) the terminal
voltage of the battery.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOofNOT
2. What is the significance DUPLICATE
series and parallel connections of cells?
3. Six cells of e.m.f. of 1.6 V and 0.5 Ω internal resistance each are connected
in parallel. The resistance of the load resistor is 8 Ω. Calculate: (a) the circuit
current (b) the voltage drop of a cell (c) the terminal voltage.
4. Draw a circuit diagram of four cells connected in parallel.
5. Four Leclanché cells are connected in two parallel branches with two cells in
each branch. The e.m.f. of each cell is 1.5 V and internal resistance is 3 Ω. The
combination is connected to an external resistance of 3 Ω. Find: (a) the total
internal resistance (b) the total current (c) the current through each cell (d) the
LY
voltage across the external resistance.
Activity 6.1: Determining the e.m.f. of cells in different connections
N
Requirement materials: Four equal cells, wire and multimeter
O
Procedures:
1. Number the cells as Cell 1, Cell 2, Cell 3 and Cell 4.
2. SE
Measure and record the e.m.f. of each cell by using a voltmeter, as shown in
Figure (a).
3. Connect two cells (Cell 1 and Cell 2) in series, measure and record the total
U
e.m.f. as shown in Figure (b).
4. Connect two cells (Cell 3 and Cell 4) in series, measure and record the total
E
e.m.f.
N
5. Connect the two cells (Cell 1 and Cell 2) in parallel, measure and record the
total e.m.f. as shown in Figure (c).
LI
6. Connect the two cells (Cell 3 and Cell 4) in parallel, measure and record the
total e.m.f.
N
7. Connect the four cells in series, measure and record the total e.m.f. as shown in
O
Figure (d).
8. Connect the four cells in two parallel branches such that each branch consists of
R
two cells, measure and record the total e.m.f. as shown in Figure (e).
9. Write your results and present them in class.
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE Cell 1
Cell Cell 1 Cell 2
Cell 2
V V V
Voltmeter Voltmeter Voltmeter
(a) (b) (c)

Cell 1 Cell 2
LY
Cell 1 Cell 2 Cell 3 Cell 4
Cell 3 Cell 4
N
V V
O
Voltmeter Voltmeter
(d) (e)
Batteries
SE
The term battery is more common than cell in energy storage devices used in most
U
applications. However, there is a slight difference between the two. The battery is
a combination of two or more electrical cells. Depending on the pattern of cells
connection used, the current or voltage can be increased. The symbol of the battery
E
is shown in Figure 6.9 with cells connected in series (Figure 6.9 (a)) and cells
connected in parallel (Figure 6.9 (b)).
N
LI
N
(a) Series connected cells (b) Parallel connected cells

O
Figure 6.9: Symbol of a battery

R
Batteries are constructed in order to supply larger loads depending on their

requirements. They can be made to supply higher voltage, larger current or both. Most
FO
of the batteries have cells constructed into a single compartment with connections
made inside. A good example of such batteries is a car battery. Other batteries are
made of a number of individual cells, for example, a battery system powering a
torch light consists of two or more alkaline cells.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Classification of batteries
Similar to cells, batteries are classified based on two broad criteria, namely nature of
chemical reaction and type of electrolyte used.
Based on the nature of chemical reaction, batteries are divided into primary and
secondary batteries. While, based on type of electrolyte used, batteries are categorised
into wet or dry batteries. Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 summarise and compare various
types of batteries.
Table 6.1: Types of primary batteries, their applications and features
Battery name Common application areas Common features
LY
Zinc-carbon (a) Used in remote control (a) widest range of sizes,
(Leclanché) units shapes, and capacities
N
(b) Used in torch lights (b) cheap and lightweight
(c) Used in portable radios (c) low energy density
O
(d) very poor for high-drain
applications
(e) poor performance at low
SE temperatures
Zinc chloride (a) Used in motorised toys (a) wide range of cylindrical and
U
(b) Used in cassette and CD rectangular jackets
players (b) usually labelled “heavy
(c) Used in torch lights duty”
(d) Used in portable radios (c) typically 2–3 times the life
E
of zinc-carbon batteries
N
Zinc-manganese (a) Used in motorised toys (a) wide range of cylindrical and
dioxide (b) Used in cassette and CD rectangular jackets
LI
players (b) long shelf life

(c) leak-resistant
N
(d) best performance under

O
heavy loads
(e) 4–10 times the life of zinc-
carbon batteries
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Table 6.1 DO NOT DUPLICATE
Battery name Common application areas Common features
Zinc-silver (a) Used in hearing aids (a) These are button batteries.
oxide (b) Used in watches and (b) They have high energy
calculators density.
(c) They have long shelf life.
(d) They are expensive.
Zinc-air (a) Used in hearing aids (a) They are cylindrical in
LY
(b) Used in pagers and shape.
watches (b) They are mostly 9-volt
batteries.
N
(c) They are button and coin
O
jackets in shape.
(d) They have highest energy
SE density of all disposable
batteries.
(e) They have virtually
U
unlimited shelf life.
Lithium-iron (a) Used in digital cameras (a) They are cylindrical and
sulphide (b) Used in small button batteries.
E
appliances (b) They have high energy

N
density.
LI

N
Lithium- (a) Used in digital cameras (a) These are cylindrical and
manganese (b) Used in small button in shape.
O
oxide appliances (b) They have high energy

density.
R

FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
Table 6.2: Types of secondary NOT their
batteries, DUPLICATE
applications and features
Battery name Common applications areas Common features

(a) Used in smart phones (a) Most have cylindrical jackets.
and smart watches (b) They have high energy
(b)Used in portable density.
Lithium-ion computers and laptops
(c) They have shorter life than
nickel-cadmium.
LY
(a) Used in vehicles (a) They have wide range of
(b)Used in wheelchairs sizes.
(c) Used in electrical (b) They are cheapest and
Lead-acid
N
vehicles heaviest battery.
(d)Used for emergency (c) They have long life.
O
power supplies
(a) Used in power tools (a) These have cylindrical
(b)Used in cordless
telephones
SE jackets.
(b) They have excellent
(c) Used in biomedical
performance under heavy
U
equipment
load.
Nickel-cadmium
(c) They have nearly constant
voltage during operation.
E
(d) They are highly toxic and

N
carcinogenic if improperly
recycled.
LI
(a) Used in smoke alarms (a) Some have cylindrical jackets

N
(b)Used in power tools (b) They have high energy

(c) Used in cellular density.
O
telephones
Nickel-metal (c) They have good performance
hydride under heavy load. They
R
maintain a nearly constant

voltage during operation.
FO
They not detrimental to the

environment.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
A lead-acid battery, also known DUPLICATE
as a lead storage battery, is the oldest type of
rechargeable battery and is one of the most common energy storage devices. Figure
6.10 shows a lead-acid storage battery.
Negative terminal Positive terminal
LY
Figure 6.10: Lead-acid storage battery
N
Lead storage batteries are mostly used to supply power for starting, lighting and
O
ignition (SLI) in internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles such as automobiles,
buses, lorries, other heavy road vehicles and motor cycles.
Parts of lead-acid battery

The lead-acid battery has the following parts:
SE
Plates: These serve as support for the fragile active material but also conduct
U
electrical current.
Separators: These are thin sheets of porous materials placed between positive and
negative plates for preventing contact between them and thus avoiding internal
E
short-circuiting of the battery.

N
Electrolyte: It is a dilute sulphuric acid which fills the cell compartment to cover the
plates completely.
LI
Container: It may be made of vulcanised rubber or moulded hard rubber (ebonite),

N
moulded plastic, ceramics, glass or celluloid. The vulcanised rubber containers

are used for car service while glass containers are superior for lighting plants and
O
wireless sets.
Bottom grooved support block: It is used to support the plates in position and at the
R
same time it protects them from short-circuits that would otherwise occur as a result
of fall of the active materials from the plates into the bottom of the container.
FO
Connecting bar: It joins the cells together in series connecting the positive pillar of
one cell to the next one.
Vent plugs: These are used to prevent escape of electrolyte but allow free exit of

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
the gas. These can be easily NOT for
removed DUPLICATE
topping up or taking hydrometer readings.
Figures 6.11 (a), (b) and (c) show parts of the lead-acid battery.
Cathode
Anode
Plate separator
LY
(a) Section of lead-acid battery (b) Parts of lead-acid battery
N
Anode
Cathode
O
Positive plate SE Negative plate
Electrolyte
U
(c) Connection of plates
Figure 6.11: Construction features of lead-acid battery
E
A lead-acid battery is composed of a number of lead-acid cells connected together

in series. Most common types of lead-acid batteries are 6 V and 12 V batteries.
N
The 6 V battery consists of three cells connected in series while the 12 V battery
consists of six cells in series. A lead-acid cell consists of two plates immersed in
LI
dilute sulphuric acid. The positive plate (anode) is of lead-peroxide (PbO2), which
has chocolate brown colour and negative plate (cathode) is made up of lead (Pb),
N
which is grey in colour. When the cell is supplying a load, chemical reactions take
O
place inside the cell resulting into formation of lead sulphate (PbSO4) on the plates.
After a certain amount of charge has been supplied, all the plates are covered with
PbSO4. This prevents further reaction and at this point, a cell is said to be discharged.
R
In order to restore charge in lead-acid cells, a direct current is passed in a direction

FO
opposite to the direction of current supplied by the cell. This action allows a reverse
chemical reaction to restore the plates and electrolyte to their original state. This
reversibility of chemical reaction in the lead-acid cell is what makes the lead acid
battery a secondary battery.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
An alkaline cell is discharged at a steady current of 4 A for 12 hours, the average
terminal voltage being 1.2 V. To restore it to its original state of charge, a steady
current of 3 A for 20 hours is required and the average terminal voltage being 1.44
V. Calculate: (a) the ampere-hour (Ah) efficiency (b) watt-hour (Wh) efficiency.
Solution:
(a) The ampere-hour (Ah) efficiency:
Given: current on discharge = 4 A; time on discharge = 12 hr; average voltage
on discharge = 1.2 V; charging current = 3 A; time on charge = 20 hr; average
LY
voltage on charge = 1.44 V;
Recall:

N
I out t out
O
Then Ah = 100%
I in t in

Ahdisch
Ah = 100%
Hence
Ahch
ampere hour (Ah) efficiency =
SE
4 A × 12 hr
× 100%
3 A × 20 hr
U
The ampere-hour efficiency = 0.8 per unit or 80%
(b) The watt-hour (Wh) efficiency:
Recall:
E
I V t
LI
= out out out Wh 100%

I inVin t in
N
4 A×1.2 V×12 hr
watt hour (Wh) efficiency = ×100%
3 A×1.44 V×20 hr
O
The watt-hour efficiency = 0.667 per unit or 66.7%

R
Example 6.11
A discharge battery is charged at 8 A for 2 hours after which it is discharged through
FO
a resistor of R. If the discharge period is 6 hours and the terminal voltage remains
fixed at 12 V, find the value of R, assuming that the Ah efficiency of the battery is 80 %.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Solution. DO NOT DUPLICATE
Input ampere-hours (Ahin),
where Iin is the charging current and tin is the number of charging hours.
Ahin = 8 A 2 h = 16 Ah
Ahout
Ampere-hour (Ah) efficiency, Ah = 0.8 =
Ahin
Output ampere-hours (Ahout) Ahout = Ahin Ah = 16 Ah 0.8 = 12.8 Ah
Output ampere-hours (Ahout), Ahout = I out t out
Therefore, I = Ahout = 12.8 Ah = 2.13 A
LY
out
tout 6 hr
The resistance, R, is therefore given by R = V = 12 V = 5.63 Ω
I out 2.13 A
N
The value of resistor R is 5.63 Ω.
O
Charging of batteries
SE
Charging of a battery is the process of restoring charge in it by connecting the
battery to a DC supply so that current flows in a reverse direction when the battery
is supplying current. This is a very common process done to restore charges in
U
secondary batteries. A battery is always charged with DC supply. If the DC supply is
not available, then an AC supply is converted into DC. There are two main methods
used for charging batteries namely, constant-current method and constant voltage
E
method.
N
Constant-current charging method

In this charging method, the current flowing to the battery from the DC source is
LI
kept constant. This is done by varying the terminal voltage Vt of the source with the
help of a rheostat connected in series while maintaining a constant current as shown
N
in Figure 6.12. In this process, the terminal voltage Vt of the DC source is given by
O
Vt = Vs IRh = Eb + Ir
Resulting into
R

FO
And therefore, the charging current is given by

V Eb
I= s
Rh + r
where Vs is the voltage of the constant DC source, Eb is the e.m.f. of the battery; r

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
is the internal resistance of the battery, Rh is the value of the variable resistance and
I is the current from the DC source.
The biggest drawback of this method is that charging is slow. This is because charging
process does not take into account the state of charge of the battery. Ideally, when
fully discharged, the charging rate is expected to be high and when approaching full
capacity, charging rate is expected to be low.
I
A
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Rh
N
VS Vt V
O
Storage battery
SE
U
Figure 6.12: Circuit diagram for constant current charging method
Constant voltage charging method

In this method, the terminal voltage Vt of the DC source is kept constant while the
E
current is changed depending on the state of charge of the battery. This process is
N
done with the help of the circuit shown in Figure 6.13. The rheostat is connected
in parallel with the DC source Vs. Here, the value of the rheostat is kept high at the
LI
beginning allowing high battery charging current I b and hence high charging rate.
The rheostat resistance is decreased as the charging progresses in order to decrease
N
the charging current as charge in the battery accumulates. In this process, the terminal
voltage Vt of the DC source is given by
O
Vt = Vs = Eb + I b r

R
Resulting into
Vs Eb = I b r
FO

And therefore, the charging current is given by
V Eb
Ib = s
r

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
The current I from the DCNOT
sourceDUPLICATE
is given by
V V Eb
I = Ih + Ib = s + s
Rh r
where Vs is the voltage of the constant DC source, Eb is the e.m.f. of the battery;
r is the internal resistance of the battery, I h is the current through the rheostat
and I is the current from the DC source.
Ib
A
LY
N
VS Vt V
Rh Storage battery
O
SE
Figure 6.13: Circuit diagram for constant voltage charging method
U
The following are the important factors to be considered during charging of a battery:
(i) During charging, the vents must be open to allow H2 and O2 to escape.
(ii) The mixture of H2 and O2 is explosive; therefore, the charging process should
E
never be carried in presence of fire.

N
(iii) After charging, water should be added to compensate for the water lost during
charging process.
LI
(iv) The charging source should be DC in nature.

(v) It should be ensured that the connection is right. That is, the positive of the
N
supply is connected to the negative of battery and negative of the supply to the
O
positive of the battery.

(vi) The charging voltage should be more than the e.m.f. of the battery.
R
During charging process, it is very important to make sure that the charge supplied
is not more than the quantity a battery can withstand. This can be monitored by
FO
ensuring the current from the DC source connected to the battery is within the
charging range. In addition, the battery should not be left plugged on to the charger
long after it is fully charged as this will result to overcharging. Overcharging results
in occurrence of the following in a lead-acid battery:

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
(i) Losing water DO NOT DUPLICATE
(ii) Increasing heat, thus damaging some of the components in the battery
(iii) Reducing the life of the battery
Activity 6.2: Determining the internal resistance of a battery

Requirement materials: One resistor of 9 Ω, wire, car battery, multimeter and
variable resistor.
Procedures:
1. Measure and record the e.m.f. of the battery.
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2. Make connection of a series circuit involving the given requirements as shown
in Figure 6.14.
3. Measure and record the potential difference across the variable resistor, V2 .
N
4. Measure and record the potential difference across the 9-ohm resistor, V1 .
5. Measure and record the circuit current, I .
O
6. Calculate the internal resistance, rb .
7. Write your findings and present in class.
SE
V1
I
U
A1
rb 9Ω
Rh V2
Car Battery
E
N
Figure 6.14: Circuit diagram for determination of the internal resistance of a battery
LI
Exercise 6.4
N
1. Explain the difference between primary and secondary cell.

2. Describe three (3) classifications of secondary batteries.
O
3. Describe the following terms as used in batteries:

(a) Ampere-hour efficiency
R
(b) Watt-hour efficiency

4. Describe two (2) methods of charging batteries.
FO
5. State three (3) main characteristics of a lead-acid storage battery.

6. Explain three applications of lead-acid cells.
7. State three (3) applications of nickel-iron cells.

Form Two
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8. A discharge battery isDO NOTatDUPLICATE
charged 8 A for 5 hours after which it is discharged
through a resistor of R Ω. If discharge period is 6 hours and the terminal voltage
remains fixed at 12 V, find the value of R, assuming the Ah efficiency of the
battery is 80 %.
9. An alkaline cell is discharged at a current of 4 A for 6 hours and the average
terminal voltage is 1.2 V. To restore it to its original state of charge, a steady
current of 3 A for 12 hours is required and the average terminal voltage is 1.44
V. Calculate: (a) the ampere-hour (Ah) efficiency (b) Wh efficiency.
10. A battery consisting of six cells of 1.6 V e.m.f. and 0.5 Ω internal resistance
each are connected in parallel. The resistance of the load resistor is 6 Ω.
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Calculate: (a) the circuit current (b) the voltage drop of the battery (c) the
terminal voltage.
11. What is the difference between Ah efficiency and Wh efficiency?
N
12. What is meant by the capacity of a battery?
O
13. Calculate the charging current required to charge the following batteries at the
8-hour rate: (a) 40 Ah (b) 100 Ah (c) 150 Ah (d) 200 Ah.
Chapter summary SE
1. An electrical cell is an electrochemical device that converts a stored chemical
energy to electrical energy under the process called electrolysis. The
U
classification of electrical cells is based on nature of chemical reaction and
nature of electrolyte used.
2. Cells can either be connected in series or parallel or combination of both series
E
and parallel connection. In series connection, total e.m.f. and total internal
resistance for n cells are given as
N
ET = E1 + E 2 + E3 +  + E n
LI
rT = r1 + r2 + r3 +  + rn
N
3. For parallel connection, total e.m.f. for n cells connected in parallel is equal to
the e.m.f. of individual cell and the relationship
O
of their internal resistance is given by

1 1 1 1 1
= + + ++
R
rT r1 r2 r3 rn
FO
4. A battery is the combination of two or more electrical cells. Batteries are

constructed to supply large loads that cannot be supplied by cells.
5. Batteries are classified depending on the nature of chemical reaction and the
nature of electrolyte used.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
6. Charging of a battery is DO NOT of
the process DUPLICATE
restoring charge in it by connecting the
battery to a DC supply so that current flows in a reverse direction when the
battery is supplying current. There are two main methods used for charging
batteries namely, constant current method and constant voltage method.
Revision exercise 6
1. Explain three advantages and three disadvantages of nickel-iron cell.
2. When a cell of 1.5 V e.m.f. is connected to a load of 0.55 Ω, then its voltage is
reduced to 1.1 V. Calculate (a) the current and (b) the internal resistance of the
cell.
LY
3. Give comparison between lead-acid and nickel-iron battery.
4. Explain six important factors that have to be noted while charging a battery.
N
5. Six cells of e.m.f. 1.4 V and 0.5 Ω internal resistance each are connected in
parallel. The resistance of the load resistor is 8 Ω. Calculate (a) the circuit
O
current (b) the voltage drop across the equivalent internal resistance and (c) the
battery terminal voltage.
SE
6. A battery consisting of 20 cells has 4 parallel rows and each row has 5 cells
connected in series. The e.m.f. is 1.4 V and the internal resistance is 0.8 Ω for
each cell. The battery supplies power to a load resistance of 2.25 Ω. Calculate
U
(a) the battery current (b) the voltage drop and (c) the terminal voltage.
7. Four cells, each having an e.m.f. of 1.5 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω, are
connected in parallel across an external resistance of 2.5 Ω. Determine: (a) the
E
current supplied by the battery (b) the current supplied by each cell (c) the
terminal voltage of the battery.
N
8. What is the purpose of connecting two or more cells in parallel?

LI
9. Six cells, each having 1.6 V e.m.f. and 0.5 Ω internal resistance, are connected
in parallel. The resistance of the load resistor is 8 Ω. Calculate: (a) the circuit
N
current (b) the voltage drop of the battery (c) the terminal voltage.
10. Draw a circuit diagram of four cells connected in parallel.
O
11. Four Leclanché cells are connected in two parallel branches each having two
cells in series. The e.m.f. of each cell is 1.5 V and internal resistance is 3 Ω. The
R
combination is connected to an external resistance of 3 Ω. Find: (a) the total

internal resistance (b) the total current (c) the current through each cell (d) the
FO
voltage across the external resistance.

Form Two
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DO NOT DUPLICATE
Chapter Electricity generation and
Seven utilisation
Introduction
Electricity is used for cooking, lighting, heating, cooling,
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as well as operating appliances and systems such as
computers, television, machinery, transportation and many
other applications. Have you ever asked yourself how this
N
electricity is obtained? In this chapter, you will learn about
forms of energy, sources of electricity, energy conversion,
O
methods of producing electricity, electrical energy storage,
utilisation of electricity and heat transfer. The competencies
SE
developed will enable you to identify sources of electricity
and use basic methods of producing and utilising electrical
power.
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Basic concepts of electricity generation and utilisation
The evolution of electricity as a source of energy can be traced back from the
ancient period where the world lived without electricity. In those eras, fire from
E
wood and animal wastes was used as a major source of energy. Later on, invention
of various sources of energy kept increasing from century to century due to other
N
different human activities around the world. Great development of energy source
was revealed after the inventions of DC and AC electrical distributions by Edison
LI
and Tesla in years of 1880s. The major source of electricity in those distributions
were generators that ran from fossil fuels. Therefore, researchers focused more on
N
the source of mechanical energy to run generators and produce electrical energy. In
O
this case, water and wind were mostly used as sources of electrical energy compared
to other sources of energy. In Tanzania, electricity was first introduced in 1908 by
the German colonial authorities in Dar es Salaam using diesel generators. Currently,
R
Tanzania gets its electricity from various sources of energy such as hydro and
fossil fuels (diesel and natural gas). There is also a great exploitation of electricity
FO
from other sources of energy such as solar, geothermal and wind that all together
form different electrical generating stations. After then, electricity is transmitted
and distributed to different areas of application through interconnected electrical
networks.

Form Two
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Forms of energy DO NOT DUPLICATE
Energy exists in a number of different forms; all of which measure the ability of an
object or system to do work. Therefore, energy can simply be defined as the capacity
of doing work. There are six different basic forms in which energy can be used in
our daily life, namely mechanical, chemical, heat, electrical, nuclear and radiation
energy.
Mechanical energy
This is a form of energy that exists in two basic forms which are kinetic energy and
potential energy. Kinetic energy is the one that a body possesses by virtue of its
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motion. For example, a hammer that is being used to pound nails. Potential energy
is the one that a body possesses by virtue of its position relative to a reference point.
For example, a river water at the top of waterfall and a ripe fruit before it falls down.
N
Chemical energy
This is the energy locked in the bonds of molecules in the form of microscopic
O
potential energy that exists because of the electrical and magnetic forces of attraction
exerted between the different parts of each molecule. Examples include battery, coal,
natural gas, petroleum and glucose in the body.
Heat or thermal energy
SE
It is the one that combines microscopic, kinetic and potential energy of the
U
molecules. Examples of this form of energy include hot beverage and boiling water.
Temperature is a measure of thermal energy and the higher the temperature, the faster
the molecules move around and/or vibrate. Fuels are often burned and converted to
E
thermal or heat energy.

N
Electrical energy
It is created through the movement of electrons among atoms of matter. Although
LI
electricity is not used directly, it is one of the most useful forms of energy. The
following are examples of the uses of electrical energy:
N
(a) A toaster converts electricity into heat.

O
(b) A stereo system converts electricity into sound.

(c) An electric lamp converts electricity into light.
(d) A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
R
(e) A battery charger converts electrical energy into chemical energy.

FO
Due to its importance, the demand of electricity is very high. Therefore, most of the
energy from primary sources is converted into electricity for various uses.

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Nuclear energy DO NOT DUPLICATE
This is energy that is produced when reactions occur in an atom resulting in some
kind of structural change in the nuclei. Such changes include those associated with
fusion and fission. Fusion occurs when two small nuclei join together to create one
large nucleus or particle and during this process, energy is released in the form of
light and heat. An example is in the sun where hydrogen nuclei combine together to
make helium nuclei which releases energy. Fission, on the other hand, occurs when
the nucleus of one big atom splits into two new atoms and during this process, a
tremendous amount of energy is released in the form of light and heat. An example
is a uranium nucleus that splits apart causing energy to be released.
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Radiation energy
It is the one that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays, waves or particles.
N
Some examples include visible light that can be seen by naked eye; infrared
radiation; ultraviolet (UV) radiation that cannot be seen with the naked eye; long
O
wave radiation such as television waves and radio waves; very short waves such as
x-rays and gamma rays.
Sources of electricity SE
The basic forms of energy come from a variety of primary sources which are divided
into two broad types: renewable and non-renewable energy sources. Renewable
U
energy sources are wind, solar, geothermal, biomass and hydro energy while non-
renewable energy sources are fossil fuels and nuclear energy. These primary energy
sources are presented as follows:
E
Wind energy
N
Wind energy exists in the form of kinetic energy of moving air. This kinetic energy
is collected by wind turbine blades. When wind flows over the blades, it creates
LI
lift which causes the blades to rotate. The blades are connected to a drive shaft
that drives an electrical generator to produce electricity. Wind energy increases with
N
the cube of the wind speed; therefore, higher wind speed areas are preferred for
production of electricity.
O
Geothermal energy
This is the heat energy that comes from the sub-surface of the earth. This is used
R
to produce steam which drives a steam turbine-generator set to produce electricity.

FO
Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is the energy processed by radioactive materials. When such materials
undergo nuclear fission reaction, they produce heat energy. This heat energy is in

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
turn used to produce steam which drivesDUPLICATE
a steam turbine-generator set to produce
electricity.
Solar energy
This is the energy from sunlight that can be converted into thermal or electrical
energy. Solar energy can be converted into electrical energy, either directly using
photovoltaic (PV) cells or indirectly using mirrors that concentrate solar radiation
for steam production. The produced steam drives turbine-generator set to produce
electricity. Other major applications of solar energy include solar water heating,
solar heating of buildings, solar distillation, solar drying of agricultural and animal
products, solar furnaces and solar cooking.
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Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are made from decomposing plants and animals that died and were
N
gradually buried by layers of rocks. Examples of fossil fuels are oil, coal and natural
gas. These fuels are found in the earth’s crust and contain carbon and hydrogen.
O
The fuels are burnt to produce heat which can be used to raise high pressure steam
or gaseous products which drive the turbine-generator set for generating electricity.
Biomass fuels SE
These are plant or animal materials used as fuels to produce electricity or heat.
Examples are wood, waste from animals, forests, yards and farms. The process of
U
producing electricity using biomass is similar to that of fossil fuels.
Hydro energy
This is the energy possessed by falling or fast-running water. The kinetic energy of
E
the falling or fast-running water drives the turbine-generator set for production of
N
electricity.
Figure 7.1 shows the different sources of energy from which electrical energy can
LI
be obtained.
N
O
R
FO
Waterfall (hydro) Sugarcane bagasse (biomass)

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Oil well (fossil) Geothermal (heat)
N
O
SE
U
Coal (fossil) Sun (solar)
E
N
LI
N
Turbine (wind) Uranium (nuclear)

O
Figure 7.1: Different sources of energy

R
Energy conversion
Energy can be converted from one form to another. Normally the forms of energy
FO
provided by nature cannot be used directly by human beings. Therefore, they have
to be transformed to useable forms.
Over the centuries, many devices and systems have been developed for this purpose.

Form Two
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DOare
Some of these energy converters NOT
veryDUPLICATE
simple. For example, windmills transform
the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy for pumping water. Other energy
conversion systems are more complicated, especially those that convert raw energy
from fossil fuels and nuclear fuels to electrical energy. These systems require multiple
steps in which energy undergoes a series of transformation through various forms.
Examples of energy conversion are chemical energy of gasoline which is converted
into mechanical energy by a car engine; electrical energy which is converted into
light and sound energy by a television set; and in an electric lamp in which electrical
energy is converted into light and heat energy. Figure 7.2 shows examples of various
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energy conversion processes.
N
O
Chemical
energy
SE converted to
converted to
U
converted to
E
N
Mechanical
energy
Electrical energy
LI
N
Kinetic converted to
energy
O
R
FO
Sound and light energy

Light energy
Figure 7.2: Energy conversion processes

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Activity 7.1: IdentifyingDO NOT
various DUPLICATE
forms of energy
Required materials: A computer, electric lamp, electric motor, gas furnace and
charcoal stove
Procedures:
1. Look at the five devices in the list of required materials.
2. Identify what constitutes their input and output energies.
3. Summarise them in Table 7.1.
4. Write a report and present your findings in class
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Table 7.1: Input and output forms of energy
No. Device Input form of energy Output form of energy
(a) Computer
N
(b) Electric lamp
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(c) Electric motor
(d) Gas furnace
(e) Charcoal stove
Methods of producing electricity

SE
There are different methods used to produce electricity from the primary energy
U
sources. These methods are chemical reaction, friction, heat, light and magnetism
methods. Among these methods, magnetism is the most common usable method of
producing electricity while friction is the least usable method.
E
Chemical reaction
N
Chemical reaction was the first accurate and usable process devised to generate
electrical energy. Two dissimilar metals in an acid or alkaline solution can be
LI
combined to make what is known as a cell. This kind of combination converts the
chemical energy in the solution to electrical energy. Therefore, a cell can be defined
N
as a device that produces electricity by converting chemical energy into electrical

energy.
O
Friction
Friction is any resistance to motion that occurs when two surfaces move against each
R
other. The static charge of electricity generated by friction is known as triboelectricity.

A static charge is an electrical charge at rest. Friction causes electrons from one
FO
material to move to another material creating negative and positive static charges.
A negative static charge is the accumulation of excessive electrons on a body while
a positive static charge is a deficiency of electrons on a body. For example, when
a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, the glass rod gives up some of its electrons

Form Two
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DOthe
to the silk cloth. In this process, NOT
silk DUPLICATE
cloth becomes negatively charged and the
glass rod becomes positively charged.
Activity 7.2: Generating electricity by using friction method

Required materials: Glass rod, silk cloth, plastic ruler and a piece of cloth (not silk)
Procedures:
1. In a pair, use one minute to rub a glass rod with silk cloth and a plastic ruler with
a different piece of cloth concurrently.
2. Without delay, bring the two pieces close to each other and record the
observations.
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Discussion questions:
1. What happens when you bring the two pieces of clothes close to each other?
N
2. Why do the two pieces of cloth behave like that when they are close to each
other?
O
Thermal (Heat) energy
Thermo-electrical devices are made from materials that can convert a temperature
SE
difference into electricity without requiring any moving parts. When a thermo-
electrical material is exposed to the temperature gradient, for example, one end is
heated while the other is cooled, electrons in that material start flowing from the hot
U
end to the cold end to generate an electrical current. This phenomenon is reversible,
in that, if electricity is applied to a thermo-electrical device, it can produce a
temperature difference.
E
Light
N
Light energy can directly be converted into electrical energy using a solar panel.
The solar panel is a combination of photovoltaic (PV) cells, which work based on
LI
photoelectric effect. In the simplest form, photovoltaic cells consist of thin wafers
of semiconductors (silicon) in a sandwich. One layer is negative (n) and the other
N
layer is positive (p). The n and p layers are separated by a tiny space called the p-n
junction. When sunlight hits the PV cell, it drives electrons from the n-layer to the
O
p-layer. By connecting the two layers with a wire, a circuit is created as the electrons
flow back to the p-layer. This kind of light energy from the sun is called solar energy.
It is a clean and affordable form of renewable energy but can only be produced when
R
the sun is shining. This kind of light energy is greatly reduced in cloudy or smoky
FO
conditions.
Magnetism
As mentioned earlier, magnetism is the most common usable source of producing
electricity. Most of the electricity used comes from generators that use the principles

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
of magnetism to produce DO NOT Generators
electricity. DUPLICATE
are made up of coils of wire that
are either rotated in the magnetic field of stationary magnets or are stationary in
the field of rotating magnets.
The source of the mechanical power that rotates either the wires or the magnets
is the turbine. By this action, electrical current is created in the wires. The wires
are connected together and the electricity eventually leaves the production station
and goes on to power homes and factories. The generation of electricity using
nuclear, wind, hydro, geothermal and fossil fuels applies this method. Figure 7.3
shows how electricity can be produced by using magnets. As the magnet moves,
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the voltage is induced in the coil. This voltage will drive the current through the
output connected load.
Conducting coil
N
Magnet
O
Current
SE
Current
Figure 7.3: Production of electricity using magnetism
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Electrical energy storage
The generation of electrical energy is a continuous process, but its utilisation will
E
depend on the consumers. The concept of storing energy is important in ensuring

N
continuity of supply of electricity to consumers when there is no generation of

electricity at that particular time. For example, the availability of energy from some
LI
energy sources depends on the season of the year or the time of a day, for example,
sunlight. So, in order to have electrical energy all the time, it is necessary to store
N
electrical energy obtained from these energy sources. Two of the most common
ways of storing electrical energy include pumped storage hydroelectric system and
O
by using batteries. Pumped storage involves pumping water from a lower level to a
raised level using available energy source when there is less demand of electricity.
R
When the demand of electricity increases, the stored water is released to generate
electricity. Figure 7.4 shows a pumped storage system. Battery-based energy storage
FO
is used mainly with solar and wind energy. When there is sunlight, a battery can
be used to store energy generated by a solar panel. Figure 7.5 shows a solar panel
charging a battery to store electrical energy. This stored energy can be used when

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
there is no sunlight. The same NOTto DUPLICATE
applies wind energy where the energy from wind
can be stored in batteries.
Upper reservoir
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Pumping
Generating
Pumped-storage
power plant
N
O
Lower reservoir
SE
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Figure 7.4: Pumped storage hydroelectric system
E
Sun
N
Solar panels
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Controller
N
O
R
Loads
FO
Battery
Figure 7.5: Charging a battery and supplying DC load using solar photovoltaic panels

Form Two
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1. With examples, explain the concept of energy storage.
2. Explain how energy is harnessed from hydropower resources (i.e. moving and
or falling water).
Utilisation of electricity
The utilisation of electricity at home and in industry is quite different, but all depend
upon one or more of the various physical effects of current. It is known that the
current flowing in the circuit has four major physical effects, namely magnetic
effect, heating effect, chemical effect and lighting effect.
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Utilisation depending upon magnetic effect of electrical current
The magnetic effect of electrical current is known as electromagnetic effect. It is
N
observed that, when a compass is brought near a current-carrying conductor, the
needle of compass gets deflected because of flow of electricity. This shows that
O
electrical current produces a magnetic effect. Figure 7.6 shows a deflection of
a compass due to magnetic effect. When the switch is open, no current flows in
SE
conductor AB; the needle of the compass is not moved as shown in Figure 7.6 (a).
When the switch is closed, the current flows and the magnetic field is produced
around the conductor AB as shown in Figure 7.6 (b). This phenomenon is indicated
U
by the deflection of the needle of the compass.
Lines of
A A magnetic
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field in wire
AB
compass compass
N
N N
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S S
Current flowing in
N
wire AB
B B
O
(a) Open circuit (b) Closed circuit
Figure 7.6: Compass deflection due magnetic effect

R
Examples of devices which apply the magnetic effect due to electric current are
FO
electric bells and electric motors, as shown in Figure 7.7.

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(a) Electrical motor (b) Electrical bell
Figure 7.7: Application of magnetic effect due to electric current
Utilisation depending upon chemical effect of electrical current
N
When current passes through electrolyte like copper sulphate solution, the electrolyte
O
decomposes into charged particles like electrons and positive copper ions, which
conduct electricity. The process of conduction of electrical current through solutions
is called electrolysis and the solution through which electricity passes is called
SE
electrolyte. The positive terminal inserted into the solution is called anode and
the negative terminal is called cathode. In Figure 7.8, copper wire is an anode and
carbon rod is a cathode.
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Battery
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Connecting wire
N
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Carbon rod (cathode) Copper wire (anode)

N
O
Copper Sulphate
(CuSO4) solution
Figure 7.8: Chemical effect of electricity

R
Some of the applications of the chemical effect of electricity are in electroplating,

FO
metal purification, metal extractions from their ores and battery charging process.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOlighting
Utilisation depending upon NOT DUPLICATE
effect of electrical current
When electric current flows through the conductor of high resistance, the conductor
becomes very hot and then glows to emit light. This is called the lighting effect of
electric current. It is shown in Figure 7.9.
Bulb
LY
N
O
Switch
Battery
SE
Figure 7.9: Lighting effect of electrochemical current
Utilisation depending upon heating effect of electrical current
When the flow of current is resisted, heat is produced. This is because the electrons,
U
while moving in a conductor, experience resistance. The work which is done to
overcome the resistance is converted to heat energy. This forms the principle of all
electrical heating appliances like electrical iron, water heater and toaster. Figure
E
7.10 shows an electrical iron and a water heater. This effect is also experienced in
interconnecting wires although the amount of heat produced is relatively small. That
N
is why almost all electrical appliances, including the connecting wires, feel warm
when used in an electrical circuit.
LI
N
O
R
FO
(a) Electrical iron (b) Water heater
Figure 7.10: Devices with an application of heating effect due to electrical current

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
When an electrical current passes DUPLICATE
through a conductor, power P and energy E are
produced and they are expressed as
P = VI
E = VIt
where P is the power in watts, E is the energy in joules, V is the voltage in volts, I is
the current in amperes and t is the time in seconds.
The electrical energy is converted into heat energy which raises the temperature
of the conductor. As the conductor gets hot, it gives off some of its heat to the
surrounding atmosphere or substance. The higher the temperature of the conductor
LY
the faster it will give out heat.
Electric heating: Practical application of the principle of heating effect of electrical
N
current requires knowledge of the following thermal concepts: heat, temperature,
heat capacity, specific heat capacity and heat transfer. Electric heating is a process
O
in which electrical energy is converted to heat energy for useful purposes. The
common applications include space heating, cooking, water heating and industrial
SE
heating processes. The concepts of heat and temperature are widely explained in
terms of their close relationship. Heating involves the transfer of thermal energy
between molecules within a system. The process of heat transfer is achieved with
U
the presence of temperature difference.
Temperature: Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses the degree of hotness

E
or coldness. It is measured in degrees on a definite scale. The SI Unit of temperature

is Kelvin (K) or Celcius (oC).
N
Heat (Q): It is the form of energy that is transferred between systems or objects with
LI
different temperatures. The SI unit of heat energy is joule (J).

N
Heat capacity (C): It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
given mass of substance by one Kelvin. That is,
O
Heat capacity,
R
where Q is the heat gain or heat loss. It expresses the quantity of heat transferred
and is the change in temperature. Hence the SI unit of heat capacity is Joule per
FO
Kelvin (J/K).
Specific heat capacity ( C p or c ): It is the amount of heat energy required to raise

the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one Kelvin. That is,

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Specific heat capacity,
×
where m is mass in kilogram (kg).
Hence, the SI unit of specific heat capacity is Joules per kilogram per Kelvin (J/kg/K).
Table 7.2 shows specific heat capacities of various substances at room temperature.
Table 7.2: Specific heat capacities for various substances at room temperature
Substance Specific heat capacity J/kg/K
LY
Water 4,200
N
Nickel 444
O
Air 1,010
Alcohol 2,300
Kerosene SE 2,200
Aluminium 900
U
Glass 830
Iron 460
E
Copper 390
N
Mercury 140
LI
Lead 130
N
If two objects at different temperatures are brought together, heat energy will be
transferred from the hotter object to the colder object. The direction of heat energy
O
flow is always from an object of higher temperature to an object of lower temperature.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the amount of heat gained by the colder object
R
is equal to the amount of heat lost by the hotter object. Temperature is one of the
most important variables for monitoring and controlling various manufacturing
FO
industrial systems, power systems, human body and cooking processes. It can be
expressed in three different units which are Fahrenheit (0F), Celsius (0C) or Kelvin
(K). The device for measuring temperature is called thermometer. Figure 7.11 shows
examples of thermometers.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
N
(a) Analog thermometer (b) Digital thermometer (c) Digital infrared thermometer
Figure 7.11 Thermometers
O
The concept of heat and temperature can be confusing due to their close relation in
real life. For example, if you add heat to an object, its temperature goes up and if you
reduce temperature, you are taking away its heat and the heat will be reduced. The
SE
comparison between heat and temperature is shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: Comparison between heat and temperature
U
Comparison Heat Temperature
Definition Energy that is transferred between Physical quantity that
objects with different temperatures expresses degree of
E
hotness and coldness

SI Unit Joule Kelvin
N
Other Units calories Fahrenheit, Celsius

LI
Symbol Q T
Ability to do It has the ability to do work. It cannot do work.
N
work
O
Example 7.1
A water heater holds 20 litres of water. Calculate the rating in kW of the electrical
R
immersion heater which will raise the temperature of the water from 100C to 880C
in 55 minutes. Assume efficiency is 85% and the specific heat capacity of water =
FO
4187 J/kg/K.
Solution:
Given mw = 20 kg (mass of 1 litre of water = 1 kg)

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
Note that T(K) = T( !C) + 273NOT DUPLICATE
Initial temperature of water, Tiw = 10! C = 283 K
Final temperature of water, T fw = 88! C = 361 K
Specific heat capacity of water, C pw = 4187 J/kg/K
Rise of temperature, ΔTw = 361 - 283 = 78 K
Joules required, Q = m × C p × ΔT
The heat gained by water is given by Qw = mw × C pw × ΔTw
Qw = 20 kg × 4187 J/kg/K × 78 K = 6,531,720 J
LY
The required power, Pw, is
Q 6,531,720 J
Pw = w = = 1,979.3 J/s = 1,979.3 W
t 55 min × 60 sec/min
N
The required power is equal to 85% of the rated power of the heater. Therefore, the
rated power of the heater should be 100%, which can be obtained by equating as
O
follows:
Heat Power Rating is
P 1,979.3 W
PHR = w × 100 =
η 85
SE
× 100 = 2,328.6 W = 2.33 kW
Activity 7.3: Demonstrating electrical heating

U
Required materials: Plastic jug, water heater, water, power supply, thermometer
and a switch
Procedures:
E
1. Put some water in a jug.

2. Measure and record the temperature of water.
N
3. Put the water heater in the jug with water inside.

4. Plug the water heater to the electric power supply and switch it on.
LI
5. Wait for some minutes, then measure and record the temperature of water.
N
1. What happens to the water when you switch on the power supply?
2. Why did you plug the water heater to the power supply?
O
Exercise 7.2
R
1. Calculate the heat energy in Joules required to raise the temperature of: (a) ten
kilograms of copper from 0OC to 60OC (b) five kilograms of iron from 10OC to
FO
80OC and (c) seven kilograms of lead from 0OC to 90OC.

2. A 500 g copper coffee mug is filled with 200 g of coffee. How much heat is
required to heat the cup and coffee from 20OC to 96OC?

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
3. A tank containing 10 kg DO NOT
of water DUPLICATE
at 60O
C is heated at an efficiency of 80% by a
7.5 kW immersion electric heater. Find the time needed to raise the temperature
of the water to 70OC. Assume the specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg/K.
Heat transfer
Heat transfer is the process which involves movement of molecules from the region
of higher temperature to lower temperature. A heated substance will give off heat
to another substance with a lower temperature. The specific mechanisms of heat
transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction: Refers to the transfer of heat from one substance to another substance
LY
in contact. Therefore, for conduction to take place between two objects, specific
objects must be touching each other. The common examples of heat conduction in
daily life are:
N
(a) warming hands by touching a hot cup of tea
(b) touching a hot stove: Heat will be conducted to the fingers and the skin will be
O
burnt
(c) ironing clothes: The heat is conducted from the iron to the clothes.
SE
Convection: This involves transfer of heat through fluids (liquid or gas). Examples
of heat transfer by convection are:
(a) The steam seen when drinking a cup of hot tea indicates that heat is being
U
transferred into the air.
(b) When boiling water, hot water at the bottom of a pot rises and cold water moves
down to replace hot water. Through this process, heat is transferred through
E
convection.
(c) Ice left in the air melts due to transfer of heat by convection from air to the ice.
N
Radiation: Refers to the energy that travels through space or matter in the form
LI
of energetic waves or particles. When radiation occurs, the waves move out in all
directions from the producer of the energy. An example of heat transfer by radiation
N
is the heat transferred from a cooking stove.

Figure 7.12 shows an example of the three methods of heat transfer in which fire
O
is used to boil water contained in the cooking pan. The fingers will feel the heat
through the handle of the pan by way of conduction. The hand will also experience
R
the heat from the flames by way of radiation. It is shown that as water gets hot it
moves up and cold water moves down replacing each other, thus transferring heat
FO
by way of convection.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
LY
Figure 7.12: Methods of heat transfer
N
Activity 7.4: Demonstrating methods of heat transferring
O
Required materials: An electric kettle, water, thermometer, nail, switch and power
supply
Procedures:
1. Put water inside the kettle.
SE
2. Measure and record the water temperature using thermometer.
3. Plug the kettle to the electric power supply and switch it on.
U
4. Touch the kettle as it starts heating the water and record your observations.
5. Switch off the power supply when the water starts to boil.
6. Place your hand near the outlet of the kettle and record your observations.
E
7. Measure and record the water temperature.

N
8. Take a nail and dip one end of it in the boiled water while holding the other end
and record your observations.
LI
(a) What did you observe when you touched the kettle?
N
(b) What did you observe when you placed your hand near the outlet of the kettle?
(c) What did you observe when you held the nail while the other end was dipped
O
into the water?

(d) Why did you plug the electric kettle to the power supply?
R
Chapter summary
FO
1. There are different sources of energy that are used as primary sources of
electricity. Some of these sources are wind, water, solar, biomass and geothermal
energies.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
2. Electricity is generated DO
from NOT DUPLICATE
its primary energy source using the principle of
energy conversion. That is, energy is transformed from its primary state to a
useful electrical form.
3. There are different methods of producing electricity from its primary energy
sources. These methods are chemical reaction, friction, heat (thermal), light and
magnetism methods.
4. Generation of electricity is a continuous process; however, its utilisation depends
on users. Therefore, some electrical power may be stored for later applications.
Ways of storing electricity include pumped storage and batteries. Moreover,
the utilisation of electricity in homes and industries is affected by four major
LY
physical effects which are magnetic, heating, chemical and lighting effects.
5. Electrical energy is converted to heat energy that is used for heating. The heat
energy (in Joule) required by an object to rise its temperature is given as
N
Q = m × C p × ΔT = V × I × t
O
and electrical power (in watts) required to produce that heat energy for a given
time (in second) is given as
Q
P =
t
= V×I SE
Revision exercise 7
U
1. Explain five different methods of producing electricity.
2. Explain three main effects of electrical current.
3. Describe six sources of energy.
E
4. Explain ways of storing energy from various sources.

N
5. List devices used to convert various forms of energy into electricity.

6. Define the following terms: Heat, temperature, heat capacity and specific heat
LI
capacity.
7. A water tank has a capacity of 10 litres and is fitted with a 2 kW immersion
N
electrical heater. Calculate the time in minutes taken to raise the temperature of
the water from 4OC to 46OC. The water heater has 85 percent efficiency.
O
8. It takes 1.25 kJ of energy to heat a sample of pure silver from 12OC to 15.2OC.
Calculate the mass of the silver sample. Use the specific heat capacity of silver,
R
which is 237 J/kg/K.

9. List three things in which specific heat capacity depends on.
FO
10. Describe the three ways in which heat can be transferred. Give an example of
the use of each of these principles in electrical engineering.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Answers
DO to numerical
NOT questions
DUPLICATE
Chapter 1
Revision exercise 1
6. 4 protons, 4 electrons and 5 neutrons
11. 300 C
12. 1.875 x 1021 electrons
13. 1.25 x 1020 electrons
LY
Chapter 2
Revision exercise 2
N
6. P = 0.81 W or 810 mW
7. I = 17.14 A
O
11. (a) 43 MΩ, (b) 11 kV, (c) 2,000,000 VA
12. P = 6240 W SE
14. multiple: 1 kV = 1000 V, Sub-multiple: 0.001 V = 1 mV
U
Chapter 4
Exercise 4.2
6. (a) 75 Ω, (b) 1 A, (c) 75 V
E
8. (a) 3 Ω, (b) 7.5 V, (c) 1.5 A, 0.625 A, 0.375 A

N
9. (a) 9 Ω, (b) 3 A, (c) 3 A, 2 A, 1 A

LI
Exercise 4.3
N
3. (a) 125 W, (b) 90,000 Joules, (c) 31.25 W

O
4. (a) 0.6 A, (b) 0.6 A
Revision exercise 4
R
6. 0.07 A
FO
8. R1 = 105 Ω, R2 = 52.5 Ω
9. (a) 6 A, (b) 6 V, (c) 1 Ω, (d) 36 W, (e) 4,320 J

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Chapter 5 DO NOT DUPLICATE
Exercise 5.1
4. I1 = 4 A
5. Ammeter (A1) reading, I1 = 2 A; Voltmeter (V1) reading, V1 = 8 V
Revision exercise 5
14. (b) Ammeter reading = 1.6 A, Voltmeter reading = 2.4 V, (c) (i) I = 0.8 A, ��
(ii) V = 4 V, (iii) p.d = 4 V
15. (b) Ammeter reading: A1 = 0.25 A, Voltmeter readings: V1 = 5 V, V2 = 1 V
LY
Chapter 6
N
Exercise 6.1
8. 1 Ω
O
4 2
9. Internal resistance r = 0.016Ω or Ω= Ω,
254 127
123
Load resistance R= 0.484Ω or
254
Ω SE
Exercise 6.2
U
1. (a) Total internal resistance rT = 2 Ω , (b) Current I = 0.5 A
2. (a) e.m.f. = 6 V, (b) Total internal resistance rT = 2 Ω , (c) I = 0.86 A, (d) Voltage
drop = 1.72 V, (e) Terminal voltage = 4.28 V
E
3. (a) I = 0.9 A, (b) I = 6.62 A

N
4. (a) rT = 4 Ω , (b) e.m.f. =3.2 V, (c) RT = 4.5 Ω, (d) I = 0.71 A

LI
Exercise 6.3
N
1. (a) I = 0.57 A, (b) I =0.1425 A, (c) VT = 1.425 V

O
3. (a) 0.198 A, (b) 0.0165 V, (c) 1.583 V

5. (a) 3 Ω, (b) 0.5 A, (c) 0.25 A, (d) 1.5 V
R
Exercise 6.4
FO
8. R =2.25 Ω
9. Ah efficiency = 66.67%, Wh efficiency = 55.56%
10. (a) I=0.26 A, (b) V = 0.022 V, (c) V= 1.578 V

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
13. (a) 5 A, (b) 12.5 A, (c) NOT
18.75 DUPLICATE
A, (d) 25 A
Revision exercise 6
2. (a) I = 2 A, (b) r = 0.2 Ω
5. (a) I = 0.173 A, (b) Voltage drop = 0.014 V, (c) VT = 1.39 V
6. (a) Battery current = 2.15 A, (b) Voltage drop = 2.15 V, (c) Terminal voltage =
4.85 V
7. (a) I = 0.5714 A, (b) I = 0.1429 A, (c) VT = 1.4285 V
9. (a) I = 0.198 A, (b) Vdrop = 0.0165 V, (c) Vt = 1.584 V
LY
11. (a) 3 Ω, (b) 0.5 A, (c) 0.25 A, (d) 1.5 V
N
Chapter 7
Exercise 7.2
O
1. (a) 234,000 J, (b) 161,000 J, (c) 81,900 J
2. Q = 78,660 J
3. Time = 70 sec
Revision exercise 7
SE
7. Time = 17.3 min
U
8. Mass = 1.652 kg
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Glossary
Active components chemical energy to a useful
electrical components that can electrical energy
generate or supply electrical Charging of a battery
energy in a circuit the process of restoring charge in it
Ammeter by connecting the battery to a DC
an instrument used to measure supply so that current flows in a
electrical current in amperes (A) reverse direction when the battery
LY
Analogue electrical measuring is supplying current
instrument Circuit diagram
an instrument whose output is a a symbolic representation of
N
continuous function of time and an electrical circuit showing all
has a constant relation to the input components constructing it
O
Atom Closed circuit
the smallest particle of matter an interconnection of components
Basic electrical quantities
fundamental physical quantities Conductance
SEin a circuit leaving no breakpoints
that are not dependent in terms of a measure of the ease with which
U
other quantities materials allow electrical current
Basic units   to flow through them
units of fundamental quantities Conductor
E
as defined by the International type of material that allows the

N
System of Units flow of charge (electrical current)

Battery in one or more directions
LI
a combination of two or more Current

electrical cells the rate of flow of charge
N
Capacitance Derived electrical quantities

O
the ability of a material to store all electrical quantities that can

electrical charge be expressed in terms of basic
Capacitor quantities or other derived
R
a two-terminal passive component quantities

with the ability to store electrical Derived units
FO
charge units derived from other units and

Cell are used to express the magnitudes
a single unit device that converts of derived quantities

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Diamagnetic materials DO NOT DUPLICATE
Electronic configuration of
materials which are repelled by a elements
magnet the distribution of electrons of
Digital electrical measuring an atom or molecule (or other
instrument physical structure) in atomic or
an instrument which represents molecular orbitals (or shells)
the measured value in the form of Energy
numerical digits the ability of doing work while
Electrical cell power is the rate of doing work
LY
an device that converts stored Ferromagnetic materials
chemical energy into electrical materials which are strongly
energy attracted by a magnet
N
Electrical circuit Galvanometer
an interconnection of components an instrument used to indicate the
O
forming a closed path through passing of current in a DC circuit
which electrical current flows and measurement of very small
Electrical energy SE
values of current and voltage
the energy used up in moving Gaseous state
charges in a circuit forms of matter which have
U
Electrical power indefinite shape and volume
the work done in moving electrical Inductance
charges per unit time the ability of a material to store
E
Electrolyte electrical energy in a magnetic

a substance that conducts electricity field
N
as a result of its decomposition into Inductor

LI
ions (both negative and positive) a two-terminal passive component

Electromagnetic forces that can store electrical energy in a
N
forces exhibited in a magnetic magnetic field

field formed by a current-carrying Instrument
O
conductor or from interaction with a device that is used to determine

magnetic field from permanent the magnitude or value of the
R
magnets quantity to be measured

Electromotive force (e.m.f.) Insulators
FO
the voltage developed between materials that do not conduct

terminals of the cell when no electricity or heat
current is drawn from the cell

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Liquid state DO NOT DUPLICATE
an electrical circuit
forms of matter which have fixed Open circuit
volume but indefinite shape an interconnection of components
Loads in which the continuity is broken
appliances that convert electrical and there is no flow of electrical
energy delivered from the source current
to other useful forms Parallel circuit
Magnet a type of connection in which some
a material that produces a magnetic elements are connected between
LY
field and can attract or repel two common points such that each
magnetic materials element provides a separate path
Magnetic induction for the current
N
the process by which an object Parallel connection of cells
or material is magnetised by an a type of connection in which two
O
external magnetic field or more cells are connected in such
Magnetic material a way that their positive terminals
any substance which has the
property of being attracted or
SE
are joined at one point and their
negative terminals are joined at
repelled by a magnet another point
U
Matter Paramagnetic materials
any substance that has mass and materials which are not strongly
occupies space attracted by a magnet
E
Measurement Passive components

the process of determining the electrical component that cannot
N
value of electrical quantities such generate/supply electrical energy

LI
as current, voltage, resistance, Periodic table

power and energy a tabular display of the chemical
N
Ohm’s law elements which are arranged

Ohm’s law states that “the voltage, by atomic number and electron
O
V, across the terminals of a configuration

conductor, is directly proportional Power rating
R
to the current, I, passing through the amount of power required by

the conductor provided all physical an instrument to work sufficiently
FO
factors remain constant.” Power sources

Ohmmeter the components of electrical
an instrument used to measure the circuits where energy is converted
resistance between two points of

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
from other forms DO
into NOT DUPLICATE
electrical Unit
energy a defined magnitude or size of
Resistance a physical quantity that is used
the opposition offered by materials as a base value from which all
to the flow of electrical current or measurements of that quantity are
charge through them expressed
Resistor Voltage
a two-terminal passive component the driving force of charge or
with the ability to oppose the flow current through a conductor
Voltmeter
LY
of electrical current
Semiconductors an instrument used to measure the
materials that have conductivity voltage across an electrical circuit
N
between conductors (generally element or the potential difference
metals) and insulators (such as (p.d.) between two points
O
rubber or ceramics) Wattmeter
Series circuit an instrument used to measure the
a type of connection in which SE
electrical power in watts (W)
circuit elements are connected end Wire (or conductor)
to end such that there is only one a material that allows the passage
U
path for electrical current to flow of electricity and is used to
Series connection of cells interconnect circuit components
a type of connection where cells
E
are connected end-to-end such that

the positive terminal of one cell is
N
connected to the negative terminal

of the other cell
LI
Short circuit
N
a low resistance connection

between the two conductors
O
supplying electrical power to the

circuit
R
Solid state
forms of matter which have fixed
FO
volume and shape

Switch
a controller of the electrical circuit

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOBibliography
NOT DUPLICATE
Abbott, A. F. (1989). Physics. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann

Educational Books Ltd.
Alexander, C. K., & Sadiku, M. N. (2009). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Anand, A. (2014, July 6). Magnetic effect of electric current. Retrieved from excellup:
https://www.excellup.com/classten/scienceten/electromagnetism.aspx.
Bird, J. (2003). Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology. Oxford: Newnes.
LY
Education, T. I. (1995). Physics for Secondary Schools Book Four. Dar es Salaam:
Tanzania Institute of Education.
N
Education, T. I. (2019). Physics for Advanced Level Secondary Schools. Dar es
Salaam: Tanzania Institute of Education.
O
Encyclopædia Britannica, I. (2021, July 27). Electricity short circuit and direct
current. Retrieved from Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/quiz/
electricity-short-circuits-direct-currents.
SE
Francis, T. (1971). Electrical Installation Work. Singapore: LongmanSingapore
U
Publishers.
Mehta, V., & Mehta, R. (2012). Basic Electrical Engineering. New Delhi: S.Chand
& Company LTD.
E
N.M.Morris, Anyanwu, I., & Olopade, O. (1983). Electrical Engineering Science

N
. Hong Kong : Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Nelkon, M., & Parker, P. (1970). Advanced Level Physics. London: Heinemann
LI
Educational Books LTD.

N
Purkait, P., Biswas, B., Das, S., & Koley, C. (2013). Electrical and Electronics
Measurements and Instrumentation. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education
O
(India) Private Limited.

R.K.Rajput. (2009). Basic Electrical and Electronic Engineering. New Delhi:
R
LAXMI PUBLICATIONS LTD.

Rajput, R. (2012). Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering. New Delhi:
FO
University Science Press.

Rizzoni, G. (2001). Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering. Ney York: McGraw
Hill.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Salivahnan, S., Rengaraj,DO
R., &NOT DUPLICATE
Venkatakrishnan, G. R. (2018). Basic Electrical,
Electronics and Measurement Engineering (1st ed.). McGraw Hill:
McGraw Hill Education.
Saxena, N. (2010). Electrical Engineering. New Delhi: UNIVERSITY SCIENCE
PRESS.
Theraja, B., & Theraja, A. (2005). Basic Electrical Engineering Volume 1. New
Delhi: S. Chand Publishing.
Tsividis, Y. (2002). A First Lab in Circuits And Electronics. New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
LY
V.K.Mehta, & Mehta, R. (2010). Basic Electrical Engineering. New Delhi:
S.Chand.
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Index
A
Active components 46
Ammeter 70, 73, 77, 79, 80, 88, 89, 93, 94
Ampere 10, 14, 15, 18, 101, 121, 124
Ampere hour 101
Atom 3, 4, 5, 12, 129
LY
Atomic mass units 4
Atomic number 4, 5
Attraction 24, 128
N
Average drift velocity 9
O
B
Base units 15
Batteries
Biomass
SE
45, 46, 95, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 124, 125
130
U
C
Capacitor 46, 75
Capacity of the cell 101
E
Cells 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111,
112, 113, 114, 115, 118, 119, 124, 125, 126, 130
N
Celsius 141, 142

LI
Chemical reaction 96, 115, 119

Circuit diagram 46, 50, 113, 126
N
Closed circuit 47, 74, 100

Conductance 13, 14, 17
O
Conductance 14, 15
Conduction 4, 8, 144
Conductor 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 23, 50, 74, 94, 140
R
Conductors 6, 7, 8, 73, 90, 91, 92, 96

FO
Convection 144
Coulomb 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17
Current 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 22, 23, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73,
74, 75, 77, 79, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102,

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
103, 104,NOT DUPLICATE
105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 118,
119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 139, 140, 146
D
Dc circuit 50, 53, 69, 79
Dc circuits 50
Derived units 13, 15
Diamagnetic 26
LY
Eddy-current damping 88
Efficiency of cell 101
N
Electrical cell 95, 96, 100, 103
Electrical charge 10, 13, 14, 17, 49, 66
O
Electrical circuit 46, 47, 49, 68, 74, 75, 77, 78, 81, 88, 89, 93, 94
Electrical energy 95, 128, 130, 132
Electrical field
Electrical quantities
9 SE
13, 14, 15, 17, 66, 79, 81, 82, 90, 91, 92
Electrical quantity 10, 13, 93
U
Electric heating 140
Electrolyte 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 115, 118, 119
Electromotive force 99, 100
E
Electronic configuration 5
Electrons 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 96, 128
N
Electron shell 5
LI
Elements 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 25, 45, 46, 48, 74, 88, 94

Energy 5, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 45, 66, 67, 68, 69, 75, 95, 99, 114, 115, 116,
N
117, 118, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 140, 141, 143, 144, 146
Energy 14, 67, 128, 131, 132, 142
O
F
R
Fahrenheit 141, 142

Ferromagnetic 26
FO
First twenty elements 5, 7, 9

Fossil 130

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
G DO NOT DUPLICATE
Gaseous state 3, 7
Geothermal 129
Group 4, 5
H
Heat 128, 140, 142, 144, 145, 146
Heat capacity 140
Heat transfer 144
Henry 45
Holes 9
LY
Hydro 130
N
Inductance 45
Inductor 45, 46
O
Instruments 76, 77, 79, 89, 93, 94
Insulator 8, 97
Insulators 8, 12
Internal resistance
SE
99, 100, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 126
J
U
Joules 14, 66, 67, 141, 143, 147
K
E
Kelvin 15, 17, 140, 141, 142

N
L
LI
Liquid state 3
N
M
Magnet vi, 9, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26
O
Magnetic field 24, 25, 26, 45

Magnetism 21, 22, 24
Magnetism 23
R
Magnets 21
FO
Mass number 4
Measurements 14, 76, 79
Mechanical energy 132
Metals 6, 7, 8, 12, 96
Mho 13, 15

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Molecule DO
5, 128 NOT DUPLICATE
Moving-coil galvanometer 79
Multiples 14, 15, 17
N
Neutrons 3, 4, 12
Non-metals 6, 7, 12
North pole 21, 24
Nuclear 129
Nucleus 3, 4, 5, 129
LY
O
Ohm 13, 15, 124
Ohmmeter 73, 78, 79, 81, 90, 91, 93
N
Ohm’s law 50, 51, 52, 54, 58, 59, 65, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75, 81, 82, 88, 89
Open circuit 47, 74, 97, 100
O
Outermost shell 5
P
Parallel circuit
Parallel connection
SE
48, 49, 60, 61, 65, 91, 92, 107
103, 107
Paramagnetic 26
U
Passive components 46
Passive components 46
Periods 4, 5
E
Permanent magnet 21
Permanent magnets 21
N
Physical quantity 14, 140

Poles 21, 23, 24, 25
LI
Potential difference 50, 51, 53, 54, 56, 58, 75, 78, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 101, 102, 103, 111, 112,
124
Power 6, 13, 14, 15, 17, 45, 49, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 75, 76, 78, 81, 90, 91, 92,
N
93, 99, 117, 118, 140, 141, 143, 145

Power rating 68, 69
O
Protons 3, 4, 12
R
R
Radiation 129, 144
FO
Repulsion 24
Resistance 13, 14, 15, 17, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64,
65, 66, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 99,
100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 148

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Resistance 14, 17, DO
18, 55,NOT
61, 68 DUPLICATE
Resistor 46, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 59, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75, 89, 90, 91,
92, 93, 100, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 113, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126
S
Semiconductor 8, 12, 51
Semiconductors 8
Series circuit 48, 54, 56, 57, 65, 88, 90, 124
Series connection 103
Shell 4, 5, 6
Short circuit 48, 74
LY
SI system 14
Solar 130
Solid state 2, 7
N
Sound energy 132
South pole 21, 24
O
Specific heat capacity 140, 141
States of matter 2, 7
T
Temperature
SE
7, 9, 51, 100, 128, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146
Temperature 15, 17, 100, 128, 140, 141, 142
Temporary magnet 22
U
Terminal voltage 100, 105, 107, 109, 112, 113, 120, 121, 122, 125, 126
Torque 88
E
U
N
Unit 14, 17, 45, 66, 67, 101, 120, 140, 141
Units 15, 142
LI
Utilisation 127
N
V
Valence shell 5
O
Volt 13, 15, 116

Voltage 14, 15, 17, 18, 55, 63, 68, 71, 109, 148, 149
Voltmeter 70, 73, 78, 79, 80, 89, 90, 93, 94, 96
R
W
FO
Watt 13, 15, 67, 101, 120

Watt-hour 67, 124
Wind 129

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Electrical Engineering Form Two

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

for Technical Secondary Schools

Tanzania Institute of Education

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 1 11/7/22 3:51 PM

retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic,

Electrical Engineering ii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 2 11/7/22 3:51 PM

Acronyms and abbreviations.................................................................................v

The concepts of magnetism and electromagnetism............................................20

Revision exercise 3.............................................................................................38

Basic concepts of electrical circuits....................................................................40

Demonstration of Ohm’s law..............................................................................69

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) iii Electrical Engineering

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Revision exercise 7............................................................................................146

Answers to numerical questions..........................................................................147

Electrical Engineering iv Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 4 11/7/22 3:51 PM

amu atomic mass unit

Cp Specific heat capacity

E Energy, Voltage (electromotive force)

e.m.f. electromotive force

HPP Hydro Power Plant

ICE Internal Combustion Engine

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) v Electrical Engineering

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 5 11/7/22 3:51 PM

MUST Mbeya University of Science and Technology

p.d. potential difference

PMMC Permanent Magnet Moving Coil

TIE Tanzania Institute of Education

UDSM University of Dar es Salaam

Electrical Engineering vi Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 6 11/7/22 3:51 PM

Designer: Mr Silvanus A. Mihambo

and printing of this textbook.

Tanzania Institute of Education

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) vii Electrical Engineering

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 7 11/7/22 3:51 PM

This textbook, Electrical Engineering for Technical Secondary Schools, is

Electrical Engineering viii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 8 11/7/22 3:51 PM

by the influence of room-temperature. These virtually unbound electrons are called

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) 1 Electrical Engineering

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 1 11/7/22 3:51 PM

(a) Solid state (b) Liquid state (c) Gaseous state

Figure 1.1: Three states of matter

Figure 1.2: Tightly packed particles of matter in solid state

Electrical Engineering 2 Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 2 11/7/22 3:51 PM

Figure 1.4: Freely moving particles of matter in gaseous state

Atomic structure of matter

of tiny charge-carrying particles known as electrons and protons as well as neutral

called nucleus. Nucleus is surrounded by orbits or shells containing negatively

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) 3 Electrical Engineering

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 3 11/7/22 3:51 PM

Electrical Engineering 4 Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

ELECTRICAL ENG FORM 2.indd 4 11/7/22 3:51 PM

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) 5 Electrical Engineering

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Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon

Table 1.2: Periodic table with the first twenty elements

Electrical Engineering 6 Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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