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Seafood in the Human Diet for Better Nutrition and Health

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 2939

131

Seafood in the Human Diet for Better Nutrition and Health

Chathurika Jayasekara1, Eresha Mendis2 and Se-Kwon Kim3,4
1
Department of Applied and Natural Sciences, University College of Matara, Sri Lanka
2
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
3
Department of Marine Life Sciences, Korean Maritime and Ocean University, 727 Taejong-ro, Yeongdo-Gu, Busan 49112, Republic of Korea
4
Kolmar Korea Co., Ltd., 18, Saimdang-ro, Seocho-Gu, Seoul, 137876, Republic of Korea

131.1 ­Introduction above the continental shelf and in waters

The definition of seafood denotes a variety of
groups of biologically divergent vertebrate and
invertebrate aquatic animals consisting not
only of fish, whether of freshwater, estuarine,
or marine habitats, but also of shellfish, which
include crustaceans and mollusks. Crustaceans
mainly comprise crayfish, crab, shrimp, and
lobster. Mollusks include univalves (abalone,
snail, and conch) bivalves (mussel, oyster, and
scallop), and cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish,
and octopus). Seafood does not in its definition
include aquatic mammals (e.g. whales and dol-
phins), aquatic reptiles (e.g. turtles and croco-
diles), echinoderms (e.g. sea urchins and
starfish), jellyfish, and aquatic plants.
Therefore, seafood includes basically finfish
and shellfish species (European Food Safety
Authority, 2014). Sea vegetables, which are
commonly referred to as algae or seaweed, are
indeed included in the broader definition of
seafood.
Based on the habitat fish can be categorized
as pelagic and demersal species. Pelagic fish
species, which is a diverse group of mainly
planktivorous fishes, share the same habitat,
the surface layers of the water column, usually
not exceeding 200 m in depth (e.g. anchovies,
sardines, swordfish, tuna, mackerel), while
demersal species live and feed on or near the
bottom of seas (e.g. cod, haddock, whiting,
halibut).
Since ancient times seafood has been consid-
ered an important source of food in the world
because of its well-known nutritional and
health attributes, sensory attributes, and easy
digestibility. Seafood is much preferred by the
world’s population, particularly in developing
countries. For example, fisheries and aquacul-
ture supply over 1.5 billion people with almost
20% of their average animal protein intake
and 3 billion people with at least 15% of their
average animal protein intake (Food and
Agriculture Organization, 2010). According to
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) sta-
tistical data as shown in Figure 131.1, seafood
consumption in the world has gradually
increased over the past few ­decades. In 1992,
seafood was able to provide 24 kcal/capita/day
and in 2011 it had increased up to 34 kcal/­
capita/day which clearly indicates increased
seafood consumption.
According to recent FAO statistical data,
people in Africa, Asia, Europe, America,

Encyclopedia of Marine Biotechnology: Five Volume Set, First Edition. Edited by Se-Kwon Kim.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2940 131 Seafood in the Human Diet for Better Nutrition and Health

35

32.5
kcal/capita/day

30

27.5

25

22.5
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Figure 131.1 Seafood consumption pattern from 1990 to 2011 worldwide (Source: FAO statistical data, 2015).

250

200
kcal/capita/day

150

100

50

0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
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20

World World
Fish, Seafood Meat

Figure 131.2 Comparison of meat and seafood consumption pattern from 1990 to 2011 worldwide
(Source: FAO statistical data, 2015).

and Southeastern Asia consume seafood, considerable increase in ­seafood consump-

­providing 20, 36, 47, 24, and 63 kcal/capita/
day, respectively, in their diet. However, as
shown in Figure 131.2, when seafood con-
sumption is compared with the average meat
consumption in the world it does not reflect a
tion. Therefore, the need for increasing aware-
ness regarding the beneficial effects of seafood
has become crucial, considering the nutri-
tional and health demands of the current
consumer.

Since ancient times, sea vegetables have
been widely consumed globally, especially in
countries located by the sea, including the
U.K., Ireland, Norway, the Pacific Islands,
African countries, and the USA. Gradually, sea
vegetables have become primarily associated
with Asian cuisine (Jaspars and Folmer, 2013).
Currently, human consumption of green algae
(5%), brown algae (66.5%), and red algae (33%)
is high in Asia, mainly in Japan, China, and
Korea (Dawes, 1998). However, demand for
seaweed as food has now also extended to
North America, South America, and Europe
(Manivannan et al., 2009).
Seafood is a good source of energy and pro-
tein with high biological value, and contributes
to the intake of essential nutrients such as vita-
min B, iodine, selenium, calcium, zinc, phos-
phorus, iron, copper, and fat-soluble vitamins A
and D. Seafood also provides therapeutically
important n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated
fatty acids (LCPUFA). Seafood contains four
of the main n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA). They are alpha linolenic acid (ALA;
18:3Δ9c,12c,15c), eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA; 20:5Δ5c,8c,11c,14c,17c), docosahexae-
noic acid (DHA; 22:6Δ4c,7c,10c,13c,16c,19c)
and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA;
22:5Δ7c,10c,13c,16c,19c). According to the
research conducted in recent years focusing on
seafood, the available nutrients link to well-
established health benefits.
Sea vegetables include the large macroalgae
and microscopic, usually unicellular microal-
gae. Macroalgae are classified into three main
groups: brown, red, and green algae. Brown
algae (Phaeophyta tend to be very large and
olive green or brown in color. Red algae
(Rhodophyta) are typically smaller algae. Their
color ranges from greenish to dark purple.
Green algae (Chlorophyta) are small and thin-
layered algae found close to the water surface.
They are particularly rich in chlorophyll a and
chlorophyll b (Jaspars and Folmer, 2013).
Seaweeds are rich in antioxidants such as
carotenoids, phlorotannins, ascorbic acid (vita-
min C), tocopherol (vitamin E), polyphenols,
131.2 ­Composition of Seafoo 2941
chlorophyll derivatives, and mycosporine-like
amino acids, They are also rich in vitamins
(especially vitamin B12), minerals (e.g. iodine
and selenium), proteins, PUFA, and dietary
fibers (Jaspars and Folmer, 2013).
The incorporation of seafood in the daily
human diet would be beneficial in providing
most of the aforementioned essential nutri-
ents. This chapter is intended to discuss in
brief the extent of available nutrients and a
variety of human health endpoints that may be
influenced by nutrients available in seafood.
131.2 ­Composition of Seafood
Seafood is categorized as a nutrient-dense food
group of the human diet with respect to their
chemical composition. The nutritional benefits
of fish are mainly due to the content of high
quality, balanced, and easily digestible proteins,
vitamins, fatty acids, and other important
essential nutrients (Stancheva et al., 2013).
The quality of seafood is a function of body
compositions and energy values of particular
organisms. It varies among different species,
sex, age, season, feed intake, habitat, and the
environmental conditions in which the fish/
shellfish are caught. Finfish are basically two
types. The chemical and nutritional composi-
tions of seaweeds are also determined by spe-
cies and environmental conditions such as
habitat, light, water temperature, and salinity
(Wong and Cheung, 2000). Climate, pH, geo-
graphical differences, and season are some
other factors that affect the composition.
About 98% of the total mass of most fish
meat is comprised of water, proteins, and lipids
and the other approximately 2% consists of
minor constituents that include carbohydrates,
vitamins, and minerals (WHO/FAO, 2011).
131.2.1 Moisture Content
The main constituent of fish flesh is moisture.
Generally, average finfish species contain 67.23
to 80.48% w/w (wb) of moisture in their
2942 131 Seafood in the Human Diet for Better Nutrition and Health

c­ omposition (Kumar et al., 2014; Stancheva 131.2.2 Protein Content

et al., 2013). Mary et al. (2015) studied the
The majority of fish have average protein con-
composition of several finfish species collected
tents between 15 to 24% (Stancheva et al.,
from Mimisal, on the southeast coast of India,
2013). Freshwater fish have been reported to
and reported an average amount of 79.1%
contain slightly higher moisture and lower
moisture content in finfish composition. The
protein contents than marine fish. Among
moisture content in demersal species is higher
commonly consumed fish categories, 100 g
than that in the pelagic species (Stancheva
raw edible parts of tuna, mackerel, anchovy,
et al., 2013).
cod, and herring contain 23.5g, 17.4g, 21.1g,
Nurnadia et al. (2011) reported some approxi-
17.6g, and 17.3g of protein, respectively
mate composition data of seafood from the west
(European Food Safety Authority, 2014). Coral
coast of peninsular Malaysia, and the data were
reef fishes of the genera Lutjanus, Nemipterus
given in wet basis (Table 131.5). Shellfish, for
and Scolopsis have higher protein contents
example cuttlefish, showed a moisture content
than 21% (Kumar et al., 2014). Mary et al.
of 83.68 ± 0.80% while oyster was 77.73 ± 0.00%.
(2015) carried out a study regarding the com-
Golden snapper and Malabar red snapper which
position of several finfish species collected
can be categorized under the demersal fish cat-
from Mimisal in the southeast coast of India,
egory showed 80.21 ± 1.02 % and 78.00± 2.76%
and according to the reported data, protein
moisture content, respectively. Among pelagic
content ranged from 7.66g 100g–1 to 13.33g
fish, spanish mackerel showed 82.12 ± 5.19%
100g–1. The myofibrillar protein contents of
and Indian mackerel contained 76.58 ± 2.27% of
fish reported to range between 65 and 75%,
moisture.
whereas sarcoplasmic proteins including
The percentage of water in the composition is
enzymes are in the range of 20–35%. Myosin
a good indicator of the relative energy, protein,
protein constitutes approximately 50–58% of
and lipid content; that means lower the percent-
the myofibrillar proteins of finfish.
age of water, the greater the lipid and protein
The protein contents of crustaceans and
content and the higher the energy density of the
mollusks do not vary as greatly as those of fin-
fish (Aberoumad and Pourshafi, 2010).
fishes. Crustacean flesh, including crab,
Manev et al. (2013) reported that brown sea-
shrimp, and oysters is slightly higher in pro-
weed (Cystoseira barbata) collected from the
teins. Crustaceans such as crabs, lobster,
Shabla region of Bulgaria contained 187.6 g
prawns, and shrimps contain 20.4%, 17.3%,
kg–1 dry weight while brown seaweed collected
17.6%, and 16.7% w/w protein contents respec-
from the Rusalka region of Bulgaria contained
tively. Cuttlefish is a mollusk containing 16%
272.7 g kg–1 dry weight. Moisture contents of
w/w protein in its composition (European
Gracilaria fisheri and G. tenuistipitata, two red
Food Safety Authority, 2014).
seaweed species collected in summer and rainy
The crude protein content of different spe-
seasons, were found to have the dry weight
cies of red seaweed is reported to be within the
(DW) within the range of 3.6–5.5% (Benjama
range of 10–47% (Fleurence, 1999). Total pro-
and Masniyom, 2012). In a study conducted by
tein content and the total free amino acid con-
Hwang et al. (2013) with Laver, red algae, they
tent of the green alga Ulva rigida was found to
reported that the moisture content of Porphyra
be 6.64% and 8.9%, respectively (Satpati and
tenera and Porphyra haitanensis were 3.66%
Pal, 2011). A study conducted with two red sea-
(db) and 6.74% (db), respectively. Some red sea-
weed species (Gracilaria fisheri and G. tenuis-
weeds (Hypnea japonica and H. japonica) have
tipitata) collected from the Pattani bay in
been found to have higher moisture contents,
southern Thailand found that the protein
ranging from 9.95∼10.9% (db) (Wong and
­content of G. tenuistipitata (21.6% db) was
Cheung, 2000).

s­ ignificantly higher than G. fisheri (11.6% db)
(Benjama and Masniyom, 2012).
131.2.2.1 Seafood is a High-quality
Protein Source
Seafood is a good source of high-quality protein
(American Heart Association, 2012). The nutri-
tive quality of a food protein source is defined as
the capacity to supply the quantity and propor-
tion of essential amino acids to meet the require-
ments of the species that consumes it. For
humans, food proteins that contain as much
essential amino acids to meet requirements and
an acceptable percentage of digestibility are
classified as high-quality proteins (Barrón-
Hoyos et al., 2013). Fish proteins are considered
easily digestible and are rich in essential amino
acids (e.g. lysine, methionine, cystine, threo-
nine, and tryptophan) which cannot be synthe-
sized in the body (Costa, 2007). Among them
methionine and lysine contents become signifi-
cant. The importance of seafood is appreciated
due to this fact, contrasting with most proteins
from plant sources which lack adequate
amounts of one or more essential amino acids.
Seafood is a particularly good source of lysine,
which is severely restricted in cereals, the most
important staple food in the world. However,
according to the reported data there are no sig-
nificant differences in the amino acid composi-
tion of freshwater and marine fish. Certain
marine fish such as mackerel, tuna, etc. may be
exceptionally rich in the amino acid, histidine.
(Usydus et al., 2009). The enhanced digestibility
of fish proteins mainly results from the absence
of strong collagenous fibers and tendons in fish
muscle compared to land animals.
The excessive consumption of animal pro-
tein sources is also associated with various dis-
eases (mainly cardiovascular) due to their high
lipid contents (Barrón-Hoyos et al., 2013).
Seafood is a better solution for high-quality
protein without or having lesser risk of high
lipid contents in the diet.
As shown in Table 131.1, Barrón-Hoyos et al.
(2013) reported approximately similar composi-
tion of amino acids in seafood sources and ani-
131.2 ­Composition of Seafoo 2943
mal sources, and a slightly higher value for
Protein Digestibility Corrected for Amino Acid
Score (PDCAAS) and in vitro digestibility was
reported in seafood compared to animal sources.
Sea vegetables also provide important amino
acids in the human diet. Benjama and
Masniyom (2012) found that Gracilaria, a red
seaweed species, contained different essential
amino acids ranging from 3.43 to 8.96 mg 100
mg–1 DW. These essential amino acids
(EAA) included methionine, leucine, isoleu-
cine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, arginine,
threonine, and valine. Noticeable amino acids
contained in Gracilaria tenuistipitata were glu-
tamic acid (2.13 mg 100 mg–1 DW), aspartic
acid (1.9 mg 100 mg–1 DW) and leucine (1.51
mg 100 mg–1 DW). Large amounts of aspartic
and glutamic acids are responsible for the spe-
cial flavor and taste of these seaweeds.
131.2.3 Fat Content
Lipid fraction of marine organisms is com-
posed of triacylglycerols, phospholipids, ster-
ols, wax esters, and unique lipid groups such as
glyceryl esters, glycolipids, sulfolipids, and
hydrocarbons. Most of the variations in lipids
are found in the triacylglycerol fraction while
the phospholipids show much less variation.
The fat content of seafood species varies widely
from 0.24 to 14.72% (Kumar et al., 2014;
Stancheva et al., 2013). Fish species can be
classified into four categories based on fat con-
tent: high fat (> 8.0 g 100 g–1 w.w.); medium fat
(4–8 g 100 g–1 w.w.); low fat (2–4 g 100 g–1 w.w.);
and lean (< 2 g 100 g–1 w.w.). In terms of
means, herring contain 13g of fat per 100g edi-
ble part which can be categorized as high fatty
fish while cod contains 0.6g of fat per 100g
edible part and can be categorized as lean fish.
Crustaceans like crab and lobster have 1.5% fat
content whereas mussels have 2.1% and clams
have 1.1% fat content (European Food Safety
Authority, 2014). Even though fish contain low
calorie contents, some fatty fish species con-
tain a high amount of energy, mainly due to
their fat contents (Kumar et al., 2014).
2944 131 Seafood in the Human Diet for Better Nutrition and Health

Table 131.1 Approximate composition of different types of seafood.

Moisture Ash Protein Fat Carbohydrate

Mean percentage (%)

Shellfish Cuttlefish 83.68 ± 0.80 0.90 ± 0.17 13.94 ± 2.42 1.35 ± 0.28 0.87 ± 1.04
Prawn 79.47 ± 1.29 1.35 ± 0.14 19.12 ± 1.44 1.06 ± 0.10 0.0 ± 0.00
Oyster 77.73 ± 0.00 1.27 ± 0.00 13.31 ± 0.00 1.24 ± 0.00 6.45 ± 0.00
Demersal Fish Golden snapper 80.21 ± 1.02 1.11 ± 0.26 19.41 ± 2.22 1.29 ± 0.41 0.0 ± 0.00
Sixbar groupe 78.69 ± 3.28 0.96 ± 0.29 18.87 ± 1.72 3.46 ± 3.46 0.0 ± 0.00
Japanese 79.39 ± 0.95 1.13 ± 0.30 18.17 ± 1.36 2.70 ± 0.37 0.0 ± 0.00
threadfin bream
Indian threadfin 80.13 ± 0.97 1.09 ± 0.03 19.59 ± 0.29 0.85 ± 0.21 0.0 ± 0.00
Malabar red 78.00 ± 2.76 1.46 ± 0.25 20.45 ± 1.16 1.37 ± 1.10 0.0 ± 0.00
snapper
Pelagic Fish Indian mackerel 76.58 ± 2.27 1.26 ± 0.11 20.51 ± 1.93 1.80 ± 0.62 0.0 ± 0.00
Dorab 80.32 ± 6.10 1.39 ± 0.28 20.83 ± 2.50 1.22 ± 0.22 0.0 ± 0.00
wolfherring
Fringescale 74.76 ± 5.85 1.59 ± 0.30 19.01 ± 0.52 3.00 ± 2.40 3.07 ± 0.63
sardinella
Spanish 82.12 ± 5.19 1.24 ± 0.17 19.77 ± 4.29 1.05 ± 0.06 0.0 ± 0.00
Mackerel

(Source: Nurnadia et al., 2011).

Pelagic fish species ordinarily known as ­ alibut contain approximately 40 mg of cho-

sardines (e.g. Clupeidea, Osmeridae) are usu-
ally high in lipid content and energy levels (kJ
100g–1 raw tissue), although demersal species
(e.g. Gobiidae, Cottidae) generally have lower
lipid and energy values (Ball et al., 2007).
Even though seafood contain negligible
amounts of saturated fat compared to animal
sources, some pelagic fish species such as
anchovy, bluefin tuna, pilchards, and differ-
ent mackerels contain higher cholesterol lev-
els that range may be up to 150 mg 100 g–1 of
meat. Further, in roe and liver this can be
increased as high as 250–650 mg. Further,
cooked (by moist or dry heat with no added
ingredients) edible weight portion (84g) of
shellfish contains considerable amounts of
cholesterol. The amounts are 170 mg in
shrimp, 95 mg in blue crab, 80 mg in oyster,
80 mg in clams and 70 mg in salmon, respec-
tively. However, rockfish, swordfish, and
h
lesterol (USFDA. 2015).
Suseno et al. (2014) have shown that some
small pelagic fish species contain palmitic acid
as the major saturated fatty acid in their com-
position and the value was around 15–20% of
the total fatty acid content. Oleic acid and pal-
mitoleic acids were ample mono-unsaturated
fatty acids (5–6%). DHA is a PUFA available in
fish as a percentage of approximately 12–22%
(Suseno et al., 2014).
The lipid content of seaweeds has been
reported in a study conducted with different
groups of seaweeds from Vedalai coastal
waters (Gulf of Mannar), southeast coast of
India, and found the lipid contents ranged
from 0.26 ± 0.07 to 3.53 ± 0.25%. In the
study, the maximum lipid content was
recorded from green alga Hypneatuna (3.53
± 0.25%) followed by red seaweed G. crassa
(1.99 ± 0.12%), G. acerosa (1.94 ± 0.06%), and
 131.2 ­Composition of Seafoo 2945

Table 131.2 Total amino acid content and indicators of protein quality in some seafood and animal
sources.

Examples of seafood sources Examples of animal sources

Shrimp Tilapia Sole Shark Beef Chicken Pork Turkey

Amino acids (g/16 gN)
Lys 10.20 8.07 7.42 7.37 10.20 8.07 7.42 7.37
Met 3.32 2.59 2.49 2.54 3.32 2.59 2.49 2.54
Cys 1.66 1.30 1.25 1.27 1.66 1.30 1.25 1.27
Thr 3.85 3.39 3.43 3.06 3.85 3.39 3.43 3.06
Ile 5.32 4.31 4.08 4.16 5.32 4.31 4.08 4.16
Leu 8.32 6.53 6.29 6.42 8.32 6.53 6.29 6.42
Val 5.66 4.65 4.42 4.43 5.66 4.65 4.42 4.43
Phe 4.58 3.42 3.33 3.37 4.58 3.42 3.33 3.37
Tyr 3.80 2.70 2.69 2.60 3.80 2.70 2.69 2.60
Asp 8.93 7.29 7.22 7.19 8.93 7.29 7.22 7.19
Pro 5.82 4.46 3.60 3.95 5.82 4.46 3.60 3.95
Glu 15.81 12.67 13.09 13.08 15.81 12.67 13.09 13.08
Ser 2.69 2.07 2.28 2.15 2.69 2.07 2.28 2.15
Hist 3.34 3.12 3.98 3.00 3.34 3.12 3.98 3.00
Gly 5.17 4.27 4.11 4.19 5.17 4.27 4.11 4.19
Arg 6.68 5.71 5.40 5.66 6.68 5.71 5.40 5.66
Ala 6.35 5.17 4.95 5.14 6.35 5.17 4.95 5.14
PDCAAS 52.58 70.34 71.99 76.20 76.52 69.00 69.79 63.49
In vitro Digestibility % 83.46 83.36 82.36 83.69 79.58 81.07 81.58 82.91

PDCAAS: Protein Digestibility Corrected for Amino Acid Score.

(Source: Barrón-Hoyos et al., 2013).

brown seaweed T. ornate (1.67 ± 0.14%)
(Manivannan et al., 2009). The crude lipid
content of red seaweeds (Hypnea japonica
and H. japonica) was reported to be 1.4∼1.5%
(Wong and Cheung, 2000). Yaich et al. (2011)
reported the lipid content of Ulva lacturca
seaweed collected in Tunisia to be 7.8%. A
study which has been carried out with the
green marine algae Ulva rigida has deter-
mined the fatty acid composition of total
lipid by gas chromatography and reported
the major fatty acids in total lipid were
C16:0 (12.2%), C18:2(10.2%), C18:3(10.3%),
C22:0(8.6%) and PUFA (20.2%) in the ­sample.
The amount of unsaturated fatty acids was
greater than the saturated fatty acids (Satpati
and Pal, 2011).
131.2.3.1 Omega-3 Fatty Acids
As given in Table 131.2, in the fish species most
commonly consumed in the world, mean n-3
LCPUFA content varies from 200 mg 100 g–1
(cod and whiting) to 2500 mg 100 g–1 (herring
and tuna). Also, Atlantic salmon provides n-3
LCPUFA in high amounts (1800 mg 100 g–).
The most consumed freshwater fish, i.e. carp
and trout, have an n-3 LCPUFA content of
around 300 and 600 mg 100 g–1, respectively.
Concentrations of n-3 LCPUFA in crustaceans
are in the range of 370–520 mg 100 g–1, with
2946 131 Seafood in the Human Diet for Better Nutrition and Health
the exception of crayfish (60 mg 100 g–1), and
are lower in mollusks (160–350 mg 100 g–1)
(European Food Safety Authority, 2014).
The green alga Ulva rigida was reported to
contain ALA (10.3%), EPA (1.8%), and DPA
(2.9%) as n-3 LCPUFAs (Satpati and Pal,
2011).
131.2.4 Ash Content
The average ash contents of most finfishes are
less than 2% (Kumar et al., 2014). According to
Nurnadia et al. (2011) the ash content of
prawn, oyster, golden snapper, Malabar red
snapper, Indian mackerel, and Spanish mack-
erel are 1.35 ± 0.14%, 1.27 ± 0.00, 1.11 ± 0.26,
1.46 ± 0.25, 1.26 ± 0.11, and 1.24 ± 0.17 respec-
tively. These findings show that ash contents of
different seafood species do not vary much.
Ash content characterizes the major minerals
available in seafood such as magnesium,
iodine, selenium, calcium, zinc, phosphorus,
iron, and copper. Mineral content in common
seafood compared to animal meat is shown in
Table 131.3. The mineral content of shellfish is
nearly twice the amount as finfish and specifi-
cally bivalves like oysters are rich in zinc, iron,
and copper. Most fresh marine fish sources are
considered to contain moderately low sodium
delivering approximately 140 mg sodium per
serving.
131.2.4.1 Calcium
Fish meat generally contains higher calcium
content than animal meat (Kumar et al., 2014)
and it varies among species. Calcium concen-
trations have been reported to be between
15–20 mg 100 g–1 in Atlantic salmon, cod, and
tuna and 100–135 mg 100 g–1 in anchovy and
herring. Calcium concentrations in both crus-
taceans and mollusks are about 30–100 mg
100 g–1 (European Food Safety Authority,
2014). The average calcium contents in
selected medium-sized marine finfishes col-
lected from the Thoothukudi coast of India have
been reported to range from 64 to 1887 mg%.
The fish of the families Clupeidae and
Table 131.3 Omega-3 fatty acids in some
common seafood species.
Species EPA + DHA (mg 100g–1 fish)
Tuna (all, average) 630
Salmon 1590
Mackerel 1790
Sardines 980
Swordfish 580
Shrimp 390
Scallops 270
Lobster 360
Clams 240
Oysters 350
(Source: Mahaffey et al., 2011).
Lutjanidae generally contain high calcium
values of 846–1026 mg 100 g–1 and 721–1887
mg 100 g–1 respectively. The majority of fish
contain the average calcium content between
500 and 1000 mg 100 g–1. (Kumar et al., 2014).
The study carried out by Nurnadia et al. (2013)
taking the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia
as the location of study has reported that the
range of calcium content in all fish samples
was found to be in between 12.89 and 127.59
mg 100g–1 in wet weight basis. Among the spe-
cies included in the study, Dorab wolfherring
and long-tailed butterfly ray have shown
higher calcium content compared to others, at
mean concentrations of 116.63 and 127.59 mg
100g–1 respectively in wet weight basis.
According to the study carried out by Irwandi
and Farida (2009) have reported calcium con-
centration in the range of 0.57–3.03 mg 100g–1
of study samples, with significantly lower cal-
cium values in five common samples of golden
snapper (0.57 mg 100g–1), Indian mackerel
(1.51 mg 100g–1), sixbar grouper (3.03 mg
100g–1), Japanese threadfin bream (1.04 mg
100g–1), and Spanish mackerel (1.02 mg 100g–1).
Among other sources, oysters, clams, and
shrimp contain more calcium than fish and
meat.

131.2.4.2 Iron
According to Kumar et al. (2014) the average
iron contents of the finfishes collected from
the Thoothukudi Coast of India varied widely
from 0.05 to 28.46 mg 100 g–1 while the major-
ity of the fishes had the average iron contents
< 5 mg%. Chirocentrus dorab, Dussumieria
acuta, Lujantus quinquelineotus, and
Epinephelus areolatus fish species had high
iron contents of 11.50, 14.18, 18.69, and 28.46
mg 100 g–1, respectively. Nurnadia et al. (2013)
have reported that there was a wide variation
of iron contents in seafood samples they
selected, the lowest being 175.62 + 0.36 μg
100g–1 (large-scale tongue sole), and the high-
est at 6208.55 + 23.63 μg 100g–1 (cockles) in
wet weight basis. These values are in agree-
ment with a previous study carried out by
Guerin et al. (2011) which reported iron val-
ues of 7830 μg 100g–1 sample in cockles, and
442 μg 100 g–1 in fish samples. According to
Nurnadia et al. (2013), other than cockles,
oysters also contained significantly iron
­content compared to other samples, with the
mean concentration of 3954.83 + 1.04 μg
100g–1 on wet weight basis.
131.2.4.3 Iodine
Iodine content in the commonly consumed
freshwater fish species (carp, trout) is lower
(around 2–12 μg 100 g–1) than in sea fish (30–
160 μg 100 g), with the highest concentrations
observed in cod (160 μg 100 g–1) and hake and
mackerel (110 μg 100 g–1 each). In crustaceans,
the highest iodine concentrations have been
reported for lobster (around 360 μg 100 g–1) and
the lowest for crayfish (around 65 μg 100 g–1).
In mollusks, the iodine content of squid,
­octopus, and cuttlefish has been reported at
20 μg 100 g–1, and that of clams and mussels
at 120–140 μg 100 g–1. Iodine varies greatly
both among crustaceans and among mollusks
(European Food Safety Authority, 2014).
131.2.4.4 Selenium and Zinc
Concentrations of selenium and zinc are less
variable among fish species. Mean selenium
131.2 ­Composition of Seafoo 2947
concentrations have been reported to be
between 21 μg 100 g–1 (trout) and 75 μg 100 g–1
(tuna), with most values falling between 25
and 30 μg 100 g–1. Mean zinc concentrations
of different species are mostly in the range of
0.3–0.7 mg/100 g–1 with the highest concentra-
tions (1.1 mg and 2.2 mg 100 g–1) reported for
herring and anchovy, respectively. As for fish,
selenium and zinc concentrations are less vari-
able among species, with a range of 20–75 μg
100 g–1 for crustaceans, of 50–65 μg 100 g–1 for
mollusks for selenium, and of 1.4–2.5 mg
100 g–1 for zinc (for both crustaceans and mol-
lusks) except for crab, which has higher zinc
content (6.5 mg 100 g–1) (European Food Safety
Authority, 2014). According to Nurnadia et al.
(2013), the zinc content in fish samples they
studied ranged between 147.8–464.47 μg 100 g–1
on wet weight basis. According these findings
cuttlefish, prawn, cockles, and oyster con-
tained 413.83, 573.91, 817.65, and 14671.24 μg
100 g–1 of zinc respectively in wet weight basis.
They have further reported that cockles and
oyster had significantly higher zinc levels
among all samples. Irwandi and Farida (2009)
have also reported higher zinc contents in
golden snapper, indian mackerel, sixbar
grouper, japanese threadfin bream, and
Spanish mackerel with mean concentration of
4939, 3433, 3870, 3723, and 3881 μg 100 g–1
respectively. Nurnadia et al. (2013) highlight
the fact that all study samples contained
zinc lower than the limit set by FAO/WHO
(150 ppm or 15000 μg 100 g–1), but oyster was
found to contain zinc higher than the
­permissible limit set by Malaysian Food
Regulations (100 ppm or 10000 μg 100 g–1).
131.2.4.5 Phosphorus
A study done with 23 medium-sized marine
finfishes collected from the Thoothukudi coast
of India have found that most of the fishes had
invariably high phosphorus content between
200 to 400 mg 100 g–1 (Kumar et al.,2014).
According to a study conducted in Botswana by
Mogobe et al. (2015), phosphorus levels in
fish samples collected from a lagoon showed
2948 131 Seafood in the Human Diet for Better Nutrition and Health
significant concentration variability between
­species ranging from 435–1375mg 100g–1, the
highest, 1375 mg 100 g–1, in a small fish species
(Barbus Poechii) which is consumed whole.
The phosphorus concentration range they
obtained in their study has been found to be
higher than the FAO range of 68–550 mg 100g–1.
However, these values are also higher than the
results reported in other studies conducted involv-
ing freshwater fish species. Alas et al. (2014)
reported in the range of 232–426 mg 100 g–1 and
Tao et al. (2012), in the range of 198–240 mg
100 g–1, respectively. Several other studies con-
ducted by Mohamed et al. (2010) have obtained
phosphorus levels ranging from 727 to 935 mg
100 g–1 and Luczynska et al. (2009) got results
ranging from 1047 to 1261 mg 100 g–1.
131.2.4.6 Ash Content of Seaweeds
Seaweeds, for example Ulva lactuca and U. per-
tusa, were found to contain 24.6% and 24.7%
ash by dry weight, respectively (Portugal et al.,
1983). The brown seaweed Cystoseira barbata
collected from the St. Atanas region of Bulgaria
is reported to contain 162.8 g kg–1 ash content
in its composition (Manev et al., 2013). Since
the mineral contents in seaweed are shown by
their ash contents, it is worth analyzing avail-
able different types of minerals.
Magnesium is the most abundant mineral
available in seaweed’s composition. The brown
seaweed Cystoseira barbata collected from the
Carevo region of Bulgaria is reported to contain
1803.26 mg kg–1 magnesium content. According
to the study the lowest magnesium content was
reported as 199.39 mg kg–1 in the brown sea-
weed Cystoseira barbata collected from Shabla
region. The highest phosphorus content was
131.12 mg kg–1 and it was reported with the
brown seaweed Cystoseira barbata collected
from the Shabla region (Manev et al., 2013).
According to Hwang et al. (2013) the most
abundant mineral element found in red algae
was potassium which ranged from 27 340 μg
g–1 to 28 020 μg g–1 based on dry weight basis.
The highest sodium, magnesium, calcium,
iodine, iron, and selenium contents were
found as 7811 μg g–1, 6120 μg g–1, 4606 μg g–1,
3108 μg g–1, 700 μg g–1, and 204 μg g–1, respec-
tively, on dry weight basis.
131.2.5 Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate formed a minor percentage of
the total composition of seafood. The amount
of carbohydrate was much lower when com-
pared to protein and lipid and range between
0.16 g and 0.57 g (Mary et al., 2015).
Carbohydrate is basically found in fish flesh as
glycogen.
Sea algae contain polysaccharides as the
major carbohydrate. The major polysaccha-
rides found in sea algae are alginates, carra-
geenans, agars, fucanes, laminarans, ulvans,
and floridean starch. These are referred to as
phycocolloids due to their hydrocolloid prop-
erties (Jaspars and Folmer, 2013). Ulvan is a
sulfated polysaccharide found in green algae
and composed of rhamnose, xylose, glucose,
uronic acid, glucuronic acid, and iduronic acid
as its main constituents.
Seaweeds are rich sources of dietary fibre.
Benjama and Masniyom (2012) carried out a
study on biochemical composition and physic-
ochemical properties of two red seaweeds
(Gracilaria fisheri and G. tenuistipitata) from
the Pattani bay in southern Thailand and
found 57.5–64.0% total dietary fiber, 15.6–
18.8% soluble dietary fiber, and 38.9–45.2%
insoluble dietary fiber in the two seaweed spe-
cies on dry weight basis.
131.2.6 Vitamins
As shown in Table 131.4, as compared to
­animal meat, seafood is a rich source of several
vitamins. Fatty fish species are generally rich
in fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamins D and
A. Among water-soluble vitamins, the content
of vitamin B12 is particularly high.
Vitamins A, D, and the B vitamin complex are
found in significant amounts in many fish spe-
cies such as the small indigenous fish species
from Bangladesh, mola (Amblypharyngodon
mola), which is reported to contain over 2500 μg
Retinol Activity Equivalent of vitamin A in 100 g
 131.3 ­Health Benefits Associated with Seafood Consumptio 2949

Table 131.4 Mineral content in common seafood compared to animal meat.

Calcium (mg Iron Magnesium Zinc Selenium Iodine

100 g–1) (mg 100 g–1) (mg 100 g–1) (mg 100 g–1) (μg 100 g–1) (μg 100 g–1)

Seafood Haddock 19 0.1 27 0.3 30 –

Cod 8 0.1 29 0.5 30 253
Wolffish 13 0.2 20 0.9 50 60
Turbot 16 0.2 19 0.6 30 35
Halibut 6 0.2 16 0.3 40 0.1
Mackerel 12 0.9 27 0.6 30 84
Herring 38 1.0 38 0.5 50 24
Oysters 22 3.1 19 42 60 60
Shrimps 61 0.1 43 1.0 30 17
(boiled)
Lobster 138 0.7 45 4.1 80 700
(boiled)
Animal Lamb 8 2.6 24 2 4 –
meat (sirloin)
Beef 3 2.1 24 4 7 1.1
(sirloin)
Pork 10 0.7 17 2 14 –
(sirloin)
Chicken 4 0.2 31 1 8 0.4
(breast fillet)

(Source: Norwegian Food Safety Authority, 2006).

of fish, making it possible for 140 g of this fish to
cover a child’s weekly need of vitamin A (Roos
et al., 2007).
Vitamin D concentrations in different fish
species also vary widely, from around 0.5–2 μg
100 g–1 in carp, hake, mackerel, and plaice to
around 10–18 μg 100 g–1 in trout, anchovies,
and herring. Vitamin D concentrations in crus-
taceans and mollusks are low (0–0.5 μg 100 g)
except for clams and mussels (around 5 μg 100 g–1)
(European Food Safety Authority, 2014).
131.3 ­Health Benefits Associated
with Seafood Consumption
A healthy diet is important to maintain good
health, and according to reported research
data seafood consumption provides diverse
health benefits for humans. They provide
many nutrients which are essential for healthy
body functions. Seafood is comprised of a sig-
nificant proportion of high-quality, easily
digestible proteins that are rich in essential
amino acids (e.g. lysine, methionine, cystine,
threonine, and tryptophan). Important vita-
mins (A, D, and B) and minerals (iodine, sele-
nium, calcium, zinc, phosphorus, iron, copper,
manganese, etc.) available in seafood also con-
tribute to a healthy diet.
Fats in foods render important functionali-
ties to food such as including flavor and texture
enhancement. However, with the awareness of
consumers developed through diet-related
research, people are giving high emphasis to
the amount and type of fat they intake through
the diet, as an ideal fat level in adults is
­important in maintaining health and preven-
tion of diseases. In this context, consumers are
aware of the negative effects of saturated fats
and are moving to oils containing unsaturated
fatty acids. Scientific models supported by a
2950 131 Seafood in the Human Diet for Better Nutrition and Health

Table 131.5 Vitamin content in common seafood compared to animal meat.

Vit
Vit Vit B1 Vit B2 Vit B3 Vit B9 B12
Vit A D Vit E Thiamine Riboflavin NE Vit B6 Folic Cobalamin
RE (μg) α-TE (mg) (mg) Niacin Pyridoxine(mg) acid (μg) (μg)

Seafood Haddock 2 0.7 0.5 0.05 0.11 7.0 0.5 9 2

Cod 2 1.4 1.1 0.05 0.11 5.3 0.2 12 1
Wolffish 27 1.8 1.1 0.07 0.08 5.6 0.3 5 2
Turbot 4 1.7 0.6 0.05 0.11 5.0 0.3 11 2
Halibut 0 18.0 1.0 0.04 0.06 7.4 0.5 9 1
Mackerel 14 12.5 0.6 0.11 0.36 12.8 0.8 1 12
Herring 6 11.5 0.6 0.04 0.30 7.1 0.5 9 12
Oysters 38 3.1 1.1 0.20 0.20 3.7 0.2 10 14
Shrimps 2 3.5 5.3 0.01 0.07 6.6 0.1 4 5
(boiled)
Lobster 26 0 4.3 0.10 0.06 4.6 0.1 17 1
(boiled)
Animal Lamb 1 0 0.4 0.12 0.15 11.8 0.26 1 1.1
meat (sirloin)
Beef 3 0 0.2 0.04 0.14 10.9 0.25 4 1.1
(sirloin)
Pork 4 0 0.3 0.82 0.10 8.8 0.32 2 0.4
(sirloin)
Chicken 5 0 0.7 0.22 0.14 18.3 0.82 11 0.5
(breast
fillet)

(Source: Norwegian Food Safety Authority, 2006).

large and compelling body of evidence link the
health benefits of fish and fish oils with the
longevity and coronary health of native
Greenland Eskimos. These investigations led
to the conclusion that the longevity and coro-
nary health of Eskimos was related to their
diet, who consume an average 450 g of fatty
fish per day. PUFA (omega-3 fats such as DHA
and EPA) found in seafood provides a number
of health benefits. There is increasing evidence
to support regular seafood consumption (par-
ticularly oily fish) as a protective measure
against several aged-related health conditions
(McManus et al., 2010). Considerable research
has been conducted to evaluate the potential
therapeutic effects of fish oils in numerous
conditions, including arthritis, coronary artery
disease, inflammatory bowel disease, asthma,
and sepsis, all of which have inflammation as a
key component of their pathology (Hossain
and Takahashi, 2010).
131.3.1 Mechanism of Action
Fish oils are an excellent source of long-chain
n-3 PUFAs. After consumption, n-3 PUFAs can
be incorporated into cell membranes and
reduce the amount of arachidonic acid availa-
ble for the synthesis of pro-inflammatory eicos-
anoids (e.g., prostaglandins, leukotrienes).
Likewise, n-3 PUFAs can also reduce the pro-
duction of inflammatory cytokines, such as
tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1, and
interleukin-6 (Hossain and Takahashi, 2010).
When humans ingest fish or fish oil, the EPA
and DHA from fish or fish oil lead to a
 131.3 ­Health Benefits Associated with Seafood Consumptio
decreased production of prostaglandin E2
(PGE2) metabolites; a decrease in ­thromboxane
A2, which is a potent platelet aggregator and
vasoconstrictor; a decrease in leukotriene B4
formation, which is an inducer of inflamma-
tion and a powerful inducer of leukocyte
chemotaxis and adherence; an increase in
thromboxane A3 which is a weak platelet
aggregator and a weak vasoconstrictor; an
increase in prostacyclin PGI3, leading to an
overall increase in total prostacyclin by increas-
ing PGI3 without a decrease in PGI2 (both
PGI2 and PGI3 are active vasodilators and
inhibitors of platelet aggregation); and an
increase in leukotriene B5 which is a weak
inducer of inflammation and a weak chemot-
actic agent. Omega-3 fatty acids modulate
prostaglandin metabolism and decrease tri-
glycerides and, in high doses, lower cholesterol
and have antithrombotic and anti-inflamma-
tory properties (Simopoulos, 2002).
Consumption of fish oil has been proven to
maintain the elasticity of artery walls, prevent
blood clotting, reduce blood pressure, and stabi-
lize heart rhythm. Further, results obtained from
studies conducted using experimental animals
suggest that consumption of fish oil lowers
serum-total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and
triglycerides.
131.3.2 Seafood Consumption
and Cancer Risk
Undeland et al. (2009) summarized the bene-
fits of seafood consumption, stating that obser-
vational studies on fish consumption have
shown protection for risk of digestive tract-
related cancers (oral cavity and pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, colon, and rectum) and
also for ovary, pancreas, larynx, and endome-
trial cancers. McManus et al. (2010) reviewed
that high fish intake has been associated with
significantly reduced risk of ovarian and colo-
rectal cancer. Increased consumption of sea-
food is also linked to protection against the
development of esophageal cancer in males
aged 45 years and older in large population-
based studies (Fan et al., 2008).
2951
A recent cohort study of women in the
United Kingdom (Cade et al., 2010) found that
post-menopausal women who consumed fish
experienced a significantly reduced risk of
breast cancer when compared with red meat
consumers. Fish consumption is reported to
reduce the risk of prostate and lung cancers in
males (McManus et al., 2009; Zhang et al.,
2000). In a study conducted with a 30-year fol-
low-up time, men who did not eat fish had a
2–3 times higher frequency of prostate cancer
than those who ate moderate or high amounts
of fish. This result supports the hypothesis that
fish consumption lowers the risk of prostate
cancer (Terry et al., 2001). Each additional
daily intake of 0.5 g of marine fatty acids from
food is reported to be associated with a 24%
decreased risk of metastatic cancer
(Augustsson et al., 2003).
Harris et al. (2009) states that most evidence
available for the anticarcinogenic effects of
EPA and DHA are weak despite some data
from animal models and cultured tumor cells.
However, a meta-analysis of fish consumption
and prostate cancer risk has found a significant
63% reduction in prostate cancer-specific mor-
tality (Szymanski et al., 2010).
131.3.3 Seafood Consumption
during Pregnancy
The health benefits of seafood consumption
during pregnancy depend on the maternal
nutritional status, and subsequently the role of
essential fatty acids of seafood in the develop-
ment of fetal brain, central nervous system,
and retinal growth in infants during pregnancy
have been clearly identified. Seafood signifi-
cantly contributes to meeting the requirements
of such nutrients during pregnancy compared
to other food sources. Consumption of about
1–2 servings of seafood per week and up to 3–4
servings per week during pregnancy has been
associated with better functional outcomes of
neurodevelopment in children compared to no
consumption of seafood (European Food
Safety Authority, 2014). Fish consumption
does not adversely affect infant gestation and
2952 131 Seafood in the Human Diet for Better Nutrition and Health
birth size at a population level (Buck et al.,
2003). Seafood consumption during pregnancy
has a potential to protect some children from
asthma (Salam et al., 2005).
Maternal intake of very-long-chain n-3 fatty
acids during pregnancy and lactation has a
potential favorable effect for later mental devel-
opment of children (Helland et al., 2003), while
low seafood intake during pregnancy could
lead to fetal deficiency in essential long chain
n-3 fatty acids, resulting in adverse effects on
neurodevelopment (Hibbeln et al., 2007).
Seafood are potential sources of exposure to
pollutants such as methylmercury that may
adversely affect pregnancy outcomes.
Therefore, seafood consumption during preg-
nancy requires consideration of potential ben-
efits as well as risks (Xue et al., 2007).
131.3.4 Seafood Consumption and
Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke Risk
The cardiovascular effects of seafood con-
sumption and n-3 LCPUFAs have been com-
prehensively investigated in a large number of
human studies, as well as in animal experi-
ments and in vitro studies. The cardiovascular
effects are associated with protein, n-3 fatty
acids, and vitamins (especially vitamin D)
available in seafood (Undeland et al., 2009).
Consumption of 1–2 servings of seafood per
week and up to 3–4 servings per week has been
associated with a lower risk of coronary heart dis-
ease mortality in adults by 20 to 30%. (European
Food Safety Authority, 2014; Costa, 2007).
A meta-analysis involving five cohort studies
and one case-control study conducted in the
United States among subjects free of coronary
heart disease (CHD) at baseline addressed
the relationship between the consumption of
n-3 LCPUFA from seafood and risk of CHD
mortality (Harris et al., 2008). In the five stud-
ies showing an association, the EPA and DHA
intake with the lowest risk of CHD mortality
ranged from 90–163 mg day–1 to 919 mg day–1,
with an average of 496 mg day–1. According to
the results, an overall 37% reduction of the risk
for CHD mortality was calculated for an aver-
age EPA and DHA intake of 566 mg day–1.
DHA and EPA in the diet is also connected
with reduced risk of fatal CHD by reducing
cardiac arrhythmias (Harris et al., 2009). Based
on the quantitative benefit analysis performed
by Mozaffarian and Rimm (2006), consump-
tion of 250 mg day–1 of DHA and EPA (a serv-
ing size of 100 g seafood was assumed) reduces
CHD mortality by 36%. DHA and EPA con-
sumption favorably affects many physiological
measures of cardiovascular disease (CVD)
risk including blood pressure, resting heart
rate, and triglyceride levels (Harris et al., 2009).
A cohort study conducted for 12 follow-up
years with USA adults aged over 65 years and
free of coronary heart failure (CHF) at the
beginning found that the consumption of
broiled or baked fish is associated with lower
incidence of CHF. It has found a 20% lower
risk of CHF with the consumption of broiled
or baked fish 1–2 times per week, 31% lower
risk with the consumption of 3–4 times per
week, and 32% lower risk if consumed more
than 5 times per week compared with the
intake of once per month. Fatty fish compared
with non-fatty fish consumption is associated
with lower CHD mortality (Oomen et al.,
2000), while the consumption of fried fish is
reported to have a positive association with
CHF (Mozaffarian et al., 2004).
Seafood in the healthy diet favorably affect
cardiovascular health by lowering triglyceride
levels; improving blood vessel elasticity; main-
taining normal heart rhythm; making the
blood thinner, which is less sticky and less
likely to clot; and reducing blood pressure
(Simopoulos, 2002).
Most meta-analyses of prospective cohort
studies have reported a consistent decreased
risk of total stroke, and in particular of ischae-
mic stroke through increased consumption of
seafood as compared to no seafood consump-
tion (Larsson and Orsini, 2011; Chowdhury
et al., 2012; Xun et al., 2012).
Meta-analyses indicate a 30% lower risk of
ischemic stroke with fish intake of higher than
 131.3 ­Health Benefits Associated with Seafood Consumptio
1 serving per week compared with lower than
1 serving per month (Harris et al., 2009).
A cohort study conducted with USA adults
aged over 65 years who were free of cerebro-
vascular disease at baseline found 27% lower
risk of ischemic stroke with consumption of
broiled or baked fish 1–4 times per week and
30% lower risk if consumed more than 5 times
week (Mozaffarian et al., 2005).
131.3.5 Seafood Consumption
and Mental Health
The n-3 PUFA, DHA, is the primary compo-
nent of membrane phospholipids in the brain,
and it is particularly abundant in the more
metabolically active areas of the cerebral cor-
tex, mitochondria, synaptosomes, and synaptic
vesicles (Morris, 2003). It plays a critical role in
the development and function of the central
nervous system (Logan, 2004). Smaller
amounts of DHA can be synthesized endoge-
nously through a process of desaturation and
elongation of its precursor n-3 fatty acids, ALA
and EPA, otherwise it can be directly con-
sumed from fish in the diet (Morris, 2003).
There is growing evidence that fish and n-3
fatty acids protect against mental disorders.
Several prospective studies found that fish
consumption was inversely associated with
risk of Alzheimer’s disease (Morris, 2003).
Seafood as a source of n-3 FAs helps to retard
the decline in cognition over time hence is
important in Alzheimer disease management
(Connor & Conner, 2007). According to Morris
et al. (2003) in a study, the participants who
consumed fish more than once per week had
60% less risk of Alzheimer disease compared
with those who rarely or never ate fish.
Fish/seafood consumption also correlated
with protection against postpartum depression
(Logan, 2004), while regular fish consumption
is reported to have an association with a lower
risk of dementia (Samieri et al., 2008).
A cohort study conducted with 70–74-year-
old Norwegian elders concluded that most cog-
nitive functions were positively influenced by
2953
fish intake. The effect was more pronounced
for non-processed lean fish and fatty fish. The
association between total intake of seafood
and cognition were strongly dose-dependent
and the maximum effect was observed at an
intake of 75 g per day (Nurk et al., 2007).
131.3.6 Seafood Consumption
and Inflammatory Disease Risk
Among the fatty acids, it is the omega-3 PUFA
which possess the most potent immune modu-
latory activities, and among the omega-3 PUFA,
those highly available in seafood (EPA and
DHA) are more biologically potent than ALA.
The potent immune modulatory activities
include the amount and types of eicosanoids
made, and eicosanoid-independent mecha-
nisms, including actions upon intracellular
signaling pathways, transcription factor activ-
ity, and gene expression (Simopoulos, 2002).
According to animal experiments and clini-
cal intervention studies seafood consumption
might be useful in the management of inflam-
matory and autoimmune diseases. Coronary
heart disease, major depression, aging, and
cancer are characterized by an increased level
of interleukin 1 (IL-1), a proinflammatory
cytokine. Similarly, arthritis, Crohn’s disease,
ulcerative colitis, and lupus erythematosis are
autoimmune diseases characterized by a high
level of IL-1 and the proinflammatory leukot-
riene LTB4 produced by omega-6 fatty acids
(Simopoulos, 2002).
There are a number of clinical trials assess-
ing the benefits of dietary supplementation
with fish oils in several inflammatory and
autoimmune diseases in humans, including
rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn’s disease, ulcera-
tive colitis, psoriasis, lupus erythematosus,
multiple sclerosis, and migraine headaches.
Many of the placebo-controlled trials of fish oil
in chronic inflammatory diseases reveal sig-
nificant benefit, including decreased disease
activity and a lowered use of anti-inflamma-
tory drugs (Simopoulos, 2002). For instance, a
cohort study conducted for 5.3 follow up years
2954 131 Seafood in the Human Diet for Better Nutrition and Health
revealed that consumption of 30 g fatty fish per
day is associated with 49% reduced risk of
rheumatoid arthritis (Pedersen et al., 2005).
131.3.7 Seafood Consumption
and Osteoporosis Risk
During aging there is a reduced capacity to
synthesize provitamin D3 in skin and to
hydroxylate vitamin D3 in kidneys, hence
many face vitamin D deficiency. This defi-
ciency directs to lower calcium absorption
resulting in reduced bone mineral density and
finally osteoporosis. Seafood is a rich source of
both calcium and vitamin D, which are impor-
tant for bone building and development.
Vitamin D-rich seafood, being a high-quality,
bioavailable source of vitamin D, can play an
important role in the maintenance of bone
mineral density during aging. A diet high in
oily fish prevents vitamin D deficiency. Seafood
provides rich reserves of calcium combined
with optimal amounts of Vitamin D to aid its
absorption, protecting bone mineral density
(BMD). High intake of seafood is associated
with greater bone mass and lowers osteoporo-
sis risk in women, especially those consuming
more than 250 g of seafood per week (McManus
et al., 2010).
131.4 ­Health Benefits
of Seaweed Consumption
Seaweeds are low in fat, low in calories, and
rich in essential minerals, vitamins, and pro-
tein. The mineral content of seaweeds is very
significant and is likely to explain many of
their beneficial effects on health.
Selenium, which is abundantly found in sea-
weeds, is an essential micronutrient for ani-
mals and humans, and it plays important
biological roles as an antioxidant, a regulator
of thyroid hormone metabolism, and as an
anticarcinogenic agent.
Several studies have shown that the alkalin-
ity of seaweed confers numerous health bene-
fits, such as improving thyroid function and
lowering the acidity levels in the body, prevent-
ing the development of degenerative illnesses
such as cancer and heart disease (Jaspars and
Folmer, 2013).
Phycocolloids which are known as polysac-
charides found in seaweeds, function as solu-
ble dietary fibers. The average fiber content of
red algae (6 g per 100 g of wet algae), is twice
the amount of fiber found in fruits, vegetables,
and cereals (Jaspars and Folmer, 2013). They
offer a wide range of beneficial physiological
functions, together with increased satiety,
increased gut transit time, reduced cholesterol
and glucose absorption in the gastrointestinal
tract, and reduced risk of coronary heart dis-
ease (Fitzgerald et al., 2011).
The regular consumption of even small
amounts of algal polysaccharides is reported to
have a major impact on the growth of benefi-
cial probiotic bacteria such as bifidobacteria
and lactobacilli (Jaspars and Folmer, 2013).
Algal polysaccharides have been shown to pos-
sess anticoagulant and antithrombotic proper-
ties (Luten, 2009). Therefore, they are used for
the prevention and treatment of inflammation,
coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular dis-
ease, cancer, and strontium intoxication
(Kraan, 2012). When considering algal poly-
saccharides, alginates are reported for their
benefits to reduce the absorption of cholesterol
in the gut, promote wound healing, and inhibit
the growth of cancer cells (Laurienzo, 2010;
Kraan, 2012). Carrageenan is particularly val-
ued for its microbicidal properties. Carrageenan
has been clinically proven to inhibit human
Papilloma virus (HPV) (Jaspars and Folmer,
2013). Porphyran agar which is found in
Porphyra sp. and it possesses anticancer, blood
pressure-lowering, and cholesterol-lowering
properties. Fucoidans are polysaccharides
which have the potential to stimulate both the
innate and the adaptive immune system and
prevent replication of viruses, including HIV,
herpes simplex virus, and poliovirus, by modi-
fying cell surface properties. Fucoidans have
also been shown to have potent antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties
(Kraan, 2012). Laminarin is also reported to

have the same properties as fucoidans (Kraan,
2012). Ulvans is a sulfated polysaccharide and
it plays key roles in collagen synthesis and the
formation of cartilage (Cooksley, 2007).
Many species of brown algae contain man-
nitol which is considered a sugar alcohol.
Mannitol has less energy content than sucrose.
Mannitol is incompletely absorbed into the
bloodstream from the small intestine. As a
result, it has little effect on the blood glucose
levels, and it acts as a mild laxative. Mannitol
does not contribute to tooth decay as it is not
metabolized by oral bacteria (Jaspars and
Folmer,2013).
Omega-3 PUFAs such as EPA and DHA com-
monly found in sea algae have been shown to
have beneficial effects on cancer, inflammation,
cardiovascular diseases, psychiatric disorders,
and cognitive aging (Shahidi and Young, 2008).
Taurine is an amino acid abundant in brown
and red algae. It is essential for cardiovascular,
central nervous system, retina function, and for
skeletal muscle development. Due to the pres-
ence of taurine, sea algae would be beneficial
for vegans and for formula-fed premature
babies, as reported by Shahidi and Young (2008).
The tripeptide eisenin (L-pyroGlu-L-Gln-L-Ala)
found in the brown alga Eisenia sp. and lectins,
which are particularly abundant in red and
green algae, are well known for their immune
stimulatory effects, especially after radiothera-
peutic cancer treatments. Phycobiliproteins
such as phycoerythrin and phycocyanin found
in microalgae and in red algae are widely used
in dietary supplements as anti-inflammatory,
anticancer, neuroprotective, and hepatoprotec-
tive agents (Shahidi and Young, 2008).
Algae are rich in carotenoids such as fucox-
anthin and asthaxanthin which are potent
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131.5 ­Summary
Seafood as a whole food is considered highly
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