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1904 International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017, 52, 1904–1913

Original article
Effect of butter content and baking condition on characteristics
of the gluten-free dough and bread

Chonnikarn Srikanlaya,1 Nantawan Therdthai,1* Pitiporn Ritthiruangdej1 & Weibiao Zhou2

1 Department of Product Development, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
2 Food Science and Technology Programme, Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 3 Science Drive 3, Singapore
117543, Singapore
(Received 20 December 2016; Accepted in revised form 21 March 2017)

Summary This study aimed to investigate effect of butter content (0–30 g/100 g flour) and baking conditions hot air
baking (HA), microwave baking (MW) and hot air-microwave baking (HA-MW) on quality of the rice
flour dough and bread. The increased butter (up to 15 g butter/100 g flour) enhanced elastic modulus (G0 )
and viscous modulus (G″) of dough and specific volume of bread. Additionally, the increased butter
improved crust colour and reduced hardness of the bread. The HA-MW and MW conditions were useful
for the gluten-free bread by reducing baking time and predicted glycemic index (GI), regardless of butter
content. However, enthalpy of retrogradation and crystallinity in the HA-MW and MW bread stored at
4 °C for 7 days were increased and higher than those of the HA bread, indicating a faster staling. The
predicted GI of both MW and HA-MW bread remained at a medium level during storage.
Keywords Baking, bread, gluten free, microwave, rice.

formula possibly enlarged bread volume, improved

Introduction
The wheat bread containing gluten as an important
protein is full of nutritional benefit with good charac-
teristics, flavour and taste. Nevertheless, many previ-
ous researches demonstrated gluten is harmful for
people suffering from coeliac disease. There is almost
1% of the world population suffering from the coeliac
disease. The number of patients with coeliac disease
has increased continuously in the past few decades
(Pongjaruvat et al., 2014). Furthermore, the increasing
rate of type I diabetes in patients with coeliac disease
has been reported. Thus, nongluten flour such as rice
flour has been used for substitution of wheat flour in
bread.
Due to a lack of gluten, the rice dough might show
a liquid batter rather than dough (Sciarini et al.,
2012). Then, the consequent bread characteristics
would have low volume, crumbling texture and firm
crumb (Onyango et al., 2010). Addition of fat into
dough was to improve gas retention of dough by sta-
bilisation of gas bubbles. Moreover, small cell size of
crumb structure was developed due to inhibition of
gas bubble coalescence (Cauvain & Young, 2006).
Therefore, an increase in fat proportion in bread
*Correspondent: Fax: +66 2562 5005; e-mail: faginwt@ku.ac.th
mouth feel and increased heat transfer (Stauffer, 1996).
Nevertheless, addition of fat caused the lipid–starch
complex which hydrocarbon portion of lipid was
formed together with helical cavity of amylose, leading
to lowering water solubility and inactivate both a-
amylase and b-amylase. Additionally, the lipid formed
the complex with amylopectin fraction. Thus, the char-
acteristic of dough and bread would alter. The elastic
nature of dough could be reduced. The shrinking of
dough during moulding might be appeared. Moreover,
the insufficient gelatinisation of bread corresponding
to textural properties was occurred (Clegg et al.,
2011).
For baking process, the optimised conditions should
be designed to achieve proper mechanisms including
transformation of structure, starch gelatinisation, pro-
tein denaturation, volume expansion, water evapora-
tion, crust formation and nonenzymatic browning
(Therdthai & Zhou, 2014). Hot air baking is one of
common methods to increase uniform heat distribution
in the baking oven. Generally, baking temperature is
around 190–240 °C and has significant influence on
both loaf volume and crumb moisture. Baking time is
about 20–40 min and has significant influence on loaf
weight, hardness and density (Shittu et al., 2007). A
short baking time yielded a less retrogradation, a less

doi:10.1111/ijfs.13467
© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology

extended starch network and smaller changes in crumb
firmness and elasticity than did a long baking time
(Bosmans et al., 2013).
Microwave heating is currently used for some bak-
ery products because of saving time and space, fast
heating and energy efficiency (Sumnu, 2001). The heat-
ing rate depended on dielectric properties (dielectric
constant and loss factor) and thermal properties (ther-
mal conductivity and specific heat capacity) (Yola-
caner et al., 2017). Microwave penetrates through the
products and then generates internal heat leading to
crumb development. During the microwave heating,
the glycosidic linkages of the lamellar structure of
starch granules were cleaved. The formation of
unpacked helices was enhanced, leading to the free
radical generation. Subsequently, the hydrolysing
chemical bonds of free radicals would be occurred
(Shah et al., 2016). Moreover, the rapidly internal
heating occurring within products would enhance both
internal pressure and mass transfer from the inner
layer to the outer layer of products. Then, condensa-
tion on the surface of product was occurred, resulting
in the delay of Maillard browning reaction and crust
formation (Sumnu, 2001). Therefore, the combined
baking methods consisting of microwave-hot air bak-
ing and infrared-microwave baking have been devel-
oped to be a promising technology to overcome some
disadvantage of the single baking and to improve the
desirable characteristics of product. Demirkesen et al.
(2011) demonstrated that the quality of gluten-free
bread from chestnut flour and baked by the combined
condition of infrared and microwave for 9 min was
statistically comparable to the conventionally baked
bread. Similarly, the microwave-infrared baking could
produce the gluten-free bread containing tigernut flour
and rice flour (20:80) with the crust colour similar to
the conventionally baked bread (Demirkesen et al.,
2013). For the gluten-free cake, the microwave-assisted
infrared baking was strongly recommended because
the crust colour and firmness of the microwave-infra-
red cake were similar to those of the conventional
cake. Moreover, an increase in volume of the micro-
wave-infrared cake was denoted. Baking time was
reduced by 77%, compared with the conventional bak-
ing (Turabi et al., 2008). Pore area fractions and pore
numbers of the gluten-free cake from the microwave-
infrared baking were higher than those from the
conventional baking (Turabi et al., 2010). Regarding
staling, retrogradation enthalpy of the microwave-
infrared cake was lower, whereas their hardness was
higher than the conventionally baked cake Sumnu
et al. (2010).
As described above, bread characteristics can be var-
ied, depending on ingredients and baking conditions.
Therefore, this study aims to investigate effect of
© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Gluten-free dough and bread from rice flour C. Srikanlaya et al. 1905
butter content and baking conditions on characteristics
of gluten-free dough and bread from rice flour.
Materials and methods
Materials
Rice flour (100 mesh) with 23 g amylose/100 g starch
was bought from Pechpanthong, Thailand. Dry yeast
(Bruggeman, Belgium), salt (Prung Thip, Thailand),
butter (Allowrie, Thailand), sugar (Mitr Phol, Thai-
land), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (Methocel K4M,
Vicchi Enterprise, Thailand) and whey protein concen-
trate (Agri–Mark, Vicchi Enterprise, Thailand) were
used as ingredients of gluten-free bread.
Preparation of gluten-free dough and bread
Rice flour and other ingredients (18 g sugar, 4 g
HPMC, 4 g WPC, 1.6 g yeast and 1 g salt per 100 g
rice flour) were mixed with water (95 g/100 g rice
flour) in a mixer (Kitchen Aid, Model 5K 566, USA)
at speed 1 (180 rpm) for 2 min to make dough. After
that, the dough was mixed with butter (0, 10, 15, 20,
25 and 30 g/100 g flour) at speed 2 (240 rpm) for
3 min. The dough (700 g) was placed in silicone mould
(size 26 9 12.5 9 7 cm) and proved at 35 °C and
85% relative humidity in a prover (Siam Incubator
System, Thailand) for 120 min. Then, the dough was
baked in a baking oven (LG MP9489SRC, Korea)
under three conditions – hot air baking at 195 °C for
30 min (HA), microwave baking at 530 W (tested by
the IMPI 2-L method) for 12 min (MW) and combina-
tion of the microwave baking at 530 W (tested by the
IMPI 2-L method) and hot air baking at 195 °C for
19 min (HA-MW).
Determination of gluten-free dough characteristics
For dough making, the gluten-free dough (without add-
ing any yeast to avoid interference of bubble formation)
was prepared with variation of butter contents (0–30 g/
100 g flour). Rheological properties of dough corre-
sponding to both elastic modulus (G0 ) and viscous mod-
ulus (G″) were evaluated in triplicates from three mixing
batches using a rotational rheometer (Malvern-Bohlin
Instruments, Gemini 200 HR Nano, UK). All samples
were determined at 25 °C, using serrated parallel plates
(40 mm diameter) with 2000 micron gap. The samples
were placed between the plates. The edges were trimmed
with a spatula and then covered with paraffin oil. The
test condition was set at dynamic frequency sweep in the
range 0.1–20 Hz with 0.1% strain and dynamic stress
sweep in the range 1–10 000 Pa with 1 Hz frequency
(adapted from Demirkesen et al., 2011).
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017
1906 Gluten-free dough and bread from rice flour C. Srikanlaya et al.
Determination of gluten-free bread quality after baking
After baking, the gluten-free bread was cooled down
for an hour at ambient temperature (25 °C) before
quality determination. Moisture content of the bread
crumb at the centre (with 4 cm diameter) was mea-
sured using an oven method (AOAC, 2000). Bread
volume was determined using the rapeseed displace-
ment method (AACC, 2000). Then, specific volume
was defined as volume per g sample. Both moisture
content test and bread volume test were carried out in
triplicates from three breads, and then the average val-
ues were reported. Hardness of bread crumb
(15 9 15 9 15 mm) was determined using a texture
analyser (TA-XT Plus, Stable Micro System, UK) with
a compression probe (P/50). Testing speed was set at
20 mm s1 with 60% deformation. Measurements
were carried out with ten replications from five breads
(adapted from Barrett et al., 2000). Crust colour of
each treatment was determined in three replications
from three breads using a spectrophotometer (Model
CM - 3500d, Minolta, USA) with 10° observer and
primary illuminant: D65 Colour parameters: L*a*and
b* were recorded (Sui et al., 2015).
Determination of starch digestibility of gluten-free bread
In vitro starch digestion test was carried out in dupli-
cates from two breads by the method reported by
Sopade & Gidley (2009). Sample (0.5 g) was treated
with artificial saliva (1 mL) containing porcine a-amy-
lase (Sigma A-3176 Type VI-B) for 15–20 s. Then, it
was incubated with 5 mL of pepsin (Sigma P-6887) at
37 °C for 30 min in a shaking water bath (Memmert,
Model WB-22, Germany) with 85 rpm reciprocation.
The digesta was neutralised with 0.02 M NaOH
(5 mL). Then, 0.2 M sodium acetate buffer (25 mL)
was used to adjust pH to 6. A mixture (5 mL) of pan-
creatin (Sigma P1750) and amyloglucosidase (Sigma
A-7420) was added and incubated at 37 °C to hydrol-
yse the digested starch into glucose. The glucose con-
centration was measured using a glucometer
(Glucocheck blood glucose monitoring system, TD-
4230, Germany) at 0, 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150,
180, 210 and 240 min. Starch digestogram was estab-
lished. Finally, the ratio of the area under the digesto-
gram of the sample to the area under the digestogram
of reference material (white bread) was defined as the
hydrolysis index (HI). The average predicted glycemic
index (GI) was estimated using Eqn 1 (Go~ ni et al.,
1997).
 
ðð39:21 þ 0:803H90 Þ þ ð39:51 þ 0:573HIÞÞ
GI ¼ ð1Þ
2
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017
where HI90 and HI were hydrolysis at t = 90 min
and 120 min, respectively.
Determination of gluten-free bread quality during storage
Based on the dough performance and bread volume,
dough formula (with 20 g butter/100 g flour) was
selected to prepare the rice flour bread from the HA,
MW and HA-MW baking, which was stored at 4 °C
for 7 days. Then, the bread was sampled to determine
quality change.
Thermal properties of bread were determined using
a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC; 822e, Met-
tler-Toledo GmbH, Greifensee, Zurich, Switzerland).
Bread crumb (4–5 mg) was freeze-dried and exactly
weighed in aluminium pan. Excess de-ionised water
was added in a ratio of 1:3 (w/w, sample dry matter:
water). After the pan was hermetically sealed, both
sample and the empty pan (reference) were heated
from 0 to 120 °C at a rate of 4 °C min1. Enthalpy
(MH) of starch retrogradation in bread crumb during
storage for 7 days at 4 °C was determined, according
to the method of Bosmans et al. (2013).
Crystallinity of starch in the gluten-free bread crumb
was determined using X-ray diffractometer (Bruker
AXS Model D8 Discover, Germany). Bread crumb
(5 mg) was placed into a sample holder in the machine
operated at 40 kV and 40 mA with Cu anode source
(CuK a radiation of wavelength k = 1.54  A). The
scanning range of diffraction angle was started from 5°
to 40° and detected every 0.02° of diffraction angle
(2h). The degree of crystallinity (Xc) of the bread sam-
ple was calculated by Eqn 2.
 
Ac
Xc ¼  100 ð2Þ
Aa þ Ac
where Ac and Aa are areas of crystalline and amor-
phous regions, respectively.
In vitro starch digestion of bread crumb during stor-
age at 4 °C for 7 days was achieved according to the
method of Sopade & Gidley (2009), as previously
described.
Statistical analysis
Experiment was designed using a completely ran-
domised design (CRD) to determine variation of glu-
ten-free bread characteristics due to variation of butter
content and baking conditions. Difference between
means of all treatments was analysed using a two-way
ANOVA which indicted the baking condition, the addi-
tion of butter content and interaction between baking
condition and addition of butter content (baking con-
dition 9 butter content). Duncan’s multiple range test
© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology

Figure 1 Dough properties: (a) elastic mod-
ulus, (b) viscous modulus and (c) phase
angle tangent. [Colour figure can be viewed
at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
was used to identify a significant difference (P ≤ 0.05)
by SPSS statistics version 12.0 (SPSS (Thailand) Co.,
Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand).
Results and discussion
Effect of butter contents on dynamic moduli of gluten-
free dough
Dynamic moduli of the gluten-free bread consisted of
G0 (elastic modulus or shear storage modulus) and G″
(viscous modulus or loss modulus). G0 exhibited the
nondissipative component or mechanical properties.
The dynamic moduli of the gluten-free dough from
rice flour were shown in the Fig. 1. The G0 of the
dough with addition of butter content (0–30 g/100 g
flour) was in a range of 7503–38 760 Pa. The G″ of
dough was in a range of 2312–14 510 Pa. The range of
rheological properties of the rice flour dough with
addition of butter was coincided with the other gluten-
free bread and wheat bread. Sciarini et al. (2012)
© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Gluten-free dough and bread from rice flour C. Srikanlaya et al. 1907
reported the gluten-free bread with addition of several
additives (emulsifiers, hydrocolloids and enzymes) had
G0 in a range of 21 640–165 500 Pa and G″ in the
range of 3900–41 100 Pa. Balestra et al. (2011)
reported G0 value of the wheat dough was in the range
of 9267–12 878 Pa while G″ value was in the range of
5004–6526 Pa. In the current study, the value of G0
exceeded the G″ in all frequency ranges. Thus, the
dough could be identified as a viscoelastic solid with a
rubber-like property.
In addition, phase angle tangent (tan d) of the rice
flour dough with addition of 0–30 g butter/100 g flour
was in the range of 0.3–0.4. All tan d values that were
less than 1 could confirm that the elastic property pre-
dominated over the viscous property (Hesso et al.,
2015). By increasing butter content in the formula,
their viscoelastic properties would tend to slightly
increase. Therefore, the increased viscoelastic proper-
ties of the rice flour dough could contribute to the
improvement of bread volume. This was because of
hydrophilic interaction or emulsion between fat and
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017
1908 Gluten-free dough and bread from rice flour C. Srikanlaya et al.

water leading to trapping of gas bubbles during the Table 1 Quality of gluten-free bread with variation of butter con-
mixing. Then, the gas bubbles were maintained by tent and baking condition
emulsion properties during baking process. However,
Butter
the viscoelastic properties were decreased when the content Specific
butter content was too high (more than 15 g/100 g Baking (g/100 g Moisture volume
flour). This was because both butter and HPMC were condition flour) content (%db) (cm3 g1) Hardness (N)
used as common ingredients in the gluten-free bread to
grasp the carbon dioxide during dough fermentation, HA 0 87.27  0.68a
1.72 + 0.04fg
9.05  0.54b
as well as retain the structure of bread expansion dur- 10 81.84  0.17b 1.70 + 0.05g 5.24  0.88def
15 81.58  1.39b 1.73 + 0.08fg 4.84  1.09fg
ing baking. Mechanisms of both butter and HPMC
20 78.98  0.31c 1.91 + 0.01cde 4.06  0.71g
were similar. The hydrophobic part of both butter and 25 77.24  0.78d 1.78 + 0.13efg 4.17  0.37g
HPMC, which was one of the polysaccharides, formed 30 73.66  0.79e 1.78 + 0.05efg 4.05  0.60g
complex with free water in the dough. Thus, when the MW 0 65.03  0.42h 1.74 + 0.02fg 14.17  0.97a
proper butter content was used in the formulation of 10 69.45  0.55f 1.85 + 0.05def 7.65  0.92c
gluten-free dough, there were some parts of free water, 15 69.10  0.66fg 1.80 + 0.02efg 7.70  0.90c
which did not organise emulsion formation with but- 20 68.95  0.49fg 2.05 + 0.03ab 5.73  1.18def
ter. The remaining free water could form complex with 25 67.91  0.48g 1.77 + 0.17fg 4.17  0.82g
HPMC, leading to the strengthened structure of 30 66.39  0.62h 1.71 + 0.03fg 4.11  0.60g
dough. Nevertheless, when the excessive butter content HA-MW 0 68.01  1.16g 1.94 + 0.01bcd 13.39  2.42a
10 76.49  0.18d 1.98 + 0.03abc 6.21  0.70d
was used in the formulation, surplus lipid molecules
15 76.01  0.37d 2.08 + 0.09a 6.09  0.35de
occurred as free molecules leading to dough break- 20 69.47  0.82f 2.01 + 0.03abc 5.73  2.31def
down. Moreover, the lipid–starch complex formation 25 68.07  0.56g 1.81 + 0.01efg 5.64  0.66def
caused a decrease in viscous property. Thus, the vis- 30 68.17  1.26g 1.74 + 0.09fg 5.14  0.65ef
coelastic properties decreased (Sabanis & Tzia, 2011).
Probability
Baking condition 0.000* 0.000* 0.000*
Effect of butter content and baking condition on quality Butter content 0.000* 0.000* 0.000*
of gluten -free bread Baking 9 Butter 0.000* 0.001* 0.000*

After baking, the two-way ANOVA of moisture content,
specific volume, hardness and crust colour of all glu-
ten-free bread indicated that the baking condition,
butter content and their interaction (baking condi-
tion 9 butter content) played significant role on qual-
ity of gluten-free bread.
Moisture content of all gluten-free bread varied
depending on butter content and baking condition
(Table 1). An increase in butter content from 10 to
30 g/100 g flour could decrease moisture content of all
bread significantly (P ≤ 0.05), due to the reduced
water proportion in the dough formula. Additionally,
the moisture content of the MW and HA-MW bread
was lower than those of the HA bread because of the
delay in crust formation during MW heating. The
MW heating increased vapour pressure and enhanced
moisture transfer to the surface. However, the crust
had not been properly generated. Moisture migration
from bread was very fast, resulting in the high mois-
ture loss and dried crumb. Likewise, Ozkoc et al.
(2009) demonstrated that the microwave-baked wheat
bread would have 35.2% wet basis moisture content,
which was lower than the moisture content of the con-
ventionally baked bread (38.2% wet basis).
Regarding volume expansion, the increase in butter
content from 0 to 15 g/100 g flour increased the speci-
fic volume. This was consistent to the increase in vis-
coelastic property of the rice dough containing less
Different letters within a column mean significant different (P ≤ 0.05).
*Means significant at P ≤ 0.05.
than 15 g butter/100 g flour. However, when the but-
ter content was more than 20 g/100 g flour, dough
strength was reduced. Dough with more than 20 g but-
ter/100 g flour was collapsed during transferring from
the prover to the oven. Therefore, bread volume was
reduced (Figure S1). Considering in baking conditions,
both MW and MW-HA bread had high specific vol-
ume, because of the rapid heating rate that could gen-
erate high vapour pressure and thereby high oven
spring. In addition, the delay in crust formation could
allow the volume expansion during the beginning of
baking. Likewise, Demirkesen et al. (2014) reported
that the chestnut breads baked in the microwave-infra-
red oven had significantly higher volume than that of
those of chestnut bread baked in the convective oven
(P ≤ 0.05).
When butter content was increased from 10 to 30 g/
100 g flour, hardness of the HA, MW and HA-MW
bread was decreased from 5.24–7.65 to 4.05–5.14 N,
respectively. Therefore, adding butter into the dough
could soften the crumb texture. This was coincided
with the previous study of Aguilar et al. (2015) that
the hardness of the gluten-free bread would be
decreased when the shortening content was increased
from 0 to 5 g/100 g flour. In addition, baking

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017 © 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Gluten-free dough and bread from rice flour C. Srikanlaya et al. 1909

condition significantly affected the texture of the glu- The L*-value of the MW bread was higher than
ten-free bread. Hardness of the MW and HA-MW those of the HA and the HA-MW bread, because of
bread was higher than the HA bread. The hardness the short baking time and low surface temperature
was consistent with high moisture loss and dry crumb during MW that could not promote the proper brown-
in the case of microwave baking. Ozkoc et al. (2009) ing reaction and crust formation. On the other hand,
reported that hardness of the microwave bread was a* and b* of the HA and HA-MW bread were higher
the highest, compared with those from the convective than those of the MW bread. This was coincided with
and combination baking. Demirkesen et al. (2014) reporting that colour change
Considering in colour, when the butter content was of the HA bread was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher
increased from 0 to 30 g/100 g flour in the HA bread, than those of the MW bread. Additionally, when HA
the L*-value was decreased from 71.74 to 53.97 was combined with MW heating, colour of the HA-
(Table 2). It is possible that the high butter content MW bread crust was darker than those of the MW
increased heat transferring rate. Then, temperature bread. Although the MW bread demonstrated a lack
would be increased and enhanced Maillard reaction. of crust formation, this crustless bread might become
Therefore, redness (positive a*-value) was increased. alternative bread for children and elderly because of
The increased redness of the MW-HA bread was little. reduction of the carcinogen. Some previous researches
In contrast, slight greenness (negative a*-value) of the found acrylamide in the bread crust. Thus, the car-
MW bread was observed indicating an incompletely cinogen might be occurred in the human after con-
formed crust. The b*-values of the HA, MW and sumption of the bread crust (Yolacaner et al., 2017).
MW-HA bread crust were increased, due to carotenoid
pigment in the butter (Queir os et al., 2016). As a
In vitro starch digestibility of the gluten-free bread
result, the yellow colour intensity of the gluten-free
bread crust was improved. From in vitro digestibility test, the predicted GI of
gluten-free bread (68.58–83.10) was lower than the
wheat flour bread (93.45). Using the HA, an increase
in butter content from 10 to 20 and 30 g/100 g flour
Table 2 Crust colour of bread with variation of butter content and significantly (P ≤ 0.05) decreased the predicted GI
baking condition value of the HA bread from 83.10 to 80.27 and 76.80,
respectively. It is possible that adding fat to carbohy-
Butter
content
drate reduced postprandial glycemic response for dia-
Baking (g/100 g
betic patients by delaying gastric emptying (Pi-Sunyer,
condition flour) L* a* b* 2002). The delaying in gastric emptying may lead to
the acute and chronic effect of fat on stimulating gut
HA 0 71.74  0.00g
3.67  0.53f
30.25  1.28f hormones such as gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
10 66.54  0.79j 9.65  0.70d 34.73  0.52e (Collier & O’Dea, 1983). Adding fat to carbohydrate
15 65.26  0.32k 8.35  0.66e 35.75  0.94d
enhanced insulin in the healthy or hyperinsulinaemic
20 57.96  0.51l 15.00  0.28c 38.65  0.40c
people. The stimulating insulin secretion of fat affected
25 55.13  0.38m 15.90  0.02b 39.91  0.44b
30 53.97  0.15n 18.32  0.42a 41.03  0.56a
postprandial blood glucose. However, this effect could
MW 0 76.40  0.04bc 0.29  0.02k 13.36  0.15m be varied, depending on fat source and cooking
10 76.94  0.24a 0.70  0.04k 12.50  0.15n method (Moghaddam et al., 2006). In the current
15 76.52  0.27ab 0.56  0.05k 12.37  0.09n study, effect of fat addition on the predicted GI was
20 76.62  0.08ab 0.46  0.03k 14.43  0.17l significant when dough was baked in the hot air oven.
25 76.02  0.05c 0.43  0.02k 14.65  0.18l When dough was baked in the microwave oven, the
30 74.07  0.22d 0.41  0.02k 15.75  0.28l effect of the increased fat content on the predicted GI
HA-MW 0 73.27  0.01e 0.44  0.01j 17.12  0.00k became nonsignificant (P > 0.05). The predicted GI of
10 72.56  0.02f 1.37  0.01i 20.94  0.01j
the MW bread with addition of 10, 20 and 30 g butter
15 71.55  0.14g 1.47  0.02hi 21.52  0.02j
per g flour was 68.96, 69.15 and 69.65. Similarly, the
20 70.79  0.03h 1.62  0.00hi 23.98  0.01i
25 70.50  0.03h 1.78  0.01gh 24.66  0.02h
predicted GI of HA-MW bread with addition of 10,
30 67.99  0.01i 2.10  0.00g 25.32  0.02k 20 and 30 g butter per g flour was 68.68, 68.56 and
68.38, respectively.
Probability
Nonetheless, the predicted GI of the gluten-free
Baking condition 0.000* 0.000* 0.000*
Butter content 0.000* 0.000* 0.000*
bread baked in the MW and the HA-MW was signifi-
Baking 9 Butter 0.000* 0.001* 0.000* cantly lower than the HA. Likewise, Sanchez-Pardo
et al. (2007) found that the predicted GI of the micro-
Different letters within a column mean significant different (P ≤ 0.05). wave-baked pound cake (59.13) was less than the con-
*Means significant at P ≤ 0.05. ventionally baked cake (77.92). It is possible that the

© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017
1910 Gluten-free dough and bread from rice flour C. Srikanlaya et al.

MW heating increased resistance starch which could
not be digested in the small intestine, leading to the
reduced GI (Zhang et al., 2009). During the MW heat-
ing, the interaction between -OH polar group of flour
and –NH polar group of protein occurred, leading to
the change in molecular structure of flour component.
Then, the resistance starch in bread could be increased
(Zhou et al., 2006).
Retrogradation of gluten-free bread during storage
For retrogradation phenomenon of gluten-free bread,
the quality alteration of gluten-free bread could be
explained into two durations including during 24 h
after baking (fresh product) and during storage under
low temperature (4 °C). The texture change of bread
could be due to the retrogradation. At the beginning
of storage time, enthalpy of both fresh HA bread and
HA bread stored at 4 °C for a day was not detected.
During 24 h after baking, starch retrogradation could
be from recrystallisation of amylose molecules. After-
wards, amylopectin recrystallisation was achieved
(Aguilar et al., 2015). Therefore, the enthalpy of the
HA bread was increased from 1.12 to 2.90 J g1 of
dry mass sample when the bread was stored at 4 °C
for 3–7 days. The low storage temperature (4 °C)
could accelerate the rate of amylopectin recrystallisa-
tion, which was a nucleation-limited process and
occurred in heterogeneous formation. The strength of
starch network which consisted of a more amount of
water was accumulated because of the higher amount
of amylopectin crystals. Thus, the rate of retrograda-
tion was increased rapidly (Bosmans et al., 2013).
Similarly, the enthalpy of both fresh MW and fresh
HA-MW bread was not detected. However, after 1- to
7-day storage, the enthalpy of the MW and HA-MW
bread was gradually increased from 2.26 to 4.31 J g1
of sample dry mass and 1.63 to 3.03 J g1 of sample
dry mass, respectively (Table 3). The enthalpy of the
MW bread and the HA-MW bread was not only pre-
dominate over but also faster than the HA bread. This
was because of the thin crust formation of the MW
bread that possibly led to the fast moisture migration
and staling reaction. However, the moisture migration
was not a single phenomenon to cause bread staling.
MW penetrating into dough would inactivate alpha-
amylase, resulting in extensive amylose leaching (Yola-
caner et al., 2017). In particular, the amylopectin
recrystallisation which was the main phenomenon of
bread during storage was achieved because the short-
chain nonbranched fraction of amylopectin molecules
was formed as the small crystalline structure (Mih-
halevski et al., 2012). These results were also related to
the X-ray diffraction pattern of those samples.
X-ray diffraction pattern of gluten-free bread during
storage
The diffraction pattern of gluten-free bread, which
related to crystalline structure, could be analysed by
X-ray diffraction as shown in Fig. 2. A-type crystalline
structure (at diffraction angles of 14.2°, 17.0°, 18.0°
and 23.1°), B-type crystalline structure (at diffraction
angle of 17°) and V-type structure (at diffraction angle
of 20°) of all bread appeared after 3 days of storage.
Osella et al. (2005) also reported the low B-type crys-
tallinity of the fresh bread, but it was gradually
increased after the bread was stored for 7 days. The

Table 3 Thermal properties of bread crumb during storage at 4 °C for 7 days

Baking condition Storage (Day) T0 (°C)n.s. Tp (°C)n.s. Te (°C) MH (J g1)

HA 0 – – – ND
1 – – – ND
3 44.17  1.36 50.16  0.05 55.68  0.16ab 1.12  0.03e
5 40.88  0.59 47.64  0.38 54.55  0.65bc 2.32  0.75c
7 42.29  0.19 49.22  0.62 56.79  0.24a 2.90  0.04b
MW 0 – – – ND
1 39.00  0.47 45.84  0.76 52.31  0.87def 2.26  0.35c
3 39.48  0.04 44.08  0.23 51.48  0.33f 2.76  0.30bc
5 39.70  0.07 45.71  0.01 53.24  0.86cde 2.86  0.08b
7 42.54  3.85 47.52  3.39 53.85  1.63 cd 4.31  0.38a
HA-MW 0 – – – ND
1 41.72  1.05 44.78  3.28 53.97  0.42 cd 1.63  0.13d
3 40.40  0.01 42.63  3.13 51.21  0.56f 2.29  0.37c
5 45.38  6.29 42.91  4.36 51.05  0.64f 2.72  0.33bc
7 40.25  0.02 43.05  3.99 51.66  0.01f 3.03  0.38b

Different letters mean significantly different (P ≤ 0.05).

n.s. means nonsignificantly different (P ˃ 0.05).
ND means not detected.

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017 © 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Gluten-free dough and bread from rice flour C. Srikanlaya et al. 1911

observation of V-type structure indicated formation of

amylose–lipid complex of the bread crumb during the
storage. Among all baking conditions, the total degree
of crystallinity of the HA bread was lower than those
of the MW and HA-MW bread. After the gluten-free
bread was stored at 4 °C for 7 days, total crystallinity
of all bread was significantly increased from 4.06–
4.96% to 23.81–27.43% (Table 4). This was because
the amorphous structure of starch was gradually chan-
ged to the crystalline structure associated with staling.
When crystallisation of amylose was completely car-
ried out, crystallisation of amylopectin was further
developed.

Change in the predicted GI of gluten-free bread during

Figure 2 X-ray diffraction of starch in gluten-free bread: (a) the
HA bread, (b) the MW bread and (c) the HA-MW bread. [Colour
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
storage
After the gluten-free bread was stored for 7 days, the
predicted GI value of the HA bread was significantly
decreased (P ≤ 0.05) from 80.27 to 73.40. It is consis-
tent with the increased enthalpy of the retrograde amy-
lopectin reported early. However, the predicted GI of
the MW bread (69.15–68.81) and the HA-MW bread
(68.52–68.74) was not significantly (P > 0.05) changed
(Table 4). Likewise, Garcıa-Zaragoza et al. (2010)
reported that the hydrolysis index of the microwave-
baked pound cake was not significantly (P > 0.05)
changed during 8-day storage (59.09 VS 61.85). In
contrast, hydrolysis index of the conventionally baked
pound cake was decreased significantly (P ≤ 0.05)
from 80.88 to 68.10. During storage, the starch ret-
rogradation possibly affected starch digestibility of
bread by enhancing resistance of starch to digestive
enzymes. Similarly, Park et al. (2009) reported that the
in vitro GI of waxy maize starch gel was continually
decreased, together with an increase in the resistance
starch during 16 days storage.

Table 4 Crystallinity and GI of the gluten-free bread during storage at 4 °C for 7 days

Degree of crystallinity (%)

TRT Storage (Days) A-typen.s. B-typen.s. V-typen.s. Total Average GI

HA 0 ND ND ND 4.06  0.06e
80.27  0.02a
3 13.36  1.00 3.60  0.21 5.83  0.75 19.05  0.04d 76.93  0.40b
7 13.06  0.08 4.33  1.93 4.36  1.68 23.81  1.74b 73.40  0.56c
MW 0 ND ND ND 4.72  0.73e 69.15  0.10d
3 16.77  2.51 5.00  0.80 4.55  0.67 21.32  1.84c 68.93  0.08d
7 18.24  0.21 5.62  0.04 4.03  0.02 27.14  0.02a 68.81  0.09d
HA-MW 0 ND ND ND 4.96  0.04e 68.56  0.75d
3 15.92  2.70 4.30  0.82 4.77  2.51 20.62  0.10c 68.74  0.00d
7 17.40  1.24 4.57  0.16 4.58  0.70 27.43  0.37a 68.52  0.31d

Different letters within a column mean significantly different (P ≤ 0.05)

n.s. means non-significantly different (P ˃ 0.05).
ND means not detected.

© 2017 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017
1912 Gluten-free dough and bread from rice flour C. Srikanlaya et al.
Conclusion
All gluten-free dough from rice flour with the
increased butter content indicated a viscoelastic char-
acteristic. However, the excessive butter content
(more than 20 g/100 g flour) would reduce the
dynamic moduli. The increased butter content could
improve colour, desirable texture and reduce the pre-
dicted GI of the gluten-free bread. However, increas-
ing fat content could not reduce the predicted GI of
the HA-MW and MW bread, due to significant effect
of MW heating. Therefore, the HA-MW or MW
conditions could be implemented as the fast baking
for the gluten-free bread with less than 70 predicted
GI (medium range), regardless of butter content.
However, butter content (20 g/100 g flour) should be
used to improve texture of the MW or HA-MW
bread due to the possible dry crumb. During storage
at 4 °C, the predicted GI of both MW and HA-MW
bread was remained in the medium GI range.
Nonetheless, staling was observed after 1-day storage,
indicated as the detected enthalpy of retrogradation
and the increased crystallinity of the MW and the
HA-MW bread.
Acknowledgments
Financial supports from the Golden Jubilee Ph.D.
Program and Kasetsart University (PHD/0009/2555)
and Thailand Research Fund (RSA5580017) were
gratefully acknowledged.
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Supporting Information
Additional Supporting Information may be found in
the online version of this article:
Figure S1 Gluten-free bread: (a–f) the HA bread
containing 0, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 g butter/100 g flour,
(g–l) the MW bread containing 0, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 g
butter/100 g flour and (m–r) the HA-MW bread con-
taining 0, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 g butter/100 g flour.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017