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JANUARY 2024

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CONTENTS

FEATURES
12 BorgWarner Targets More- 22 Developing EV Batteries with
Sustainable E-motors Second Life Use in Mind
16 Managing the Evolution of the 24 The Road to Net-Zero EV
EV Charging Standard Development Labs
12 Modeling Considerations for
Optimizing EV Motors
18 Sensing to Solve EV Thermal
Challenges
20 Betting Big on LFP Battery Cells
for Electric CVs

ON THE COVER
An electric motor modeled in COMSOL
Multiphysics® soft-ware. This model
shows the magnetic flux density in the
laminated iron and the current density
in the stator hairpin conductors.
(Image: COMSOL)

ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT JANUARY 2024 1

BorgWarner targets more-sustainable
E-MOTORS
System optimization and
lifecycle analysis are key
to taking heavy rare earths
out of next-gen motors for
commercial EVs.
by Ryan Gehm
A
ll components of an electric propulsion
system — the motor, battery pack and
inverter, in particular — are interrelated
and optimized for a system function.
Still, there are significant trade-offs in cost and
what’s best for sustainability when developing
today’s e-drive systems, according to David
Fulton, director of rotating electric machines,
PowerDrive Systems at BorgWarner Inc.
“The dominant design for motors today is probably
the worst for sustainability in terms of KPIs [key
performance indicators] as well as highest in cost.
But it serves the greater good of the system [by
enabling] the lowest cost for the battery pack and
inverter,” Fulton said at the 2023 SAE COMVEC
conference, during his presentation on next-gen
motor technology for commercial vehicles.
The majority of current motors are rare-earth-
magnet types on the rotor side, he said. These
designs use heavy rare earth (HRE) elements
that allow them to be used at high temperatures
without demagnetizing. “This is a concern because
of how short the supply is globally for these, and
they virtually all are found in China or near China,”
Fulton said. “This is going to be a short-term
supply problem very soon. So, heavy rare earths
are going to be the first to be taken off the table.”
Dysprosium and terbium are two HREs
commonly used as additives in neodymium
2 JANUARY 2024
BorgWarner’s 800-volt
HVH320 electric motor for
commercial vehicles features rare-earth
magnet and aluminum induction rotors.
(Nd) magnets. Though light rare earths such as Nd are more
plentiful than lead, for example, higher BEV volumes and
increased wind power — not to mention unpredictable shifts
in geopolitics — likely will drive prices higher, Fulton said.
“Rare earths in general are well known to have high
environmental impacts,” he said. “They might be only 3% of
the mass fraction of the motor but over 20% on the carbon
footprint, because of all that has to happen to process those
materials.” The recyclability of rare earth metals also poses a
challenge — it’s difficult and not particularly cost-effective.
“People would rather dig them out the ground and make more
new magnets than recycle,” Fulton said. “If we did something like
grade-to-grade recycling — as we separate plastics into categories
and recycle those — and just change the dimensions of the
magnet in the future but not what they’re made of, that could help
enormously. But the problem with that, of course, is at end-of-life
for these motors, is that magnet grade going to be competitive?
My hope is that we find entirely different magnets altogether
that are much lower cost to recycle by that point in time.”
Rotor development for next-gen motors
BORGWARNER
Different types of rotors that are more sustainable have been
gaining traction in the automotive industry. Copper induction rotors
offer higher conductivity and greater efficiency than aluminum
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT

David Fulton, director of electric machine
innovation at BorgWarner.
induction, according to Fulton. Wound
rotors essentially replace the magnets
with electromagnets. “That means we
have to provide current to the rotor
and need a special excitation board
in the inverter to do that,” Fulton
explained. “That’s not a problem.”
Another option is non-HRE rotors.
Several automotive OEMs have moved
FROM LEFT: SAE/RYAN GEHM; BORGWARNER
BorgWarner’s current motors
for commercial vehicles offer
up to 97% peak efficiency,
but development of new rotor
technology is ongoing.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT
“The dominant design for motors today is probably the worst
for sustainability in terms of KPIs as well as highest in cost.
But it serves the greater good of the system.”
in this direction. Fulton referenced
General Motors and its Chevy Volt
hybrid, which uses ferrite magnets,
as one example. But there’s a catch
with these higher-sustainability
solutions: higher system costs.
“Smart engineering” — a term
repeatedly used at the SAE COMVEC
conference — is necessary to find
cost-neutral solutions that satisfy
performance and sustainability goals.
System optimization tools and lifecycle
analysis will be key to evaluating the
relevant metrics and managing trade-
offs, according to Fulton. “Having
the right kind of toolset to be able
to not only [determine] multiphysics
optimization, which we’ve done
for years, but also to look at cost
models and lifecycle analysis for
each of these components to weigh
that all out is important,” he said.
Material standardization can help
with costs as well. “But it’s only
relevant in areas where materials are
relatively mature,” Fulton said. “I think
rare earth magnets are probably in
that camp. Batteries, not so much.”
An alternative, less-than-ideal
approach to smart engineering is
“brute force adaptation,” Fulton said,
comparing a baseline HRE magnet used
in one of BorgWarner’s commercial-
vehicle motors to a redesigned zero-HRE
magnet. “This [baseline] is very lean on
the use of heavy rare earths — as lean
as you can get today using the diffusion
processes. If we used the best possible
non-heavy rare earth magnet for
sustainability reasons, we’re redesigning
it to get the same function — the same
performance, same maximum speed
rating and same protection against
demagnetization,” Fulton explained.
“But when we do this, we’re
handicapped right from the beginning
by losing half the coercivity of this
magnet material at high temperature.
As a result, to protect the magnet
against demagnetization you see how
much thicker it becomes [see graphic
on next page], and that’s the outcome
JANUARY 2024 3
 BorgWarner targets more-sustainable
E-MOTORS

“We know of different higher-sustainability solutions today, but they have system-cost penalties.
They even have sustainability penalties in some cases, by making the motor more sustainable
at the expense of the battery being larger.” - David Fulton, BorgWarner

Trade-offs must be managed for next-gen motors that feature more-sustainable rotors.

of brute force adaptation,”

he said. “So even though
the cost-per-kilogram
is lower, the cost of the
magnet is quite a bit higher,
over 50% higher. And the
magnet is, of course, a
significant fraction of the
bill-of-material cost of these
permanent magnet motors.”
Fulton said engineers
can take a step back and
employ the five-whys
technique to determine new
solutions. “Why does the
magnet have to tolerate
Motor redesign for zero heavy rare earths should employ a “smart engineering” approach rather than
such high temperatures?
“brute force adaptation.”
Why can’t we deal with
something that is not so
BOTH IMAGES: BORGWARNER

high temperature? Of course, that begs the question
of the cost of the cooling system. So, there are other
ways to look at this that helps us to be more creative
and not adapt with a brute-force mentality.”
Engineers also must address the need for shorter
charge times and the impact that has on motors. “For
instance, 1200-volt [batteries] is something that’s been
looked at; I’ve heard some of our heavy-duty customers talking about
it as a way to get to faster charge times,” Fulton said. “But this is
going to drive the need for thicker insulation materials in our motors.
Because of creepage and clearance, it has a power-density penalty.
When you have more insulation, you have less room for copper — as
a result, your losses go up in the motor. For the same range, that’s
going to have a slight battery-size penalty associated with it.”

4 JANUARY 2024 ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT

Managing the Evolution
of the EV Charging
Standard
How and why SAE International’s standards experts are fast-tracking
the adoption of the NACS charging connector for North America as
they consider the future of EV-related standards.

S CLOCKWISE FROM TOP: RIVIAN; SAE; UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE

Startup EV developer Rivian announced in June 2023 that it intended to adopt the NACS charging standard.

AE International announced in late June

2023 that it intended to standardize the
Tesla-developed North American Charging
Standard (NACS) EV charging connector
for North America. SAE then created the
J3400 NACS Task Force to expedite creation
of the J3400 NACS Electric Vehicle Coupler standard.
Grayson Brulte, host of SAE’s Tomorrow Today podcast,
subsequently interviewed Christian Thiele, Director, Global
Ground Vehicle Standards, SAE International, and Dr. Rodney
McGee, Ph.D., P.E. Chairman, SAE J3400 NACS Task Force Dr. Rodney McGee, Ph.D., Christian Thiele,
and Chief Engineer at the University of Delaware, regarding P.E. Chairman, SAE J3400 Director, Global Ground
the work of the J3400 Task Force and other aspects of NACS Task Force and Chief Vehicle Standards, SAE
standardization as electrification technology proliferates Engineer at the University International.
throughout the light- and heavy-duty vehicle sectors. of Delaware.
This Q&A is an abbreviated portion of that interview.

6 JANUARY 2024 ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT

 Comparison of Tesla’s North American Charging Standard (NACS) EV charging connector (in black) and SAE J1772 Combined Charging System (CCS) in grey.
Grayson Brulte: You’re going
to standardize NACS. What does
that process look like? How will
you take what Tesla built with
the NACS and standardize it for
across the industry for use?
Dr. Rodney McGee: Typically, a lot
of standards start off at the very
conceptual stage where experts
basically say, how do we want this
to work? And so you literally start
with a blank piece of paper and
then you get some proposals and
then, in, you basically, coalesce on a
single sort of solution. That process
typically takes some time because,
you’re creating something where
there was nothing before — or there
were things before, but they were
different, had different requirements.
The NACS standardization process
is a bit different: Today that connector
represents both a majority of use in
full EV and also a [large] market share
in charging stations, especially DC
[fast]-charging stations. So, what we’re
going be doing in the standards is
really capturing the existing mechanical
connector to make sure that when other
manufacturers want to be interoperable
TESLA
with it, they have a standard to follow
that will ensure that things work well.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT
Brulte: The J3400 Standard
covers only the connector, not other
aspects of the charging process?
Christian Thiele: The J3400 is just
focused on the charger unit — the
fixture itself. We have other standards
that are working for the interoperability
point of view, the communication point
of view. The standards back in the
day were always focused just on the
vehicle; the vehicle was a standalone
entity. Now there are communication
protocols that are happening with
the vehicle, with the people, with
infrastructure, with other places.
Brulte: Are there other challenges
that you’re going to have to overcome
to standardize the NACS connector?
McGee: [Adopting the] NACS does
mean people have to make changes,
even if it’s just at the mechanical level.
There are electrical differences between
NACS and J1772 that will require
manufacturers to make changes.
And if, it was a different situation
and Tesla hadn’t already had a lot
of [charging equipment] in the
field, I think there would be a lot of
pressure — maybe it would be more
open-ended. What exactly would be
the standard? But in this case, most
of the people who have joined up
with Tesla and their charging system
very much want to take advantage
of the existing infrastructure.
When you want to take advantage
of the existing infrastructure, it
‘bounds’ the work. One of my
challenges is to remind people of
that — this is a deployed system.
Looking forward, certainly, there are
going be things that’ll be added to
it within the standards-development
process, but just reminding people
that nobody wants to adopt or build
a NACS standard that’s incompatible
with the existing deployment
of NACS charging stations.
That’s part of the big reason to
move [to the NACS standard]. A lot
of people involved with standards are
very much used to starting with that
blank piece of paper; it helps mitigate
those challenges of people wanting
to reinvent the wheel, so to speak.
Brulte: The standard for the NACS
connector is going to go faster than
your “traditional” standards process.
How is that going to be achieved?
McGee: I think Tesla realized they
needed to have a standard that was
JANUARY 2024 7
Battery Standards

Working with Portland General Electric, Daimler Trucks North America (DTNA) in 2021 opened the ‘Electric Island’ site with eight charging stations
suitable for electric cars, buses, box vans, and semi-trucks. Such stations could accommodate the CharIN Megawatt Charging System (MCS) standard,
which complies with the SAE J1772-based combined charging system (CCS), and is focused on Class 6-8 commercial vehicles with large battery and
packs and the ability to accept a >1 MW charge rate.

published by an organization — we use
the term SDO, Standards Development
Organization. They looked at the
options in front of them. The two
[SDOs] that would cover this kind
of area are the IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) and SAE.
Some of the international standards
can take quite some time. This is due
to the way that they’re essentially
through national committees. In
SAE, the standards are developed
by individual experts from a variety
both internationally from different
suppliers, different automakers, general
interests, and there’s a much shorter
process to take into account revisions.
The second thing is the fact that
NACS is unique in that it already exists
in large numbers in the real world. And
paper. The SAE process can, when there
is consensus on what we’re doing — and
in this case, there is, because it’s already
out there, especially when we talk
about the mechanical coupler — move
much quicker than would be typical.
Brulte: What is that timeline
for the standard? Has SAE or
the committee made a public
statement around a timeline?
Thiele: We’re looking at publishing
something inside of about six
months and it’ll be a technical
information report. Ideally a standard
usually is developed anywhere
from 16 to 18 months as typical
timeframe. We have been as quick
as 10 to 11 months and this will fall
Brulte: What happens, Christian,
to the J1772 standard? Does that
continue to live on? Does it live in
other markets or where does that go?
Thiele: Oh yeah. It will continue to
live on. There are many vehicles that are
out there — obviously [using] the J1772
standard. So that will continue to live on
and evolve depending on who adopts the
next standard. Europe, we don’t know yet
if they’re going to adopt [NACS] in Asia,
we don’t know what’s going to happen in
emerging markets south America. Africa,
we won’t even go there yet because
we’re still focused on certain levels of
ICE and things of that nature; [vehicle
electrification] is going to go into the
future just based on infrastructure alone.
But ultimately the focus here should
DTNA

we’re not starting from a blank piece of around the 11-month window. be to see what we can continue to do

8 JANUARY 2024 ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT

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Battery Standards
and develop. We continue to focus on
the J1772 to deliver the best standard
for that particular application. And
even in the J3400 [NACS standard],
I think we will be referencing the
J1772 document because of some
of the intricacies that are there from
a communication protocol, etc. and
technical statements that are in there
just so we don’t repeat ourselves.
McGee: It’s important to remember
that J1772 is also used in Japan and
South Korea. There’s no indication
at the moment that’s changing.
There are a number of other smaller
countries that may continue to use
that plug and even if over time the
plug becomes more common, it’s a
lot of the descriptions of things that
live in J1772 that may continue to be
described within that document.
Brulte: What is the impact of
NACS on commercial vehicles,
say Class 6 through Class 8?
10 JANUARY 2024
McGee: SAE has Ground Vehicle
standards and under that are the Truck
and Bus Council and the Motor Vehicle
Council. The NACS Task force lives
under Motor Vehicle Council. I also have
standards that I work on in Truck and Bus.
One of the things that come out of this
discussion is a good analogy: if you’ve
ever gone to one of those stations that
service tractor-trailer [Class 8] trucks, you
know that they have bigger filling nozzles
because those vehicles need quicker
energy delivery, via diesel in those cases.
They [commercial-vehicle interests]
want higher-power DC charging, that’s
megawatt. SAE has a megawatt-level
DC charging standard, focused on those
vehicles for plugin charging. A couple
of years ago, SAE published overhead-
charging non-handheld couplers, and
the J3105 series, which is basically about
electrifying city buses and vehicles like
this. For DC charging, [generally] we want
higher power levels than the passenger-
car market, because we have batteries
that are three and four times bigger.
Overhead charging of
commercial vehicles is
one option to address
those vehicles’ higher-
power charging needs
and SAE has standards
development for this
charging modality.
Those vehicles may have goods,
sometimes millions of dollars’ worth
of goods on them. They can’t fail.
They need to get to their destination.
That is one of the legitimate reasons
that those vehicles generally lag
behind passenger-car [change and
innovation], because the truck sector
wants [equipment] that’s known
reliable and that’s well-understood.
Even though there’s been some
high-profile deployments of vehicles
like electric school buses, they’re really
leveraging passenger-car standards. A
city bus, we pretty much drive these
buses 23 hours a day, so we need
overhead charging at above a megawatt.
It’s really about the truck and bus
[interests] deciding to electrify and
then figuring out how they get there
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To listen to the full episode
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Modeling Considerations
for Optimizing EV Motors
Certain aspects of electric vehicle (EV) motors need to be carefully investigated and optimized,
such as the torque and temperature rise. The most effective way to perform such analysis and
optimization is by using multiphysics modeling and simulation.
O
ptimizing
EV motors
before they hit the market is crucial. As
the demand for clean energy vehicles
grows, customers need assurance that
their chosen vehicle is reliable and fulfills
sustainability promises. The best way to accomplish this
is to use multiphysics modeling and simulation during the
optimization process (Figure 1). For the engineer working
on the optimization, there are several modeling aspects
12 JANUARY 2024
Figure 1. An electric
motor modeled in the
COMSOL Multiphysics® soft-
ware. This model shows the magnetic
flux density in the laminated iron and the
current density in the stator hairpin conductors.
that are important to consider when it comes to EV
motors. We will dive into these considerations here.
Investigating Torque and Iron Thickness
When starting the optimization process for an
EV motor model, particularly a compact permanent
magnet (PM) motor, it is essential to find a balance
between compactness and efficiency, as these factors
COMSOL
conflict. Achieving efficiency goals while limiting
the size of machine components is challenging.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT

Efficiency equates to less energy
consumption, and finding a way to limit
this involves examining the motors’
current loading, which represents
the amount of current applied to the
stator winding. In a PM motor, the
magnetic fields generated by the rotor
magnets and the stator current rotate in
synchronization. The interaction between
these magnetic fields generates the net
torque that converts the stator winding
currents into mechanical power. A
maximum amount of mechanical torque
needs to be exerted on the rotor so that
it will rotate with as much force as the
engineer wants, and in the direction
they want. All of this considered, the
engineer will want to determine whether
the current loading is maintainable or
too high, as having a too-high current
loading will cause the core material
to go into heavy saturation, which will
result in a decline of mechanical power.
The best way to examine the
current loading and torque is by
testing the model setup. To better
visualize the topics discussed here,
consider a 10-pole PM machine
with 12 slots (Figure 2).
Because the torque relies on the
synchronization of the magnetic fields
produced by the rotor and the stator, the
optimum angle offset between the rotor
and stator fields must be determined.
The offset angle can be found by either
rotating the rotor with an angular span
corresponding to an electrical period or
by cycling the stator current through an
electrical period, with the rotor at rest.
Once the optimum angle offset is
determined, the engineer can begin
investigating ways to improve efficiency
and save material use. There are of
course many ways one can do this,
but here, we will discuss one method:
examining the dependency between
the stator iron material, current loading,
and torque output. This can be found
by analyzing the thickness of the iron
BOTH IMAGES: COMSOL
core and its impact on efficiency.
The engineer should simulate
different variants of iron thickness,
focusing on the effects that each level
of thickness has on the rotor torque.
By doing this, an iron thickness value
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT
Permanent
magnets
Rotor iron
Stainless steel
Figure 2. Example model of a 10-pole PM motor with 12 slots.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Rotor torque (N.m)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10
Figure 3. A plot showing variations of the example motor’s rotor torque and iron thickness.
that maintains optimal torque and
stays within size (compactness),
weight, and pricing restrictions
or goals can be determined.
For the example motor seen in Figure
2, it is found that the optimal iron
thickness is 2 mm; using a thickness
under this value will negatively impact
the torque. For example, as seen in
Figure 3, a thickness of 1 mm resulted in
lower torque. Going thicker than 2 mm,
however, is not the optimal solution, as
it requires an increase in material and
therefore increases in weight and cost
without a substantial increase in torque.
Determining Losses, Temperature
Rise, and Cooling Solutions
Once the optimal iron thickness is
determined, it is time to calculate the
iron and copper losses. An increase
in speed (and the consequent losses)
Stator iron
Stator coils
Continuity
boundary
Iron thickness = 1 mm
Iron thickness = 2 mm
Iron thickness = 3 mm
15 20 25 30 35
Rotor angle (°)
can make it difficult to keep a motor
cool, which will cause a motor to reach
its thermal limit. When this spike in
motor temperature occurs, the motor
flux density can decrease, having
a domino effect on the torque and
overall efficiency. For these reasons,
one should look at iron and copper
losses first, and then at temperature
rise and cooling solutions.
Iron losses occur due to time-
varying magnetic flux density and they
include hysteresis and eddy current
losses. Copper losses, on the other
hand, happen because of conduction
current flow, and they include ohmic
losses within the stator coil. Both
types of losses can be calculated in
the COMSOL Multiphysics® software.
The software offers a built-in feature
for loss calculation as well as features
for creating plots of the losses and
JANUARY 2024 13
Battery Modeling

Figure 4. The
temperature results mm
when forced air degC
convection with 20
1 m/s flow velocity is
applied. 15

10

0
108.35
-5

-10

-15

-20

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 mm

Motor Efficiency at 20 °C, Numerical

0.36
90
0.34

0.32
85
0.3

0.28
80
Average rotor torque (N.m)

0.26

0.24
75
0.22
85
0.2

0.18 70

0.16

0.14 65

0.12

0.1 75 60 Figure 5. An
0.08
efficiency map from a
55 parametric simulation.
0.06 65
The numbers labeled
0.04 55 in the map (65, 75,
50
0.02
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400
and 85) refer to the
Rotational speed (rpm) color scale shown on
the right.

their important characteristics, such rise in temperature and how different air convection is the preferred method.
as how they vary as functions of forms of cooling, such as forced or When forced convection with 1 m/s
BOTH IMAGES: COMSOL

both speed and current amplitude. natural air convection or forced water flow velocity is applied to the model,
From there, it is useful to compute cooling, can help subdue it. Obtaining the results indicate that the most
the losses in combination with heat a visualization of these conditions beneficial insulation class in this case
transfer phenomena using simulation will help in determining the needed would be 130 (B), which means that
software. This makes it possible to insulation class. For example, assume 130 °C would be the maximum hot spot
visualize how much the motor will that for the model shown here, forced temperature for the design (Figure 4).

14 JANUARY 2024 ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT

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Systems Solutions
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Battery Modeling
4000
3500
3000
2500
Frequency (Hz)
2000
1500
1000
500
0 -65.5
1000 2000 3000
Analyzing an Efficiency Map
The data collected thus far can be
combined and accounted for in an
efficiency map (Figure 5), which shows
the efficiency as a function of speed
and torque. This makes it possible to
first estimate the overall energy used
by a motor during a complete drive
cycle and then to deduce the range
of the vehicle after a single charge
for a given battery size. Given that an
EV motor’s marketability depends on
how well it utilizes electrical power, it
is safe to say that taking the time to
create an efficiency map is worthwhile.
Efficiency maps use color and
contour to help visualize the efficiency.
In Figure 5, the blue, yellow, and green
regions have low efficiency, and the
vehicle altogether consumes less power
at the low speed or low torque points
as compared to the red region, where
both speed and torque are high.
If satisfied with the energy
conservation results that the efficiency
map shows, the engineer will have
optimized the motor effectively and can
begin the next stage of development.
Improving Motor Noise Levels
In addition to optimizing the motor’s
functionality and sustainability, a crucial
16 JANUARY 2024
Campbell Diagram, First Microphone
4000 5000 6000 7000
Revolutions (RPM)
aspect must be taken into account:
motor acoustics. EVs are significantly
quieter than their conventional
counterparts, which initially raised
safety concerns due to the difficulty in
alerting nearby cyclists and pedestrians.
As a result, it has become standard
practice for EV designers to incorporate
a warning sound. Multiphysics modeling
and simulation can be used to manage
this sound as well as the overall
acoustics of the vehicle, enabling
engineers to ensure that it produces
ideal sound before spending time
and money to make a prototype.
To determine the acoustic
behavior, there are three analyses the
engineer should perform. First up is
a transient analysis to determine the
electromagnetic forces in the time
domain for a given rotation speed. A
time-dependent analysis is needed for
electric machines since time-harmonic
analyses do not account for motion.
Next, the Fourier transform can
be used to convert the time-domain
forces into frequency-domain
harmonics. This allows for an efficient
computation of the vibrations and
noise emitted from motor housing.
The third step is to perform a
vibroacoustic analysis of each
Figure 6. A Campbell
diagram for analyzing
56.9
motor frequency. This
60 plot focuses on a given
microphone position.
Each line represents
55 a harmonic, and on
the color scale, red
represents louder
50 noise.
45
40
35
55
30
8000 9000 10000
harmonic at different speeds of
rotation. These harmonics can be
plotted using a Campbell diagram
(Figure 6), which shows loudness as
a function of speed and frequency
for a set of harmonics. With this, the
engineer can find the frequency and
intensity of the emitted noise (also
known as the sound pressure level).
With COMSOL Multiphysics, the
engineer can export the noise plots to
WAV files and hear how the motor will
sound. Depending on the results, they
can make any adjustments they wish to
the rotor slot sizes, position, and shapes
until the motor produces ideal noise.
The optimization of an EV motor
involves a careful examination of
numerous factors, such as torque,
iron thickness, and temperature rise.
Multiphysics modeling and simulation
make it easy for engineers to see
how the different physics phenomena
within an electric motor interact and
optimize their design accordingly.
COMSOL Multiphysics is a registered
trademark of COMSOL AB.
This article was written by Beth
Beaudry of COMSOL (Burlington,
COMSOL
MA). For more information,
visit www.comsol.com.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT
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Sensing to solve EV thermal challenges
The complexities of electric-vehicle HVAC require new sensing solutions.
An expert at TDK explains.
A
common criticism of electric vehicles (EVs) is that extremes
of heat and cold adversely affect their performance,
particularly range. OEMs have been aware of the issue
and have innovated and iterated technologies to solve it.
EVs increasingly are being engineered with sophisticated heating,
cooling and ventilation (HVAC) systems based on some of the
most advanced and robust sensors and actuators available.
These systems mitigate against the effects of thermal
extremes that, admittedly, still challenge IC-engine vehicles on
an infrequent basis. But there are tradeoffs. The ICE vehicle’s
HVAC is a relatively simple affair involving air cooling, a
coolant (water ethylene glycol, or WEG), heaters, and heat
exchangers (including air conditioners). HVAC systems for
EVs by necessity are far more complex. Understanding the
details is important to designing an effective system.
EV HVAC differences
An EV HVAC system has multiple temperature-sensitive
subsystems and components, all with different optimal
temperature ranges that only sometimes overlap. Specifically:
• Magnetic elements in the motor must be kept below
80° C (176° F) to keep them from demagnetizing.
• Motor inverter and charging electronics must
be kept at less than 120° C (248° F)
• Lithium-ion batteries must operate between
10° C and 40° C (50° F and 104° F).
18 JANUARY 2024
The complex HVAC
required by EVs depends
on leading-edge
sensors, actuators, and
controllers to assure
that the vehicles operate
at peak performance
in all ambient thermal
conditions.
by Jeroen Van Ham
• A hydrogen fuel cell may need to run somewhere
between 100° C and 200° C (212° F and 392° F,
depending on the fuel-cell stack technology)
• Passengers in any vehicle tend to be most
comfortable within a few degrees of 20° C (68° F).
EV HVAC complexity derives from having to satisfy
all requirements, often simultaneously. The complexity
begins with the three distinct heating/cooling loops that
are part of every EV. The battery system, power system
and the passenger space each have a dedicated loop.
Handling so many systems that operate in different
temperature ranges requires careful management.
For example, EV manufacturers had to devise a
means of handling both power electronics (operable
to 120° C) and the batteries (operable to 40° C).
EV engineers divide what would have been a single
thermal loop covering both the power electronics and
the battery into two channels to take advantage of
the existence of the vehicle’s air-conditioning unit.
In one channel of the thermal loop, WEG cycles
through power electronics and radiator at some
temperature between 40° C and 100° C, while in
TDK-MICRONAS
the other channel of the loop, the WEG is chilled
below 40° C by an air-conditioning system. This is
done with a chiller that transfers the heat from the
battery loop WEG to the air-conditioning refrigerant.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT
 Regulating EV battery temp
An EV battery can have thousands
of battery cells. Each cell has to be
individually monitored for temperature
and voltage. Voltage sensing is necessary
in large part because batteries operate
better when the load across all the
constituent cells is balanced as evenly as
possible. This data is fed into each EV’s
battery management system (BMS).
For temperature sensing, in hot weather
the battery needs to be cooled to avoid
battery degradation that begins to
accelerate at higher than 40° C. That
involves using coolants, as described
above, as well as vents and fans. HVAC cool-weather cycle.
During cold weather, the battery
needs to be heated. When Li-ion
batteries get too cold, range is
compromised. Note, too, that the
battery must be kept warm even when
the vehicle is not being driven. This is
why EV makers have been equipping
batteries with dedicated heaters.
Keeping the batteries in the optimal
temperature range has to be done
anyway and it helps maintain range
when the weather grows cold – a
feature that EV critics frequently miss.

Sensor rich
The process of heating and
cooling the multiple EV subsystems
so that they remain in their optimal
temperature ranges involves EV heat-pump function showing related sensors.
more heat pumps, water pumps,
three-way valves, expansion valves and other
equipment than found in ICE vehicles. All of these
elements must be monitored and controlled.
This requires temperature sensors, pressure-
temperature sensors mounted in various positions
and pressure sensors for the WEG refrigerant.
Many of these sensors need protection from the
elements and so must be mounted in appropriate
packaging. They all need to be positioned and attached
with care, with an awareness that motor vehicles are
perpetually subject to shock and vibration on the
ALL IMAGES: TDK-MICRONAS
Most EVs will rely at least partially on taking an AC
source as an input and converting this into DC to charge
the battery. The amount of power through both AC and
DC charge points often is in excess of 100 kW.
Generating heat as a by-product is inevitable. If not managed,
the accumulated heat could become a potential safety hazard.
That makes temperature sensing even more important at
all critical points throughout the EV power system.
The IEC demands that charging plugs include a
temperature sensor to ensure safe operation. TDK supplies
high-voltage-resistant negative temperature coefficient

road. TDK, for example, provides many of the required
actuators (HVC 4xyzF) and sensors (HAL 39xy) to
extract the maximum range from a battery at all times.
Effective EV HVAC = safety
Precise measurement is necessary
not just for the efficient operation of the
vehicle. It is also an issue of safety.
(NTC) sensors in these hotspots, as they feature a high
operating temperature and high electrical insulation.
The complex HVAC required by EVs depends on
leading-edge sensors, actuators and controllers
to assure that the vehicles operate at peak
performance — including when it’s cold outside.
Dr. Jeroen Van Ham oversees the sensor-systems
portfolio at TDK.

ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT JANUARY 2024 19

 Betting big on LFP
battery cells for
The first battery cells from the joint-venture LFP cell factory will be produced for vehicles
in North America, with production scheduled to start in 2027. Freightliner eCascadia is shown.
Accelera by Cummins, Daimler Truck and Paccar collaborate to establish a
21-GWh dedicated factory in the U.S. with technology partner EVE Energy.
C
hina remains the clear leader in manufacturing of
lithium-ion battery cells for commercial vehicles and
passenger cars, but North America will claim some of
that share in the coming years as it becomes the fastest-
growing regional market for planned cell capacity, according
to a recent report from Clean Energy Associates (CEA).
As global lithium-ion battery-cell capacity is set to increase
by 186% from 2022 to 2025, North America’s capacity growth
is expected to outpace Europe’s, according to CEA, primarily
due to incentives in the U.S.’s Inflation Reduction Act (IRA).
A similarly optimistic outlook from the Department of Energy’s
(DOE) Vehicle Technologies Office shows that total battery
manufacturing capacity in North America is projected to be
nearly 20 times greater in 2030 compared to 2021 — about
1,000 gigawatt-hours (GWh) per year vs. 55 GWh/year.
Automakers such as Ford (www.sae.org/news/2022/07/
ford-battery-materials-security) previously announced plans to
install lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cell production capacity in
North America. Commercial-vehicle manufacturers similarly are
driving growth in this area, evidenced by a major announcement
on Sept. 6 that Accelera by Cummins, Daimler Truck and Paccar
are forming a joint venture to manufacture LFP battery cells for
battery-electric commercial vehicles and industrial applications.
LFP ‘excellent’ for CVs
Total investment is expected to be about $2-3 billion for the
21-GWh, “state-of-the-art” dedicated LFP cell factory. The first
battery cells will be produced for vehicles in North America,
with production scheduled to start in 2027, a Daimler Truck
spokesperson shared with Truck & Off-Highway Engineering.
Accelera by Cummins — the company’s zero-emissions business
unit — Daimler Truck and Paccar each will own 30% of the joint
venture. Chinese cell maker EVE Energy will serve as the technology
partner and hold a 10% ownership stake. EVE Energy will contribute
its LFP battery-cell design and manufacturing expertise.
20 JANUARY 2024
ELECTRIC CVs
by Ryan Gehm
“Twenty-one gigawatt-hour is a very big number
in the context of trucks and buses,” Jamie Fox,
principal analyst at Interact Analysis, commented
on the announcement. “A 21-GWh plant, operating
at full capacity in 2026, would provide enough
batteries for the entire North American market
for all battery-electric buses and medium- and
heavy-duty trucks combined, assuming about
10% of trucks are electric in that year.”
The partners said that the joint venture initially
will focus on LFP battery cells because they offer
several advantages compared to other battery
chemistries such as NMC (nickel manganese cobalt)
lithium-ion technology. The lower cost of LFP —
largely because iron is more abundant than nickel
and cobalt — is a major factor, as is its longer life
and enhanced safety because LFP cells are less
prone to combustion and thermal runaway.
“Based on today’s outlook, LFP is an excellent
choice for commercial vehicles,” the Daimler Truck
spokesperson said. “Various metrics or KPIs are
considered in the development and design of the cell
chemistry, and LFP has several advantages in terms
of lifetime, cost and thermal spread resistance.”
Achieving economies of scale
The partners are collaborating to find the optimal
location for the battery-cell production facility.
“The team has narrowed down the list of states
and locations to a few that meet our requirements,
avoiding sensitive geographic locations due to CFIUS
DAIMLER TRUCK
[Committee on Foreign Investment in the United
States] considerations, and is now working on the final
selection,” the spokesperson said. The final location is
expected to be announced within the next six months.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT
 “It is a key puzzle piece of our battery-industrialization strategy,
ensuring access to the right battery-cell technology at the right cost.”
- Martin Daum, Daimler Truck CEO
Chinese cell maker EVE
Energy will serve as
the technology partner
and contribute its LFP
battery-cell design and
manufacturing expertise.
CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT: EVE ENERGY; PACCAR; BLUE BIRD; FORD
Ford previously announced its own plans to manufacture LFP
cells in the U.S. and offer two battery chemistries for its EVs
because of their unique benefits.
The strategic JV enables the companies to create the
necessary scale to meet the expected growing demand
for battery technology throughout this decade, according
to Daimler Truck CEO Martin Daum. “For Daimler Truck,
partnerships and a strict focus on costs and smart
capital allocation are the key levers to succeed on the
path towards sustainable transportation,” he said in a
statement. “This planned joint venture enables economies
of scale beyond Daimler Truck. It is a key puzzle piece
of our battery-industrialization strategy, ensuring access
to the right battery-cell technology at the right cost.”
The partners stressed their commitment to reducing
carbon emissions consistent with the Paris Climate
Agreement. “We have the responsibility to decarbonize
in a way that is best for all of our stakeholders and the
planet. This requires working closely with key partners,”
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT
Kenworth and Peterbilt
electric trucks will benefit
from LFP cell technology that
offers advantages in cost,
lifetime and thermal
spread resistance.
Accelera works with Blue Bird to deploy electric school buses in North America,
a segment that could benefit from the LFP cells produced by the new venture
Jennifer Rumsey, Cummins chair and CEO, said in the statement. “Not
only are we advancing a key technology solution for our customers,
but accelerating the energy transition in the United States.”
“Our vision is the highest quality, locally produced battery
technology to enhance the operations of our customers
and help them achieve their operational and environmental
goals,” added Preston Feight, CEO of Paccar.
The transaction is subject to customary closing conditions and
receipt of applicable merger control and regulatory approvals.
“Battery packs in trucks and buses can have double the per-
kWh price that passenger cars have — this factory may contribute
towards developing economies of scale that can reduce this gap,”
Interact Analysis’ Fox said. “Some may want to wait and see
until the factory has actually been built, but this announcement
is big enough to make people who took a bearish stance on
electric trucks in North America to reconsider their position.”
JANUARY 2024 21
Developing EV Batteries
with Second Life Use in Mind
A
s the automotive industry
continues to focus on
designing and developing
electric vehicles (EVs),
new challenges and considerations
come along for the ride. As the EV
market grows, the industry must be
prepared for new end-of-life matters,
even during the preliminary stages
of development. One important
piece of this puzzle is the batteries
powering EVs, which usually still
maintain around 80 percent usable
capacity when they are no longer
considered suitable for vehicle use.
At that time, it may be possible
to repurpose the battery for a
“second life” use, such as powering
commercial appliances or medical
equipment, or for energy storage
in buildings utilizing solar panels.
There are multiple factors, challenges,
and processes in assessing a battery
once it is no longer an option for
powering an EV. If the battery can
be used for a second life, the process
is not as simple or straightforward
as it may first seem to be. Preparing
the batteries for a second life, often
includes transitioning them to a
different industry. When original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs) are
developing EVs and their batteries for
their “first life” it is important to keep
potential second life uses in mind.
End of First Life
When the battery of an electric
vehicle is operating below optimal
range for driving, it must be replaced.
Such a determination could stem from
customer complaints about vehicle
range, scheduled vehicle battery
upgrades, repair assessments, general
maintenance sessions, or at other
times. Once it is deemed unsuitable
22 JANUARY 2024
for on-road use, manufacturers
must decide what to do with the
battery: discard it, recycle it, or
repurpose it for another use.
Discarding the battery presents
challenges in terms of landfill space
and usage, as well as how to properly
dispose of hazardous chemicals and
metals. Many regions have vehicle
end-of-life guidelines that require a
certain percentage of the car to be
re-used or recycled, such as the EU
ELV Directive. This regulation requires
that 85 percent of vehicle weight be
reused or recycled; only 15 percent of
the vehicle weight can be discarded.
Batteries can account for up to 10
percent of vehicle’s total weight,
making recycling or repurposing a
better option under the ELV Directive.
Recycling EV batteries is not always
easy since they contain heavy metals
and proprietary chemical compounds.
Recycling requires careful handling and
can be quite costly. In fact, recycling
can prove more expensive than the
value of the materials pulled from the
battery. Given the challenges behind
discarding and recycling EV batteries,
repurposing them may be the preferred
option for many manufacturers.
Because most electric vehicle
batteries are still operating at around an
80 percent capacity level at their end-
of-life stage, utilities and manufacturers
in other industries are starting to see
a used EV battery as a low cost/high
quality power source. This unlocks a
number of possibilities for a battery’s
use, once it is properly assessed to
be repurposed, remanufactured, and
recertified to applicable industry
standards for its new use.
Keeping this process in mind,
designers and engineers who are
developing EV batteries can help
those at the “second life” stage by
considering applicable standards,
testing needs and other best practices.
Applicable Standards and
Testing Needs
When being repurposed and
recertified, EV batteries will need
to be transported, and lithium-ion
batteries must meet provisions in the
UN 38.3 standard to be transported.
To adhere to the basics of UN 38.3, it is
important for the EV OEM to maintain
copies of all UN 38.3 test reports,
including those from subcontractors
and suppliers. These summaries need to
be available upon request to maintain
compliance and should identify
samples tested, as well as models/
versions covered by the test report.
If the OEM is repurposing the
battery these reports will be needed.
If another party is taking on the
reconstruction and recertification,
having this information ready will
benefit the second life process.
While an “as-is” battery may not
require re-testing per UN 38.3, the
repurposer is still required to provide
evidence of compliance for any
shipment, if requested by a competent
authority. If a battery is disassembled
into component modules or cells, the
repurposer would also be required
to demonstrate UN 38.3 compliance
for any sub-assembly of battery that
is subsequently transported. The
same is true for any newly created
batteries that are assembled from
reclaimed cells or modules.
An EV battery repurposer can
use UL 1974 to assess whether
the batteries qualify for reuse/
repurposing. The standard applies
to battery packs, cells, modules, and
electrochemical capacitors. It contains
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT

actions to demonstrate a battery
can be repurposed and moved from
one industry to another, as well as
an overview of the rework/screening
process. Another key component of
the standard is guidance to illustrate
knowledge of the original battery
design. To assist the second life
process, OEMs can ensure that this
knowledge is understood, sharing
any necessary information, data,
sketches, testing reports or other
means of illustrating this information.
UL 1974 also includes guidance on
cell evaluation at the module level
(when cells cannot be separated
individually) and allows for various
usage cases: reuse, repurpose, or
remanufacture. The manufacturer
can use this to establish the battery’s
condition to proceed with further
assessments and testing. This often
includes application-specific safety
certification, such as UL 1973 for
stationary storage batteries.
Typically, when a Nationally
Recognized Testing Laboratory
(NRTL) certifies a product, the original
manufacturing process must be audited
or assessed periodically. Because a
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT
repurposed battery’s manufacturing
has occurred in the past, the NRTL
must assess the screening and
sorting process, as well as any re-
manufacturing, to ensure that only
compliant batteries are allowed in
the new application. This screening
process must include a documented
verification that unfit batteries are
prevented from re-entering the market.
Initial Manufacturer
Considerations for Second Life
Since the standards and guidelines
continue to evolve for EV batteries, it
is important to stay informed on new
developments and requirements for
reuse, including standards around end-
of-life stages for batteries, as they will
impact the potential outcomes for an
EV battery. Stay informed about new
or changing standards on transporting
batteries, repurposing batteries and
general battery safety and compliance,
as these will all impact the EV battery
in both its first and second lives.
The EV battery is an expensive,
heavy piece of equipment. For both
those reasons, and because the
used battery still offers a great deal
of energy storage potential,
recycling and reuse is often a
preferred option at the end-
of-life stage. As manufacturers
seek to find a second life for
EV batteries at the end of their
initial use, it is important to
know not only the options but
the process for repurposing
a battery for new use.
As second life usage
expands, there will be
additional regulations or
regulatory guidance. Each
region or country will adopt or
allow re-used or repurposed
batteries according to their
own lessons learned or local
concerns. Therefore, OEMs and
repurposers must consider
that the regulatory landscape
will most likely evolve. That
landscape includes legal
liability, transportation,
application-specific safety,
and labeling for any re-purposed
battery. Additionally, expect
changes in storage, disposal, and
recycling requirements for cells and
batteries that are not re-purposed.
Clear communication within
your organization, with testing and
certification bodies and with partners
in the second-life industry will also
help to ensure a smooth, timely
transition, allowing automotive OEMs
to meet end-of-life requirements for
the battery and the vehicle. OEMs
may want to consider designing
batteries for easier repurposing, or
by considering a specific intended
application, so that the original
battery already complies with the
construction and testing requirements
of the second use applications. At
minimum, all manufacturers should
at least have an awareness of how
their batteries may be re-used or
repurposed at the end of their original
life, and prepare accordingly today.
This article was written by Rich
Byczek, Global Director, Intertek
(London, U.K). For more information
visit, www.intertek.com.
JANUARY 2024 23
The Road to Net-Zero
EV Development Labs
Test systems should be designed in a way to recover the energy locally and utilize the
inherent benefit of electric vehicles to share charge and discharge energy on a testbed level.
A
s automotive companies transition their
product portfolio to fully electric, the
development and validation of the electric
powertrain and battery is a key enabler
to success. The electric powertrain, which
consists of the battery, traction
inverters, and electric motors, or a combination of
components like an e-axle, is a primary cost driver, has a
tremendous effect on the driver’s user experience, and
has the highest risk for expensive recalls and warranty
issues. Because of the importance of the electric
powertrain, automotive customers must transition their
existing development and validation facilities to electric
component and system testing which often requires a
substantial increase in needed electrical power. However,
intelligent installations can use green energy generation,
second life energy storage, and high-efficiency test
systems to reduce, or even eliminate this challenge.
24 JANUARY 2024
The demand for power is clear with some basic, back of the
napkin, math. If we have battery packs that average 100kWh,
and the test profiles must include simulations of repeated DC
fast charging (20 percent to 80 percent SOC) with the target
recharge of 20 min, which seems to be the desired target
time by many consumers, this fast charge event needs to be
80% - 20% = 60% * 100kWh for a DC fast charge capacity of
SERGII CHERNOV/SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
60kWh. Then, for a 20-min DC Fast Charge we would need
(60 min/20 min)*60kWh) or 280kW of power. In addition,
a typical validation program would have 20 packs (or more)
in continuous test for multiple years, so just for these tests
we would need a facility power of 280kW*20 = 5.1MW.
Of course, the matching E-Drive testbeds would have
similar requirements confirming that tremendous power is
needed to test these electric powertrain components and
this power requirement in both directions as electrified
powertrains have the enormous benefit of returning energy
as well as consuming it. But this bidirectionality doesn’t
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT
 help us (on the surface) with our
Wind Solar
needed power connections. Building Battery Energy

We can manage this power need with Storage Systems

Smallest Power
“lab management” software which can Footprint Optimized
monitor test profiles to predict power GRID 800VDC

consumption in the future and limit some Ultimate Maximum

Flexibility Utilization
testbeds in case power limits are being DC BUS DC BUS

reached, but this can often delay testing Common DC Bus

or cause issues where faults occur and DC BUS DC BUS DC BUS DC BUS DC BUS DC BUS DC BUS DC BUS DC BUS

excess energy is needed, or doesn’t have AC

DRIVE
AC
DRIVE
AC
DRIVE

any place to go. To take the solution a step 400VDC 1200VDC 800VDC 520VAC 520VAC 800VDC 520VAC 1200VDC 800VDC

further, we must outfit these test facilities

with systems that use the available Sub Pack Pack Traction Dyno Traction Traction AC DC Fast Battery
Inverter + Motor Motor Motor Inverter Load Charger Discharger
energy effectively in the first place.
There are several methods for this
combining a mix of utilizing green Full system capability for all types of EV test systems.
energy like solar and wind to supplement
the energy needs, a stationary energy
source like second life batteries to store
or provide excess energy when needed,
and efficient test systems that have high
electrical efficiency and can share the
energy between testbeds for both AC and
DC applications. If done correctly, the net
energy effect on the facility can be zero,
or in many cases, provide energy back
to the facility to support the building.
If we start from the DUT (Device
Under Test) and work our way back
to the power source, we can start to
see how this can easily play out.

Combining Test Systems

If we keep it simple and focus on
EV battery and traction motor testing,
starting with the battery, we need to
provide energy to charge the battery
which simulates the real-world condition
of a DC fast charge event or regenerative
braking during driving. We also need
energy for electric motor testing to drive
the electric motor which is replicating the
electric motor accelerating the car. But we
also need to consume energy from the
battery to simulate the real-world situation
when it is powering the electric motor to
accelerate the car or absorb energy from
the traction motor during the previously
mentioned regenerative braking events.
BOTH IMAGES: UNICO

If we think of this myopically, and

only consider one test channel, we will
have a building AC grid connection to
provide the AC power connection to the
Active Front End (AFE). This AFE then
converts the AC power to DC and then A real-world customer system in final test — 1.6MW SiC AC Drive.

ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT JANUARY 2024 25

Battery Testing
Conversion Losses 10% = 50kW
Active
Dyno 1
Front End
Conversion Losses 10% = 25kW
250kW
The e-Axle test system with energy recirculation.
a separate DC/AC or DC/DC converter is
used to control the energy to/from the
DUT. If isolation is needed for the test
channel, then an isolation transformer
is connected between the building grid
and the AFE. Typical test systems today
have a total efficiency of 85 percent to
90 percent, which is good, but we can
do better, especially if we step back
and view all the test system needs and
look at multiple channels together.
If we have the capability of
combining test systems together, on
a so-called “Common DC Bus,” the
possibilities for energy re-use with
higher efficiencies is much greater.
So, in addition to losing less energy
due to losses, we can also save
costs (and equipment footprint) by
utilizing a single grid connection and
a single AFE for multiple channels.
Terms like “back-to-back” testing
have been in the industry for years,
but now the energy can be circulated
at a higher efficiency inside the test
system decreasing the energy usage
of the overall testfield. If channel-
to-channel isolation is needed, new,
high-performance Silicon Carbide
devices can be used for high-
frequency transformers inside the
test equipment to provide isolation
in a much smaller size. Then, with
proper test coordination, back-
to-back battery cycling could be
like moving water from one cup to
26 JANUARY 2024
Battery
Dyno 2
Emulator
Conversion Losses 10% = 25kW
e-Axle
250kW
another, and back again, only feeding
in the minimal losses from the grid.
E-Axle Testbed
Once we have test equipment with
a common DC bus, we can take it even
further and have combined AC and
DC applications sharing energy. For
example, if we take a circular energy
system like an e-axle testbed, we can
use a DC supply to supply DC power
to the production traction inverter or a
universal inverter which then drive the
electric traction motor(s) connected
to the axle. The axle is then connected
to two output dynamometers which
absorb this energy and brings it back
into the test system onto the common
DC bus, closing the energy loop. Only
the loses are needed from the grid.
To achieve the next level of energy
freedom, additional DC channels can
be used to tie in one or more energy
storage systems (like a second life
battery BESS) to the common DC bus.
This, tied into the automation system,
could be used to intelligently store,
and use, the DC energy as needed to
fully support the testing requirements.
For example, for facilities that have
renewable energy during the day with
solar could charge the BESS during
daylight hours and use that energy
to feed the test system losses at
night utilizing the common DC bus to
minimize energy losses. Or if charged
batteries are brought into the test
facility, the initial discharge energy
is stored in the BESS for charging
the test batteries at a later time.
Even with this high level of re-
utilization of energy or green energy
supported test systems, we also must
try to keep pushing the efficiencies of
the power electronics used in the test
systems. Even a 1 percent improvement
on efficiency in a 280 kW system is
significant when you consider that
validation programs running 24/7 take
years to complete. Utilizing new wide
bandgap semiconductors like SiC and
GaN enable control techniques which
can increase the efficiencies to 99
percent or even higher. In addition, the
higher switching frequencies enabled
by these new devices can also reduce
the physical size of passive filter
components reducing losses even further.
As the automotive sector continues
to transition to a significant portion
of their portfolio being electric, they
must either build the needed test
facilities to support this transition
or update their current facilities.
This typically requires a tremendous
increase in needed power infrastructure.
However, by utilizing the latest energy
sharing test system technologies
and supplemental energy supply and
storage methods tied directly into these
test systems, this burden is minimized.
Constant advances in technologies
are also providing electrification
test equipment with a significant
efficiency savings over older, existing,
test systems the OEM might already
have where the increased operating
cost savings can quickly pay for the
upgrade, especially compared to
constant repairs of aging systems.
Here, the combination of increased
energy efficiency and the ability
to share and store energy could
reduce existing operating costs of
EV labs by 50 percent or more.
This article was written by Don
Wright, VP of Engineering, Unico
LLC (Franksville, WI). For more
UNICO
information, visit www.unicous.
com/electric-vehicles.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES SPECIAL REPORT