English C WeldingCourse Chapter2

Welding Course
Stainless Steels - Part C
Prof. Leonel Abreu

PUC Minas
WELDABILITY OF CORROSION RESISTANT AND HEAT RESISTANT
STAINLESS STEELS
Fe-C ferrous alloys with Cr-Ni or Cr additions.

The chromium content should be at least 12 to 13% to give the alloy a
non-oxidizing and refractory bond strength, in order to obtain
resistance to:
Corrosion
and
oxidation
(mm/year)
Steel
Low Carbon Steel
Stainless Steel – Corrosion applied
Stainless Steel – High

temperature
12 a 13 Cr/Cr alloy(%)
STAINLESS STEELS
* Corrosion in aqueous media with presence of aggressive

agents  corrosion resistant stainless steels;
* Corrosion and/or oxidation at high temperatures  heat

resistant stainless steels.
Notes: Certain classes of steels present nickel contents > 8% , in order to have
austenitic microstructure at room temperature in order to improve mechanical
strength and corrosion in some media.
STAINLESS STEELS
Corrosion resistance can also be improved by additions of

Molybdenum (Mo).
The Stainless Steel are classified according to the

microstructure present at room temperature, in Austenitic,
Martensitic, Ferritic, Duplex and Precipitation Hardenable.
STAINLESS STEELS
* Austenitic: non-magnetic alloys to Cr-Ni, with austenitic

microstructure with 16 to 30% chromium (Cr) and 2 to 26% nickel (Ni),
non-temperable.
Ex: AISI 304, 316 L,347, 310; aços fundidos ASTM CF-8M, CF-20, HK,
HT; DIN X12 CrNi 189, X5 CrNiMo 1810
STAINLESS STEELS
* Martensitic: magnetic alloys to Cr, with martensitic microstructure

with 12 to 18% of chromium, temperable by heat treatment; May be
provided in the annealed state for later quenching.
Ex: AISI 403, 410, 420, 440; aços fundidos ASTM CA-15, CA-6NM;
DIN X7 Cr13, X20 Cr13
STAINLESS STEELS
* Ferritic: Cr alloys, with ferritic microstructure with 12 to 30% of

chromium (Cr), are not totally hardenable due to quenching because
they are partially austenitized.
Ex: AISI 430, 406, 442, 409; ASTM CB-30; DIN X6 CrTi17, X8
CrNb17
STAINLESS STEELS
* Duplex: alloys with austenite-ferritic microstructure with 18 to 30%

chromium (Cr), 3.5 to 8% nickel (Ni) and 1.5 to 4.5% molybdenum (Mo).
Ex: AISI 329, 255
STAINLESS STEELS
Metallurgical and Mechanical Weladability

 Fusion welding: In general, one can have a first idea of the
metallurgical weldability of a stainless steel by means of its
predominant microstructure at room temperature:
Presence of martensite → worst weldability

Martensitic → Ferritic → Austenitic
Duplex
Lean duplex/duplex/Super duplex
STAINLESS STEELS
It is possible to estimate the chemical composition, welding

microstructure and delta ferrite content in Maurice (1920),
Schaefller (1949), DeLong (1974), WRC (Welding Research Council
1988/1992) austenitic electrodes as a function of equivalent
Chromium and equivalent Nickel.
Equivalent Chromium:
* Cr eq =% Cr +% Mo + 1.5% Si + 0.5% Nb → Ferritizing elements
(alpha)
Equivalent Nickel:
* Ni eq =% Ni + 30% C + 0.5% Mn → Austenitizing elements (gamma)
STAINLESS STEELS
Regions of Bystran (reference to the Schaeffler diagram)
Applications:
* choose addition metals suitable for welding the

stainless steels and dissimilar joints;
* select parameters and variables appropriate to the

welding process / procedure;
* evaluate the influence of the dilution on the chemical composition

of the weld, avoiding welding problems.
STAINLESS STEELS
Regions of Bystran
Shaeffler Diagram
STAINLESS STEELS
* Bystran regions (1956):

• Allows to choose the addition metals suitable for welding between
stainless steels and dissimilar joints;
• To select parameters and more appropriate variables of the fusion
welding process;
• To evaluate the influence of the dilution on the chemical composition
of the weld in order to avoid welding problems, with reference to
the Schaeffler diagram.
STAINLESS STEELS
Hot cracking zone
Sigma phase zone
Cold cracking
zone
Grain growth
zone
STAINLESS STEELS
* Grain growth zone: applicable to ferritic stainless steel due to the

possibility of coarse granulation in the HAZ, with a decrease in
mechanical resistance  preferencely welding with low energy
Fusion
Zone
Heat Affected Zone Base metal
STAINLESS STEELS
Hot cracking zone
Sigma phase zone
Cold cracking
zone
Grain growth
zone
STAINLESS STEELS
* Cold cracking zone: applicable to martensitic stainless steel due to

the possibility of hydrogen induced cracking occurring below 200 ° C
and up to 48 hours after welding termination  preferencely welding
with preheating, low H2 content and minimized stresses in the joint
Crack
STAINLESS STEELS
Note: Partial formation of martensite: partly quenching ferritic stainless

steels
martensite
martensite
Crack crack
ferrite
Ferrite
STAINLESS STEELS
Hot cracking zone
Sigma phase zone
Cold cracking
zone
Grain growth
zone
STAINLESS STEELS
* Sigma phase zone: applicable to stainless steel with a content above 25%
of chromium and ferrite content above 10% due to the possibility of the
appearance of this embrittlement phase during the slow cooling of the joint, in
the range of 900-600 ° C, with loss of the ductility  preferencely welding
without preheating, with fast cooling speed of the joint in the critical
temperature range the austenitic matrix to absorb sulfur (S) and The
phosphorus (P).
Sigma
phase
STAINLESS STEELS
Hot cracking zone
Sigma phase zone
Cold cracking
zone
Grain growth
zone
STAINLESS STEELS
* Hot cracking zone: applicable to austenitic stainless steel due to cracking

induced by the presence of sulfur or phosphorus eutectics  welding without
preheating and ferrite content between 5 to 15% in the austenitic matrix to
absorb sulfur (S) and The phosphorus (P)
Mechanism Eutetic S and P

Liquid
Solidification Stress
Solidification direction
Partial Melt Region

STAINLESS STEELS
STAINLESS STEELS
STAINLESS STEELS
Note: Therefore, in predicting a welding procedure and choosing an

addition metal, considering the process and the dilution, the chemical
composition of the molten zone must be made within this region,
theoretically free of problems in the deposited metal.
Note: This strategy does not solve possible problems in the base
metal, which has its weldability dependent on the thermal cycle to
which the HAZ will be subjected.
STAINLESS STEELS
Operational Weldability and Welding Procedures
* Lower possible energy: less aggressive thermal cycle and more

refined grain size at the weld / HAZ
* Welding of austenitic and ferritic stainless steels: avoiding

preheating
STAINLESS STEELS
Operational Weldability and Welding Procedures
* Welding of martensitic stainless steels: use preheating of the

joint, as it promotes low cooling speed of the joint, avoiding the
formation of microconstituents of high hardness / low ductility in
the weld / HAZ.
* As secondary consequences: minimizing residual stresses in the

welded joint, promotes a higher HAZ and coarser granulation at the
joint and greater penetration (dilution)
STAINLESS STEELS
* Sensitization: in the slow cooling of the welded joint, after

heating above 900 ° C for stainless steel Ferritic or 650 ° C for
stainless steel Austenitic, chromium carbide precipitation may occur
in the grain contours of the material, with chromium decrease below
12 to 13%
* Loss of inoxibility → intergranular corrosion in the vicinity of
welded joint, in service:
STAINLESS STEELS
* Sensitization
Precipitation of chromium carbide in the grain contours of the material
Cr <12 to 13% contents below  Loss of inoxibility
 slow cooling of welded joint after heating

above 900 ° C: stainless steel. ferritic
above 650 ° C: stainless steel. austenitic
Chromium carbide
Cr23C6
matrix Precipitate Cr23C6

Grain contours
Poor region in Chromium

STAINLESS STEELS
HAZ Grain
650°C:
Cr23C6
austenitic
or
900°C:
ferritic
STAINLESS STEELS
Pictures: Images to scanning optical and electronic microscope
Cr23C6
STAINLESS STEELS
Regions of discontinuity in welding

Region 1 - grain growth.
Region 2 - susceptible to
cold cracking induced by
hydrogen.
Region 3 - formation of
intermetallic phases
during welding and
mechanical properties.
Region 4 - susceptible to
the formation of hot
cracks
Central region - Region
free from any
discontinuity.
Schaeffler diagram
Steel 410D with 309L Wire
(Dil. = 40%)
Aço Adição Solda
30
AUSTENITA 0% ferrita
5%
Níquel Equivalente = %Ni + 30 x %C + 0,5 x %Mn
25 4
10%
20%
3
20
40%
15 A+F 80%
10 100%
MARTENSITA
2
5
1
F+
M FERRITA
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Cromo Equivalente = %Cr + %Mo + 1,5 x Si + 0,5 x %Nb
Steel 410D with 308LSi Wire
(Dil. = 40%)
Aço Adição Solda

30
AUSTENITA 0% ferrita
5%
Níquel Equivalente = %Ni + 30 x %C + 0,5 x %Mn
25 4
10%
20%
3
20
40%
15 A+F 80%
10 100%
MARTENSITA
2
5
1
F+
M FERRITA
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Cromo Equivalente = %Cr + %Mo + 1,5 x Si + 0,5 x %Nb
STAINLESS STEELS
Schaefller Diagram – Bystran region
Case 1: Welding of sheets of austenitic stainless steel X (Nieq = 20 and Creq = 16)
for chemical industry equipment, with MIG process and addition metal Y (Nieq = 8
and Creq = 26)
MB
MA
35
STAINLESS STEELS
Case 2: Welding of AISI 309 austenitic stainless steel plates (Nieq = 19.5 and Creq
= 24.4) for chemical industry equipment, with MIG process and AWS ER309 addition
metal (Nieq = 17 and Creq = 24.9)
MB
MA
36
STAINLESS STEELS
Case 3: Welding a stainless steel sheet Afnor CN 18 (Nieq = 22 and Creq = 8) with
a stainless steel plate ASTM A 297 degree HK (Nieq = 26 and Creq = 28) with TIG
process and stainless steel weld type AWS ER308 (Nieq = 13 and Creq = 23)
MB2
MB1 D=50%
MA
STAINLESS STEELS
Case 4: coated ASTM A516 grade 70 carbon steel plate (Nieq = 4.5 and Creq =
1.0) with Coated Electrode process and stainless steel weld type AWS E 316L (Nieq
= 14.5 and Creq = 19.7) to impart chemical corrosion resistance
MA
D=50%

MB
38
STAINLESS STEELS
Case 5: coated ASTM A516 grade 70 carbon steel plate (Nieq = 4.5 and Creq =
1.0) with Submerged Arc process and stainless steel type AWS ER 312 (Nieq = 13
and Creq = 30) to impart corrosion resistance in urea medium
MA
D=50%

MB
39
WELDABILITY OF CAST IRONS
The cast irons are Fe-C-Si ferrous alloys with carbon from 2 to
4.5% and 0.5 to 3% silicon, being conventionally identified as a
function of the recent fracture color:
Cast
Cast Irons of type:

* Gray cast iron: fracture surface of gray color, because the C is
in the form of graphite shafts
* White cast iron: light-colored fracture surface, because C is in
the form of Fe3C carbide (cementite)
The others types of the casting iron:
* Ductile or nodular cast iron: thermally to convert graphite
shafts into spheroids or nodules
* Malleable cast iron: white heat treated to transform part of the
C into graphite
Gray cast iron with Nodular cast iron Malleable rosette

graphite shafts with graphite cast iron
spheroid
FoFo White
C → carbide Fe3C (cementite)
WELDABILITY OF
CAST IRONS
A) Properties and Original Features:
• Low ductility: high hardness due to the high carbon content (>
2%), with little capacity to deform and absorb thermal welding
tensions
• Resistant to vibration, impact and wear: function of chemical
composition and microstructure
• High C content: high Ceq that favors the formation of cementite
(White cast) and / or martensite of high hardness.
• Carbon in the form of graphite nodules: they act as
discontinuities in the microstructure
• Carbon in the form of graphite shafts: it forms small "cracks"
or internal discontinuities, making the material brittle, without
appreciable flow
B) Metallurgical and mechanical weldability:

Due to the microstructure and properties, the cast iron does not
present good weldability:
* White cast iron: non-weldable; Are repaired with other bonding
processes, such as brazing, adhesive
* Gray / nodular cast iron: low weldability
C) Weldability and Welding Procedures:

In general, welding cast iron is used for the recovery or
reconstruction of parts with problems of casting and the
maintenance of mechanical components or elements of cracked or
fractured machines in service:
* Cold welding technique: T < 100 ° C and low welding energy to
minimize thermal / residual stresses in the joint and dilution
* Hot welding technique: T > 250 ° C to homogenize the expansion

/ contraction of the part and joint, avoiding thermal gradients,
minimizing thermal / residual stresses
C) Weldability and Welding Procedures: (by continued…)

* Cleaning: remove grease, oil and paints due to use in service;
* To avoid propagation of cracks in the material during welding:
technique of the through hole at the beginning and end of the crack;
* Joint preparation: excavate the defect to the minimum necessary
to avoid too large welding volume, minimizing tensions;
* Minimize thermal stresses: back-up techniques, straight pass,
alternating passes, deposited weld bead pounding, avoiding cracking;
* Low elasticity deposited metal: nickel-copper electrodes, welding
plastically deformed during welding, relieving or reducing stresses;
C) Weldability and Welding Procedures:

* Improve the welding condition: insertion of threaded steel pins
into the joint;
* Weldability test: a practical method to evaluate the degree of
adhesion of the deposited metal and the operational and
metallurgical weldability of the base material → pull-out test of a
weld bead on the material or a weld in an angle joint
Knock
pancada
pancada
Knock
WELDABILITY OF NON-FERROUS METAL MATERIALS
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Non-ferrous metals and alloys are materials based on aluminum,

copper, magnesium, titanium, nickel, tin, lead, silver and special
alloys or super alloys.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
FORMING → plates, bars, sections, sheets mechanically worked
by forging, rolling, extruding or drawing;
Note: Classified in groups, according to the alloying elements:

1XXX (Al pure), 2XXX (to copper), 3XXX (to manganese), 4XXX
(to silicon), 5XXX (to magnesium), 6XXX (to magnesium and
silicon), 7XXX To zinc), 8XXX (other elements) and 9XXX (series
not used)
CASTING → cast parts (by casting the liquid metal into a mold to
achieve the desired shape);
Note: Classified in groups, according to the alloying elements:

1XX.X (Al pure), 2XX.X (copper), 3XX.X (silicon with Cu and Mg),
4XX.X (silicon), 5XX.X To magnesium), 6XX.X (series not used),
7XX.X (to zinc), 8XX.X (to tin) and 9XX.X (other elements), where
.X = 0: casting; .X = 1: cast ingot (semi-product)
As for the way of obtaining the properties, the aluminum alloys

can be:
* Thermally treatable alloys: the mechanical properties of
which are achieved by thermal treatment of solubilization and
aging.
* Cold-working alloys: the mechanical properties of which are
achieved by cold plastic deformation and by the presence of
alloying elements.
As regards the modes of supply, the alloys may be supplied in the

state:
* F = as manufactured O = annealed W = solubilized
* T = Thermally treated (heat-treated alloys)
* H = Hardened (cold working alloys)
Hx: where x = 1 to 3  combination of mechanical (hardening)

and thermal treatments
Tx: where x = 1 to 10  sequences of thermal and mechanical
treatments

* Good thermal and electrical conductivity;
* Low density: ease of handling (Repelled by magnet) and does not
change color when heated;
* High reflectivity in relation to heat and light: it reflects radiation
from a wide range of wavelength, from infrared to ultra violet, passing
through the visible;
* High affinity to O 2: spontaneous formation at room temperature of
alumina - Al2O3 surface refractory oxide (15 seconds for layer
thickness of 1200Å), low solubility, high melting point ~ 2050 ° C and
electrical insulation
Layer of alumina - Al2O3: adherent to the metal, can be

approximately 1,5 mm thick, and can be increased by electrochemical
treatment of anodizing  resistance to atmospheric corrosion, saline
and various corrosive media or environment.
Melting temperature: ~ 660 ° C for pure aluminum and 480-660 ° C for
its alloys, imparting relatively fast melting and solidification
characteristics with respect to carbon steel.
A) Properties and Original Features: (by continued...)
Low solubility of H2 in aluminum in the solid state sensitivity to hot

crackling : Al-Si alloys (4XXX) for Si = 1%, Al-Cu alloys (2XXX) for Cu
= 2.5-3%, Al-Mg alloys (5XXX) for Mg = 2.5% and Al- Si (6XXX) for
Mg or Si = 0.5-2%.
B) Weldability and Fusion Welding Procedures:

* Alloys in the condition "as cast or fabricated": mechanical
properties of the alloy in the HAZ are maintained
* Thermocouple alloys: the "T" alloys lose the original mechanical
properties in the HAZ due to the different thermal cycle of the
original treatment;
The addition metal should have the same strength of the material
2XXX  aerospace applied: non-weldable, except alloys AA 2219 e
2519 for a missile fuel tank, 6XXX  car bodies, wagons, boats:
welding with precautions regarding loss of mechanical strength in
HAZ and hot setting.
7XXX  Aerospace applications, military vehicle armor, extruded profiles:

Al-Zn-Mg family are weldable with partial loss of mechanical strength in
HAZ, compensated by the "reversion" phenomenon associated with the
occurrence of precipitates in the matrix; Al-Zn-Mg-Cu family are not
weldable.
8XXX  aerospace use: non-weldable
Welded aluminum alloy with long thermal cycle,

Providing a new solubilization and a precipitation in
HAZ subregions
Workable alloys: the "H" alloys lose the original mechanical

properties in the HAZ due to recrystallization; The addition metal
should have the same strength of the material
Workable alloys:
* 1XXX  used in tanks and tubing for chemical and petrochemical
industry: weldable
* 3XXX  manufacture of bus bodies and vans, food processing:
weldable
* 4XXX  used in the manufacture of welding electrodes
* 5XXX railway wagons, vessels, tanks and bodies: weldable, with
caution regarding hot cracking in alloys with low Mg content (2-3%);
Have excellent weldability when they exhibit 4-6% Mg
* Recovery of the mechanical properties in the HAZ: through

thermal and / or mechanical treatments after welding.
* TIG (AC), MIG (DC+), plasma, Laser (problem with beam
reflectivity) and resistance (problem with the electrical insulating
oxide film)
Base metal: screw up/laminate
HAZ: recristalization + grain growth

“ We must forget the past, believe in the future and live the present this
ETERNAL NOW that is the human way of approaching the infinite”

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Welding Course

Stainless Steels - Part C

Prof. Leonel Abreu

Fe-C ferrous alloys with Cr-Ni or Cr additions.

Stainless Steel – Corrosion applied

Stainless Steel – High

* Corrosion in aqueous media with presence of aggressive

* Corrosion and/or oxidation at high temperatures  heat

Corrosion resistance can also be improved by additions of

The Stainless Steel are classified according to the

* Austenitic: non-magnetic alloys to Cr-Ni, with austenitic

* Martensitic: magnetic alloys to Cr, with martensitic microstructure

* Ferritic: Cr alloys, with ferritic microstructure with 12 to 30% of

* Duplex: alloys with austenite-ferritic microstructure with 18 to 30%

Metallurgical and Mechanical Weladability

Presence of martensite → worst weldability

It is possible to estimate the chemical composition, welding

Regions of Bystran (reference to the Schaeffler diagram)

* choose addition metals suitable for welding the

* select parameters and variables appropriate to the

* evaluate the influence of the dilution on the chemical composition

* Bystran regions (1956):

Hot cracking zone

Sigma phase zone

* Grain growth zone: applicable to ferritic stainless steel due to the

Hot cracking zone

Sigma phase zone

* Cold cracking zone: applicable to martensitic stainless steel due to

Note: Partial formation of martensite: partly quenching ferritic stainless

Hot cracking zone

Sigma phase zone

Hot cracking zone

Sigma phase zone

* Hot cracking zone: applicable to austenitic stainless steel due to cracking

Mechanism Eutetic S and P

Partial Melt Region

Note: Therefore, in predicting a welding procedure and choosing an

Operational Weldability and Welding Procedures

* Lower possible energy: less aggressive thermal cycle and more

* Welding of austenitic and ferritic stainless steels: avoiding

Operational Weldability and Welding Procedures

* Welding of martensitic stainless steels: use preheating of the

* As secondary consequences: minimizing residual stresses in the

* Sensitization: in the slow cooling of the welded joint, after

 slow cooling of welded joint after heating

matrix Precipitate Cr23C6

Poor region in Chromium

Pictures: Images to scanning optical and electronic microscope

Regions of discontinuity in welding

Aço Adição Solda

Schaefller Diagram – Bystran region

Schaefller Diagram – Bystran region

Schaefller Diagram – Bystran region

Schaefller Diagram – Bystran region

Cast Irons of type:

Gray cast iron with Nodular cast iron Malleable rosette

B) Metallurgical and mechanical weldability:

C) Weldability and Welding Procedures:

* Cold welding technique: T < 100 ° C and low welding energy to

minimize thermal / residual stresses in the joint and dilution

* Hot welding technique: T > 250 ° C to homogenize the expansion

C) Weldability and Welding Procedures: (by continued…)

C) Weldability and Welding Procedures: