Learning Theories

Related to Special
and Inclusive
Education
ED 106
 Inclusive education is a philosophy
of education that aims to provide
equitable and accessible learning
opportunities for all learners, regardless of
their backgrounds, needs, or abilities.
Inclusive education emphasizes the
importance of promoting diversity,
equality, and social justice in education,
and recognizes that learners have
different needs and strengths that must
be accommodated to promote their
learning and development.
 There are several learning
theories and philosophies that
are relevant to special and
inclusive education. The
following are some of the key
theories, their fundamental
beliefs, and how they relate to
inclusive education.
 Behaviorism is a learning theory that emphasizes the
Behaviorism role of external rewards and punishments in shaping
behavior. This theory suggests that behavior is learned
through a process of stimulus-response-reinforcement.
Behaviorism
Inclusive education based on
behaviorism emphasizes the use of
positive reinforcement to encourage
desired behaviors and the use of negative
reinforcement or punishment to
discourage undesired behaviors. For
example, a teacher may give a student a
sticker or other reward for completing a
task or may take away recess time as a
consequence for misbehavior.
Behaviorism

Behaviorism, as an educational
theory, has been shaped and
advocated by several well-known
proponents. Here are three
influential figures associated
with behaviorism in education:
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936):
• Contribution: While primarily known for
his work in classical conditioning with
dogs, Pavlov's research on stimulus-
response associations influenced
behaviorism. Classical conditioning
involves pairing a neutral stimulus with
an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a
conditioned response. While not directly
an education theorist, Pavlov's work laid
the groundwork for understanding how
environmental stimuli can influence
learning and behavior.
Behaviorism
John B. Watson (1878–1958):
• Contribution: Often considered the founder
of behaviorism, John B. Watson emphasized
observable and measurable behaviors as
the focus of study. He believed that
environmental factors played a crucial role
in shaping human behavior. Watson's
famous quote "Give me a dozen healthy
infants, well-formed, and my own specified
world to bring them up in, and I'll guarantee
to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might
select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-
chief, and, yes, even beggar-man and thief."
Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner (1904–1990):
• Contribution: B.F. Skinner expanded
and refined behaviorist principles,
particularly operant conditioning. He
introduced the concept of
reinforcement, emphasizing the role
of consequences in shaping behavior.
Skinner's work in operant
conditioning had a significant impact
on educational practices, promoting
the use of positive reinforcement to
encourage desired behaviors in
students.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning
theory that emphasizes the role of
learners in constructing their own
understanding of concepts and
ideas. This theory suggests that
learning is an active, dynamic
process that involves making sense
of new information based on prior
knowledge and experiences.
Constructivism
Inclusive education based on
constructivism emphasizes the importance
of building on learners' prior knowledge
and experiences and providing
opportunities for active, hands-on learning.
For example, a teacher may use hands-on
activities or experiments to help students
understand a science concept or may ask
students to share their personal
experiences related to a particular topic.
Constructivism
Constructivism, as an educational
theory, is associated with several
influential proponents who have
contributed significantly to its
development. Here are three key figures
associated with constructivism in
education:
Constructivism
• Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934):
• Contribution: Vygotsky's sociocultural
theory of learning emphasized the
social context in which learning takes
place. He highlighted the role of social
interactions, language, and cultural
tools in shaping cognitive
development. Vygotsky introduced the
concept of the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD), which identifies
the range of tasks that a learner can
perform with the help of a more
knowledgeable person, such as a
teacher or peer.
Constructivism
• Jean Piaget (1896–1980):
• Contribution: Piaget is widely regarded
as one of the foundational figures in
constructivism. His cognitive
development theory focused on how
individuals actively construct their
knowledge through interactions with
the environment. Piaget identified
distinct stages of cognitive
development, emphasizing the
importance of learners' active
exploration and the adaptation of their
mental schemas based on new
experiences.
Constructivism
• Jerome Bruner (1915–2016):
• Contribution: Bruner's work
contributed to the development of
constructivist educational theory,
particularly through his ideas on
discovery learning and scaffolding. He
argued for a spiral curriculum that
revisits key concepts at increasing
levels of complexity. Bruner's emphasis
on active engagement, problem-
solving, and the importance of
narrative in learning aligns with
constructivist principles.
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory is a
learning theory that emphasizes
the role of social interactions and
modeling in learning. This theory
suggests that learning occurs
through observation and imitation
of others, as well as through direct
instruction and feedback.
Social Learning Theory
Inclusive education based on
social learning theory emphasizes
the importance of social interactions
and peer support in learning. For
example, a teacher may use
cooperative learning activities or
peer tutoring to help students learn
from each other and support one
another.
Social Learning Theory
The social learning theory is associated
with several prominent figures who
have significantly contributed to its
development. The key proponent often
credited with the formalization of social
learning theory is Albert Bandura. Here
are details about the main figure
related to social learning theory
Social Learning Theory
• Albert Bandura (1925–2021):
• Contribution: Albert Bandura is a renowned
psychologist who developed the social learning
theory, also known as social cognitive theory.
He emphasized the role of observational
learning, modeling, and imitation in the
learning process. Bandura introduced the
concept of "reciprocal determinism," which
suggests that behavior, environment, and
personal factors interact and influence each
other bidirectionally. His most famous concept
is the idea of self-efficacy, which refers to an
individual's belief in their own capability to
perform a specific task or achieve a particular
goal.
Social Learning Theory
• Bandura's social learning theory
emphasizes the importance of
observational learning, where
individuals acquire new behaviors by
observing others, modeling the
observed behavior, and then
reinforcing or modifying their
behavior based on the observed
consequences. The theory has been
influential in fields such as education,
psychology, and communication
studies, providing insights into how
social factors and cognitive processes
contribute to learning and behavior.
 Universal Design for
Learning (UDL)
Universal Design for Learning is a framework that
emphasizes the importance of designing curricula and
instructional materials that are accessible and engaging
for all learners, including those with disabilities. UDL is
based on the belief that all learners benefit from
multiple means of representation, action and
expression, and engagement.
Universal Design for
Learning (UDL)
Inclusive education based on UDL emphasizes
the importance of designing learning experiences that
are flexible and can be adapted to meet the needs of
all learners. For example, a teacher may use visual
aids, manipulatives, and assistive technology to
provide multiple means of representation, or may
allow students to choose from a variety of options for
completing a task to provide multiple means of action
and expression.
Universal Design for
Learning (UDL)
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an educational framework
that aims to provide all students with equal opportunities to
learn by accommodating diverse learning needs, styles, and
preferences. UDL encourages the creation of flexible learning
environments that can be customized to meet the needs of
individual learners. While there isn't a single, specific figure
associated with UDL, the concept has been shaped by the
collaborative efforts of multiple researchers and educators. Here
are a few key contributors:
Universal Design for
Learning (UDL)
• David Rose:
• Contribution: David Rose is one of the
founders of the Center for Applied Special
Technology (CAST), a non-profit
organization that has played a pivotal role
in developing and promoting UDL. Rose,
along with his colleagues, has been
instrumental in advancing the principles of
UDL, emphasizing the importance of
designing inclusive educational practices
that consider the variability of learners.
Universal Design for
Learning (UDL)
• Anne Meyer:
• Contribution: Anne Meyer is another
co-founder of CAST and has worked
closely with David Rose in the
development and implementation of
UDL. Meyer has contributed to the
practical application of UDL principles
in curriculum design and instructional
strategies.
Universal Design for
Learning (UDL)
• CAST (Center for Applied Special
Technology):
• Contribution: CAST, as an organization,
has been a driving force behind the
UDL framework. They have conducted
extensive research, developed UDL
guidelines, and provided resources
and tools for educators to apply UDL
principles in their teaching practices.
Disability Rights and
Inclusion Philosophy
The Disability Rights and Inclusion
Philosophy is a belief system that emphasizes
the importance of valuing and respecting the
rights and dignity of all individuals, regardless of
their disabilities or differences. This philosophy
is based on the belief that all individuals have
the right to participate fully in all aspects of
society, including education.
Disability Rights and Inclusion
Philosophy
Inclusive education based on this
philosophy emphasizes the importance of
promoting self-determination, independence,
and full participation for all learners,
regardless of their abilities or disabilities. For
example, a teacher may provide
accommodations or modifications to ensure
that a student with a disability can fully
participate in classroom activities and interact
with peers.
Disability Rights and Inclusion
Philosophy
The Disability Rights and Inclusion Philosophy has
been shaped and championed by numerous
individuals, activists, and organizations who have
played pivotal roles in advocating for the rights
and equal participation of individuals with
disabilities. While it's challenging to cover all
contributors, here are some key proponents
associated with the Disability Rights and Inclusion
Philosophy
Disability Rights and Inclusion
Philosophy
• Judy Heumann:
• Contribution: Judy Heumann is a
disability rights activist and a leading
figure in the disability rights
movement. Her advocacy efforts
have been instrumental in promoting
the rights of individuals with
disabilities globally. She played a
crucial role in the development and
implementation of the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
in the United States.
Disability Rights and Inclusion
Philosophy
• Ed Roberts:
• Contribution: Ed Roberts was a
pioneering disability rights activist
and a key figure in the independent
living movement. He founded the
first Center for Independent Living,
advocating for the rights of people
with disabilities to live independently
and participate fully in society.
Disability Rights and Inclusion
Philosophy
• Tom Shakespeare:
• Contribution: Tom Shakespeare is a
sociologist and disability studies
scholar who has contributed
significantly to the academic
understanding of disability. His work
emphasizes the social model of
disability, challenging medical models
that pathologize disability.
Humanism
Humanism is a learning theory that
emphasizes the importance of the individual
and the learner's subjective experiences. The
fundamental belief of humanism is that
learners should be treated as whole persons
with unique needs, interests, and experiences.
 Humanism
Inclusive education practitioners
can use humanism to promote learner-
centered instruction and individualized
support for learners with special needs.
For example, teachers can work with
learners with special needs to identify
their strengths, interests, and learning
goals, and then design instruction and
support that aligns with these needs.
 Humanism
Humanism, as an educational
philosophy, has been influenced by
various thinkers and educators who
emphasize the development of the
whole person, critical thinking, and the
importance of human values. Here are
some well-known proponents of the
educational philosophy of humanism
 Humanism
• John Dewey:
• Contribution: John Dewey is a
prominent figure in educational
philosophy and a key advocate of
humanism. His work emphasizes
the importance of experiential
learning, student-centered
education, and the integration of
education with real-life
experiences.
 Humanism
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau:
• Contribution: Rousseau, an
Enlightenment philosopher, laid
the groundwork for humanistic
education with his emphasis on
the natural development of the
child and the importance of
nurturing individual potential. His
work "Emile, or On Education" has
had a lasting impact on
educational philosophy.
 Humanism
• Abraham Maslow:
• Contribution: Maslow, a
psychologist known for his
hierarchy of needs, contributed to
humanistic education by
highlighting the importance of
addressing students' basic needs
for self-actualization. His ideas
stress the holistic development of
individuals.
 Humanism
• John Locke:
• Contribution: Locke, an
Enlightenment philosopher,
emphasized the importance of
education in the development of a
rational and moral individual. His
ideas influenced the humanistic
approach to education by
stressing the nurturing of
individual talents and virtues.
 Overall, these learning theories
and philosophies can help educators
design inclusive learning environments
that support the diverse needs and
abilities of all learners. By incorporating
a variety of teaching methods and
strategies and valuing the unique
strengths and experiences of each
learner, educators can promote
engagement, motivation, and
achievement for all students.
 PART 2

Universal
Design for
Learning
Universal Design for
Learning
Universal Design for Learning
(UDL) is a framework that aims to
increase access and engagement in
learning for all learners, regardless of
their backgrounds, abilities, or learning
preferences. UDL is based on the
premise that all learners have unique
needs and preferences, and that
instruction and environments should
be designed to address these needs
and preferences.
Universal Design for
Learning
The UDL framework
provides a set of
principles and guidelines
that can be used to design
instruction and
environments that are
accessible and effective
for all learners.
Universal Design for
Learning
UDL is particularly
suited and appropriate for
inclusive education because
it promotes the creation of
learning environments that
are accessible and effective
for all learners, regardless
of their abilities or learning
preferences.
Universal Design for Learning
Inclusive education
emphasizes the
importance of providing
equitable and accessible
learning opportunities
for all learners, and UDL
provides a framework for
achieving this goal.
To implement UDL, education
practitioners can use the following
guidelines:

1. Provide multiple means of

representation: offer
information in multiple
formats, such as text, audio,
and visual aids; provide
scaffolding and support for
learners who need it; and use
technology and media to
enhance accessibility.
To implement UDL, education
practitioners can use the following
guidelines:
2. Provide multiple means of
expression: offer multiple ways
for learners to demonstrate
their understanding, such as
through writing, speaking, or
drawing; provide opportunities
for learners to express
themselves in different ways;
and use technology and media
to enhance expression.
To implement UDL, education
practitioners can use the following
guidelines:

3. Provide multiple means of

engagement: offer activities
that are relevant and
meaningful to learners;
provide opportunities for
learners to collaborate and
interact with each other; and
use technology and media to
enhance engagement.
 Examples of UDL in inclusive
education include:

1.Providing captions
and transcripts for
videos and audio
materials to make
them accessible to
learners who are deaf
or hard of hearing.
Examples of UDL in inclusive
education include:

2. Providing text-to-
speech software and
other assistive
technologies to help
learners with visual or
motor impairments
access written content.
Examples of UDL in inclusive
education include:

3. Offering multiple
options for learners to
express their
understanding, such as
through writing,
speaking, or drawing, to
accommodate different
learning preferences.
Examples of UDL in inclusive
education include:
4. Providing opportunities
for collaboration and
group work to promote
social interaction and
support learners with
social and communication
difficulties.
Examples of UDL in inclusive
education include:

5. Offering choices in
learning activities and
assessments to
accommodate different
learner interests and
strengths.
UDL is a framework that is well-suited and
appropriate for inclusive education. By
providing multiple means of representation,
expression, and engagement, UDL promotes
equitable and accessible learning opportunities
for all learners. By implementing UDL guidelines
and principles, education practitioners can
design instruction and environments that meet
the diverse needs and preferences of learners,
promoting their learning and development.
Learning styles
Learning styles refer to the diverse ways
in which individuals prefer to approach
learning and acquiring new information.
It involves understanding how students
process, organize, and comprehend
information. There are various models
and theories about learning styles, and
here are some commonly recognized
types:
Learning styles
• Visual Learners:
• Definition: Visual learners prefer
to use images, charts, graphs,
and other visual aids to
understand information.
• Characteristics: They learn best
through seeing and often benefit
from diagrams, videos, and other
visual representations.
Auditory Learners:
•Definition: Auditory learners grasp
information best through listening. They
prefer spoken explanations, discussions,
and verbal instructions.
•Characteristics: They may benefit from
lectures, group discussions, and audio
recordings.
Learning styles
• Kinesthetic/Tactile Learners:
• Definition: Kinesthetic learners
learn through physical activities,
movement, and hands-on
experiences.
• Characteristics: They prefer
activities like experiments, role-
playing, and interactive tasks that
involve physical engagement.
Reading/Writing Learners:
•Definition: Reading/writing learners
learn effectively through written words.
They prefer reading and writing as
primary modes of learning.
•Characteristics: They benefit from
textbooks, written instructions, and
note-taking.
Learning styles Solitary/Individual Learners:
•Definition: Solitary learners prefer to
work alone and in quiet environments.
• Social Learners: They are self-motivated and
• Definition: Social learners thrive independent.
in group settings and •Characteristics: They focus well when
collaborative environments. They studying alone, using self-paced
learn best through interactions materials and reflective activities
with others.
• Characteristics: Group
discussions, study groups, and
cooperative learning activities are
effective for social learners.
Learning styles
• Logical/Mathematical Learners:
• Definition: Logical/mathematical
learners are inclined towards
reasoning, logic, and problem-
solving. They learn through
analyzing and understanding
patterns.
• Characteristics: They en
Verbal/Linguistic Learners:
•Definition: Verbal/linguistic learners
excel with language-related activities.
They learn through reading, writing, and
verbal communication.
•Characteristics: They enjoy reading
books, writing essays, engaging in
discussions, and participating in
language-based activities.
Learning styles
• Naturalistic Learners:
• Definition: Naturalistic learners
connect well with nature and the
environment. They learn through
observations and interactions
with the natural world.
• Characteristics: Outdoor
activities, field trips, and hands-
on experiences in nature are
effective for naturalistic learners.
Musical/Rhythmic Learners:
•Definition: Musical/rhythmic learners
have a strong connection to music and
rhythm. They learn through patterns,
melodies, and musical elements.
•Characteristics: They may benefit from
incorporating music, rhythm, and
mnemonic devices into their learning
process.
Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Intelligence:
•Definition: Involves proficiency in
language and words. Linguistic learners
• Multiple Intelligences is a theory excel in reading, writing, and verbal
proposed by Howard Gardner communication.
that suggests that intelligence is
not a single, fixed trait but a
collection of distinct abilities.
Gardner initially identified seven
intelligences, and later added an
eighth. Here are the multiple
intelligences:
Multiple Intelligences Spatial Intelligence:
•Definition: Relates to the ability to
perceive and understand visual-spatial
• Logical-Mathematical information. Spatial learners are often
Intelligence: good at visualizing and navigating space.
• Definition: Centers around logical
reasoning, problem-solving, and
mathematical abilities. Logical-
mathematical learners are adept
at critical thinking.
Multiple Intelligences
• Musical Intelligence:
• Definition: Involves a sensitivity
to rhythm, melody, and pitch.
Musical learners have a strong
connection to music and sound.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence:
•Definition: Centers around physical
coordination, dexterity, and a keen
awareness of one's body. Bodily-
kinesthetic learners excel in hands-on
activities.
Multiple Intelligences
• Naturalistic Intelligence:
• Definition: Pertains to an affinity
for nature, animals, and the
ability to recognize and classify
living things. Naturalistic learners
have a strong connection to the
natural world.
Existential Intelligence:
•Definition: Added later by Gardner,
existential intelligence involves
contemplating and understanding
philosophical and existential questions.
It relates to a person's search for
meaning and purpose.
 UDL in Practice
• Ms. Sung, a sixth-grade teacher at Sycamore
Middle School, is eager to begin implementing
the UDL approach. She discovers that before
designing a UDL unit lesson plan, it is helpful
to know the learning needs and preferences of
each student in her class. Ms. Sung
administers a learning preference survey and
creates a chart containing this information,
which she will refer to and modify throughout
the year as needed.
UDL in Practice (* A=auditory, K=kinesthetic, T=tactile, V=visual)
UDL in Practice
UDL in Practice
Having created her chart, Ms. Sung
recognizes that she has students with
each of the four types of learning
preferences—visual, auditory, tactile,
and kinesthetic. The chart also helps
her to keep track of her students’
learning needs, and she uses it as she
begins to design her unit lesson plan.
Ms. Sung began incorporating UDL principles
into her lesson plans by considering the learning
needs and preferences of her students. As
Grace Meo explains, many teachers begin by
identifying lesson plans that are not effective.
 In thinking about beginning to apply the
UDL principles to classroom practice, we often
find that it is best to think about lessons that are
not effective for all learners, and then to pause
and reflect about what are the potential barriers
in the lessons that will prevent all learners from
achieving success.
And we look at barriers and the goal, barriers and the
materials, barriers in the methods, and barriers in the
assessment. Once we can identify the barriers and
think about the way that one could design goals,
methods, materials, and assessment that align to the
UDL principles, then we can move forward in
designing a lesson for all learners.
Ms. Sung finds that by addressing
the learning preferences of her
students, she has for the most part
addressed the learning needs of her
students. However, on occasion, she
does need to make accommodations
(i.e., a service or support related to
the student’s disability) to meet the
needs of some students.
For example, Cole is a student with low
vision. By providing digital versions of the
textbook, audio options for certain
materials, and tactile activities, Ms. Sung
has addressed Cole’s learning needs.
Similarly, Abigail is a student who has a hearing impairment. By
providing visual options for materials (e.g., slides, captions on video),
Ms. Sung addresses most of her learning needs. However, Abigail
requires a sign language interpreter to help her to obtain oral
information and to communicate with her teacher and peers.
Because a sign language interpreter meets the specific educational
need of Abigail, this individualized service would be considered an
accommodation.
By delivering instruction in a variety of
ways and by expanding the options of
materials and assessments available to
her students, Ms. Sung notices that
most of the students are more engaged
in the unit on ancient Egypt than was
usually the case in past years. She
believes that this increased engagement
has resulted in the students learning the
content in a more in-depth manner.
Thank You!!!