SHS

Core Subject:
Understanding Culture,
Society and Politics
Quarter 2 - Module 10
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, Understanding Culture, Society and Politics
Quarter 2 – Module 10

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 WEEK 10 Government Programs in Addressing

10.1 Gender Inequalities

INTRODUCTION

The Magna Carta of Women (Republic Act No. 9710) defines Gender and Develop-
ment Program (GAD) as the development perspective and process that is participatory and em-
powering, equitable, equitable, sustainable, free from violence, respectful of human rights, sup-
portive of self-determination and actualization of human potentials. It seeks to achieve gender
equality as a fundamental value that should be reflected in development choices and contends
that women are active agents of development, not just recipient of development. The purpose
of GAD is to ensure that both men and women can participate in, and benefit from, development
in a way that is equitable. In view of widespread disparities it is a process comprising both short-
term and long-term objectives - "practical and strategic needs" (Molyneux from Moser, 1993).

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

1. understand the issue regarding gender
2. be aware on gender division of labor and gender role
3. promote and practice gender quality at home and school

Gender:

It identifies the difference of women and men in their role in the society, their ability, values,
knowledge, feelings and connections that is being given by their culture. This is in accordance
with the races or culture and it continuous to change across time. Gender can not be seen with
his/her biological appearance that is being attributed to male and female thus it involves socio-
logical factors that perhaps affects their attitudes towards the right contention of gender.

PRE-TEST

Write True if the statement is True and write false if the statement is False.
1. Men and women are of the same interest when it comes to education, job opportunities
and in life.

2. Men and women are equal in all aspect of life.

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 3. Women are weak, dependent, needs protection, lack of mind setting and emotional.
4. Men are strong, independent, oriented person, responsible, protector and have a
goal/ direction.
5. Gender is influence by culture and other institutions that somehow changes their
personality and outlook in life.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
Key Differences Between Sex and Gender:
The difference between Sex and Gender can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:

Feminine Masculine

1. Weak Strong
2. Shy Responsible
3. Dependent Independent
4. Mind changing make decisions
5. Emotional Firm

Institution Reinforcing Gender Inequality

Family
Upon birth:
Color Toys household chores
Girl pink doll train to do inside house responsibility
Boy blue toy gun train to do outside of the house responsibility

 Men are more on focusing on responsibility as economic provider; Women is doing

household chores and rearing of children and continue to attach these connotation
and until now there are courses for women like home economics.
 Men are making decisions; Women only support the decision of the Men.
 And even in the eyes of the law (cuncubinage and adultery) the application of sen-
tence is not the same. ( if the husband kill both the wife and the concubine, the sen-
tence of the husband is only destiero while if the wife kills both the husband and the
mistress the sentence is parricide/homicide as the case may be)
 In school, the required courses for men were not supposed to be for women
 Even in churches, that indeed women were came from men. ( during the wedding cer-
emony; (lalaki mahalin mo ang iyong asawa, babae mahalin at sundin mo ang iyong
asawa)
 Mass Media; women are being exploited by mass media in terms of advertisement
because they think that women attracts more rather than men.

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GENDER ISSUE
 These are problems that women and
men experience as a result of societies’
definitions and expectations about femi-
nine and masculine roles, rights and ca-
pacities.
 Where gender division of labor brings
with it inequalities in amount of work in-
puts or benefits received.
GENDER ANALYSIS
Is a process of:
1. Asking or investigating key questions at
the beginning of a planning process that
will help one identify gaps or differences
between women and men, girls and
boys; Understand why these gaps exist
and persist; Choose what actions to take
to reduce the gap or address the issue

 Where women and men face different
opportunities to access, participate in,
and control resources and benefits—
possibly due to gender dichotomy or
gender tracking.
2. Process of considering how women and
men, girls and boys, and their social re-
lations are affected by the way an organ-
ization operates, or a development pro-
gram is being implemented

 Where women and men are conceived

or thought of as different and, thus, une-
qual. Where existing gender relations
result in violence against women and
girls

Gender Division of Labor: Even in the division of labor, gender become an issue because
accordingly women cannot do all the hard labor so as to say that gender is really equal.
Three categories of work:
1. Productive:
- The production of goods and services for income, trade, or subsistence.
- Tasks that contribute economically to the household and community.
- Includes wage-earning, crop and livestock production, marketing, fishing,
manufacturing, and construction.

2. Reproductive:

The care and maintenance of human life within the household. Includes child-
care, food preparation, collection of water and firewood, cleaning, washing, building
and maintaining shelter, and health care.

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3. Community Management and Constituency-Based Politics

Maintenance and improvement of the community as a whole. It includes building of

schools, clinics, planning celebrations, judging disputes, making laws, and advocating com-
munity needs such as access to water and others.

Men are engage in the public world of works and politics while women are confirmed with
the private concerns of the home and family (outside work is the extension of domestic
functions)

DIFFERENTIAL VALUATION
OF MEN AND WOMEN

Productive Work
Examples:

Creating goods, structures and services, running business, government, etc.

PAID work

Reproductive work
Examples:

Running the household, caring for the children and bread earners, etc.

UNPAID because INVISIBLE work

Gender division of labor

The assignment of tasks and roles to men and women on account of sex.

May result into women’s roles multiple burden.

at home - reproductive role

at work - productive roles

in community - community management

and political roles

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 Traditional Gender Role Restriction
Limit the psychological and social and potentials of human beings

WOMEN ARE DENIED THE ACCESS TO: MEN ARE DENIED THE ACCESS TO:

Work Nurturing

Achievement Emotion

Independence Other oriented WORLD OF DOMESTIC

LIFE
Power

Social Construction of gender

People shapes culture; Culture shapes people

Culture tells us
 What we ought to be
 What we ought to think
 What we ought to expect of others

Gender relations are power relations and these institution somehow influences the gender
of a person. Gender socialization is shaped by:

Family

Church School

Media State

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Family starts the gendering at the time the baby is born. It involves
Canalization, Verbal appellation, Manipulation and Activity Exposure.

Manipulation: It is the way the baby is being handled Ex: Girls are
handled very gently and boys are allowed to climb trees

Canalization: It directs people’s attention to gender appropriate objects. Ex: Boys are giv-
en toy guns, ball etc.; while girls are given dolls, playhouse etc.

Verbal Appeallation: These are the words that tell children what should they be,
phrases such as; Boys don't cry, brave boys, pretty girls, girls don't climb trees.

Activity exposure: Boys are being exposed in a hazard roles while girls are only sup-
porting the boys. Boys are expected to play outside the house while the girls should be fa-
miliarize with the house hold chores.

School:

The formal school system promotes and encourages the dif-

ferent gender roles between men and women.

The school as gender socializing factor:

 Textbook and language used

 Sex segregation system

 Curriculum used

 Courses encourage and career option

Church:

Church/religion was introduced which the lead the way to

patriarchal culture. This is given that husband should lead the
way in raising the family.

Mass Media

 Commercialization of women

 Degrading of portrayal of women

through advertisement, radio, television, soap operas, article
highlights and news items.

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 State
The state as gender socializing factor
 Laws and politics
 Political participation and representatives
(The political personality in all political positions are all men/dominated by men) The
state’s functions is far better run by male rather than female because of the so called firm-
ness in the decision making.

The Government are recognizing the role of women in the development and nation building
by passing laws relevant to women, e.g.: women’s right, VAWC, and by giving more oppor-
tunity in the political arena. There are also organization and sectors led by women and for
women only. The most common example is the women’s organization in the barangay and
the partiylist Gabriela and other sector holding a set in the congress as partylist representa-
tives. In fact, when President Corazon Aquino became, the
women, during that time were given distinct recognition and until
now women were given good pedestal in the government.

VAWC
Violence against women and their children: Includes any
acts committed by any person against any women of their chil-
dren which may result in the physical, sexual, psychological
harm or suffering from economic abuse.

Because of gender biases in society have resulted in acts of violence against women and
their children. There were many cases filed and most frequent offense were physical
abuse /wife battering, psychological abuse, sexual abuse and economic abuse.

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 As you can see even in school, women are be-
ing dominated and sometimes this acts is being
committed by teachers to his fellow teachers or to
their students or by the higher ups to the lower posi-
tion using their power and position to take ad-
vantage to the women.

There are many persistent issues in the Philippines like gender inequality in household
decision making, inequality in share of reproductive and household responsibilities and
tasks among others but the worse is we neglect the women in the nation building together
with the economic abuses that indeed their rights to be a part of economic development of
the family.

The main points of GAD is to give equal opportunity both the women and men in all as-
pects of life. Gender Equality is a human right, promotion of gender equality and empower-
ing women, rights of individuals to non-discrimination.

Bridging the Gap of gender inequality:

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9
Ways to promote gender equality in daily life
 SHARE HOUSEHOLD CHORES AND CHILDCARE EQUALLY. ...
 WATCH FOR SIGNS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE. ...
 SUPPORT MOTHERS AND PARENTS. …
 REJECT CHAUVINIST AND RACIST ATTITUDES. …
 HELP WOMEN GAIN POWER. …
 LISTEN AND REFLECT. …
 HIRE DIVERSITY. …
 PAY (AND DEMAND) THE SAME SALARY FOR EQUAL WORK.

To promote gender equality in school,mteachers should talk to both male and female
students in a balance way. Research shows that both male and female teachers often call
on male students to speak in class more often than female stuydents. Provide enough wait
time to answer questions. The best educational environment are those that are fair to all
students, male or female. Teachers can create the appearance of gender bias through un-
intentional, nonverbal actions. The first step to correcting this problem is to organize your
classroom in a way that makes all students feel equal.
1. Establish rules. It is important that a school/teacher to establish a set of rules from
the very beginning that promote equality. An effective way to this is to create class rules
with students. Asks students to suggest ideas for how to keep an equal and respectful
classroom.
2. Have a classroom seating plan that supports equal participation. If you find that cer-
tain students, regardless of their gender, are not participating in class, try to change your
class seating plan. E.g.: try having students who usually sit in the back come to the front.
3. Have equal academic and behaviour expectations for all students. Teachers should
try to avoid making things easier for either male or female students by giving them easier
questions in class, or trying to solve things for the students. ( teachers should not expect
the same to all students)
4. Use group works. Often there will be some students, male or female, who are not
comfortable speaking in front of large classes. In order to give all students the opportunity
to take part in class, group activity is the possible ways to interact with the students.
After organizing your class in a way that promotes equality, you must consider the
effects of your actions in class.
 Addressing students equally– need to call on or talk to both male and female stu-
dents in a balance way.
 Provide enough wait time to answer questions– need time to think abut the answer so
as to promote and encourage students to participate in the class discussion.
 Use gender neutral language– always used a neutral language that will discriminate
both the male and female. Instead of saying “guys” when refer to the group, say
“everybody” or “everyone”.
 Body language– you should realize that the body language is different from male and
female.
 Discipline– if the students insulted another students and appear to gender-based, stu-
dents may be discouraged from participating in class in the future.
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Practice task 1: What do you mean by equity and equality. You can draw a situation that
both the equity and equality best described.
Practice task 2: Can you describe what is gender biased? And show/draw a picture show -
ing that there is a gender inequality in school.
Practice task 3: Aside from the gender inequality that are being mentioned in the discus
sion, can you name a situation where these act is/are committed in your ba-
rangay, and what is/are the solution/s that you may suggest to mitigate/
eradicate these act/s.
Practice task 4: Are the programs of governments in addressing these issues enough to
treat both men and women equal? Why you said so?
Criteria: 1. grammar and mechanics
2. idea/content
3. organization

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12
 Productive Repro- Commu- Total
ductive nity

Sex Hours Cost Hours Cost Hours Cost Hours Cost

Male 300 12,120 11 481 10 342 321 13043

Female 180 6,800 36 1831 9.5 1,282 225.5 9913.00

Related Laws:

RA 9262 VAWC (Violence Against Women and their Children) the state recognizes the
need to protect the family and its members particularly women and children, from
violence and threats to their safety and security.
RA 11210 (Expanded Maternity Leave Law)
RA 6725 (Prohibition on Discrimination against Women) prohibits discrimination with re-
spect to terms and conditions of employment solely on the basis of sex. (any em-
ployer favouring a male over a female in terms of promotions, training opportunities,
and other benefits solely on accounts of sex is considered discrimination).
RA 7882 (Assistance for small-scale women entrepreneur) provide all possible assistance
to Filipino women in their pursuit of owning, operating and managing small busi-
ness enterprise.
RA 7877 (Anti-Sexual harassment Act of 1995)sexual harassment committed in employ
ment, education, or training environment. Sexual favors made as a condition in the
employment or granting promotions or privileges; or the refusal to grant the sexual
favour results in limiting, segregating or classifying the employee which in any way
discriminate, deprived, or diminish employment opportunities or otherwise adversely
affect is punishable by law.
RA 8353 (Anti-Rape Law) any person having carnal knowledge of a woman through force,
threat, or intimidation or by means of fraudulent machination or grave abuse of au-
thority will be punished under this Law.
RA 8505 (Rape Victim Assistance and Protection Act of 1998)
RA 9710 (Magna Carta of Women) seeks to eliminate discrimination through the recogni
tion, protection, fulfilment, and promotions of the rights of Filipino women, especially
those belonging in the marginalized sectors of society.
RA 6949 (National Women’s Day) all government entities from national to local should ob-
served, engage and participate in any activity conducted within the premises of their
respective offices/agencies/establishments to celebrate National Women’s day every
8th day of March every year.
GAD (Gender and Development)

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Related Laws:
CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women)
RA 9710 (Magna Carta of Women)
RA 9262 VAWC (Violence Against Women and their Children)
GAD (Gender and Development)
RA 9262 (Phil. Commission on Women)
RA 11210 (Expanded Maternity Leave Law)
RA 6725 (Prohibition on Discrimination against Women)

Vocabulary

Bias – n. a tendency to believe that some people, ideas, etc., are better than others that
usually results in treating some people unfairly.
Discipline – n. control that is gained by requiring that rules or orders be obeyed and punish
ing bad behaviour
Gender – n. the state of being female or male
Impact – n. to have a strong and often bad effect on something or someone
Neutral – adj. not expressing strong opinions or feelings
Perception – n. the way you think about or understand someone or something
Promote – v. to make people aware of something
Participate – v. to be involved with others in dong something
Tend – v. used to describe what often happens or what someone often does is likely to do

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 WEEK 10
Government Programs in Addressing Inequalities in Eth-
10.2 nic Minorities

INTRODUCTION
"Race is understood by most people as a mixture of physical, behavioral and cultural attrib-
utes. Ethnicity recognizes differences between people mostly on the basis of language and
shared culture." If someone asked you to describe your identity to them, where would you begin?
Would it come down to your skin color or your nationality? What about the language you speak,
your religion, your cultural traditions or your family's ancestry? This bewildering question often
pushes people to separate their identities into two parts: race versus ethnicity. But what do these
two terms actually mean, and what's the difference between race and ethnicity in the first
place? These words are often used interchangeably, but technically, they're defined as separate
things. "'Race' and 'ethnicity' have been and continue to be used as ways to describe human di-
versity," said Nina Jablonski, an anthropologist and palaeobiologist at The Pennsylvania State
University, who is known for her research into the evolution of human skin color. "Race is under-
stood by most people as a mixture of physical, behavioral and cultural attributes. Ethnicity recog-

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

1. understand the difference between Race and Ethnicity
2. identify the minority to dominant
3. know the programs of Government that protects the minority

Race and ethnicity:

"Race is understood by most people as a mixture of physical, behavioral and cultural attrib-
utes. Ethnicity recognizes differences between people mostly on the basis of language and
shared culture."
Ethnic Minority is a group of people of a particular race or nationality living in a country or area
where most people are from different race or nationality.
How does ethnicity affects society: Racial and ethnic prejudices affect the distribution of wealth,
power, and opportunity, and create enduring social stratifications. Racial pride can foment racial
prejudice, as in the case of white supremacists.Feb 22, 2019 www.nationalgeographic.com

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PRE-TEST

Write True if the statement is True and write false if the statement is False.
1. Is it true that Ethnic minority has been left behind in terms of economic aspects
2. Ethnic Minority is a group of people of a particular race or nationality living in a country or
area where most people are from different race or nationality.
3. Is there a difference between race and ethnic.
4. Ethnic minorities may face racism, whereas sexual minorities may experience homopho-
bia and heterosexism.
5. Can you consider the statement that because of social inequalities, ethnic minorities be-
come vulnerable to discrimination.

Learning Activities:

Race is understood by most people as a mixture of physical, behavioral and cultural attrib-
utes. Ethnicity recognizes differences between people mostly on the basis of language
and shared culture.

One instance where race has been question in the case of the black American in the
United States of America that is being killed by white Americans allegedly because of race
discrimination. With that event, many Americans, black and white made protest to question
the discrimination by the white American police to the black American. That is a good ex-
ample of racial discrimination. It differs with Ethnicity that identify by the language used and
their culture.

Example of ethnic inequalities:

The major examples of social inequality include income gap, gender inequality, health care,
and social class. In health care, some individuals receive better and more professional care
compared to others.

Health disparities:
Clearly, improving the socioeconomic status and access to care for all people are
among the most important ways to eliminate health disparities. Physicians can influence
these areas through individual participation in political activities, in non-profit organizations,
and in their professional organizations.

Importance in addressing health disparities:

Health disparities are differences in health outcomes and their causes among groups
of people. Reducing health disparities is a major goal of public health. Achiev-
ing health equity, eliminating disparities, and improving the health of all U.S. population
groups is one of the goals of Healthy People in 2020 . The question is, if these minorities
will not fill the gap of social discrimination because of social status/ level, this will remain a
dream and just an ideal things to be dreamt of.

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Racial or Ethnic Minorities:

Every large society contains ethnic minorities: subgroups that share a common herit-
age, which often consists of a shared language, culture (often including a religion), or ideol-
ogy that stresses common ancestry or endogamy. In this case, while minority status can be
conditioned by a clear numerical difference, more significantly it refers to issues of political
power. In some places, subordinate ethnic groups may constitute a numerical majority,
such as blacks in South Africa under apartheid. In addition to long-established ethnic minor-
ity populations in various nation-states, ethnic minorities may consist of more recent mi-
grant, indigenous, or landless nomadic communities residing within, or between, a particu-
lar national territory.
Gender and Sexuality Minorities:
Recognition of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people as a minority group or
groups has gained prominence in the Western world since the nineteenth century. The ab-
breviation “LGBT” is currently used to group these identities together. The term queer is
sometimes understood as an umbrella term for all non-normative sexualities and gender
expressions but does not always signify a minority; rather, as with many gay rights activists
of the 1960s and 1970s, it sometimes represents an attempt to highlight sexual diversity in
everyone. While in most societies the numbers of men and women are roughly equal, the
status of women as a oppressed group has led some, such as feminists and other partici-
pants in women’s rights movements, to identify them as a minority group.
Religious Minorities:
Persons belonging to religious minorities have a faith which is different from that held
by the majority population or the population group that is in power. It is now accepted in
many multicultural societies around the world that people should have the freedom to
choose their own religion, including not having any religion (atheism or agnosticism), and
including the right to convert from one religion to another. However in some countries this
freedom is still either formally restricted or subject to cultural bias from the majority popula-
tion.
People with Disabilities:
The disability rights movement has contributed to an understanding of people with dis-
abilities as a minority or a coalition of minorities who are disadvantaged by society, not just
as people who are disadvantaged by their impairments. Advocates of disability rights em-
phasize differences in physical or psychological functioning, rather than inferiority: for ex-
ample, some people with autism argue for acceptance of neuro-diversity, in the same way
in which opponents of racism argue for acceptance of ethnic diversity. The deaf community
is often regarded as a linguistic and cultural minority rather than a group with disabilities,
and some deaf people do not see themselves as having a disability at all. Rather, they are
disadvantaged by technologies and social institutions that are designed to cater to the dom-
inant, hearing-unimpaired group.

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 While many students first entering a sociology classroom are accustomed to conflating
terms “race,” “ethnicity,” and “minority group,” these three terms have distinct meanings
for sociologists. The idea of race refers to superficial physical differences that a particu-
lar society considers significant, while ethnicity describes shared culture. And the term
“minority groups” describe groups that are subordinate, or that lack power in society re-
gardless of skin color or country of origin. For example, in modern U.S. history, the el-
derly might be considered a minority group due to a diminished status that results from
popular prejudice and discrimination against them. Ten percent of nursing home staff
admitted to physically abusing an elderly person in the past year, and 40 percent admit-
ted to committing psychological abuse (World Health Organization 2011). In this chapter
we focus on racial and ethnic minorities.

What Is Race?

Historically, the concept of race has changed across cultures and eras, and has eventu-
ally become less connected with ancestral and familial ties, and more concerned with
superficial physical characteristics. In the past, theorists have posited categories of race
based on various geographic regions, ethnicities, skin colors, and more. Their labels for
racial groups have connoted regions (Mongolia and the Caucus Mountains, for instance)
or skin tones (black, white, yellow, and red, for example)

The social construction of race is also reflected in the way names for racial categories
change with changing times. It’s worth noting that race, in this sense, is also a system of
labeling that provides a source of identity; specific labels fall in and out of favor during
different social eras. For example, the category ”negroid,” popular in the nineteenth cen-
tury, evolved into the term “negro” by the 1960s, and then this term fell from use and
was replaced with “African American.” This latter term was intended to celebrate the
multiple identities that a black person might hold, but the word choice is a poor one: it
lumps together a large variety of ethnic groups under an umbrella term while excluding
others who could accurately be described by the label but who do not meet the spirit of
the term. For example, actress Charlize Theron is a blonde-haired, blue-eyed “African
American.” She was born in South Africa and later became a U.S. citizen. Is her identity
that of an “African American” as most of us understand the term? .

What Is Ethnicity?

Ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture—the practices, values, and beliefs of a
group. This culture might include shared language, religion, and traditions, among other
commonalities. Like race, the term ethnicity is difficult to describe and its meaning has
changed over time. And as with race, individuals may be identified or self-identify with
ethnicities in complex, even contradictory, ways. For example, ethnic groups such as
Irish, Italian American, Russian, Jewish, and Serbian might all be groups whose mem-
bers are predominantly included in the “white” racial category. Conversely, the ethnic
group British includes citizens from a multiplicity of racial backgrounds: black, white,
Asian, and more, plus a variety of race combinations. These examples illustrate the
complexity and overlap of these identifying terms. Ethnicity, like race, continues to be an
identification method that individuals and institutions use today—whether through the
census, affirmative action initiatives, nondiscrimination laws, or simply in personal day-to
-day relations.
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What Are Minority Groups?

Sociologist Louis Wirth (1945) defined a minority group as “any group of people who, be-
cause of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the soci-
ety in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard them-
selves as objects of collective discrimination.” The term minority connotes discrimination,
and in its sociological use, the term subordinate group can be used interchangeably with
the term minority, while the term dominant group is often substituted for the group that’s in
the majority. These definitions correlate to the concept that the dominant group is that
which holds the most power in a given society, while subordinate groups are those who
lack power compared to the dominant group.

Note that being a numerical minority is not a characteristic of being a minority group;
sometimes larger groups can be considered minority groups due to their lack of pow-
er. It is the lack of power that is the predominant characteristic of a minority, or subor-
dinate group. For example, consider apartheid in South Africa, in which a numerical
majority (the black inhabitants of the country) were exploited and oppressed by the
white minority.

According to Charles Wagley and Marvin Harris (1958), a minority group is distinguished by
five characteristics: (1) unequal treatment and less power over their lives, (2) distin-
guishing physical or cultural traits like skin color or language, (3) involuntary member-
ship in the group, (4) awareness of subordination, and (5) high rate of in-group mar-
riage. Additional examples of minority groups might include the LBGT community, reli-
gious practitioners whose faith is not widely practiced where they live, and people with
disabilities.

Scapegoat theory, developed initially from Dollard’s (1939) Frustration-Aggression the-

ory, suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a
subordinate group. History has shown us many examples of the scapegoating of a
subordinate group. An example from the last century is the way Adolf Hitler was able
to blame the Jewish population for Germany’s social and economic problems. In the
United States, recent immigrants have frequently been the scapegoat for the na-
tion’s—or an individual’s—woes. Many states have enacted laws to disenfranchise im-
migrants; these laws are popular because they let the dominant group scapegoat a
subordinate group.

Race is fundamentally a social construct. Ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture
and national origin. Minority groups are defined by their lack of power.

19
 Income inequality is growing in many countries and has a negative influence on edu-
cational achievement. While the academic achievement gap has received increased atten-
tion recently, it is a global phenomenon. Financial capability of the ethnic minorities have
been questions because of their status in the society. Not only that, education is the result
of social inequality among ethnic groups that may eventually poverty as its outcome.
In this regards, the government also recognizes the presence of minority in whatever
forms in the government to be heard and to become vulnerable in the society to reduce the
social inequalities.
There are significant inequalities in opportunities in accessing basic services within
and among ethnic groups in the Philippines. Years of schooling and access to safe water
registered the highest inequality (both within- and between-group components). Higher
within-group inequalities exist among Muslim ethnic groups, particularly the indigenous
groups, as well as among a few of the indigenous non-Muslim ethnic groups. Nonindige-
nous/non-Muslim ethnic groups are generally better-off in terms of access to education and
other basic services. However, disparities in access to education (in terms of literacy) and
basic amenities (particularly electricity and sanitary toilet facility) appear to be narrowing
between 2000 and 2010, as shown by various inequality measures. Results for Mindanao
slightly vary in the sense that only inequality in terms of access to electricity has shown im-
provement. Inequality in opportunities, particularly in secondary education, access to safe
water and electricity, has to be addressed to level the playing field for the different ethnic
groups, stimulate their inherent competitive ability and strive to improve themselves. The
findings of this study can serve as useful inputs for the policymakers to be able to reduce
the level of inequality in opportunities among different ethnic groups in the country.

What the U.S. Education System Needs to Reduce Inequality:

 Plot a clear strategy to improve the education experience for all students and narrow
inequality gap. ...
 Hold to equally rigorous standards for all classrooms. ...
 Put a focus on teachers as a central force for change in the education system. ...
 Equalize the share of resources among all school systems.
Affirmative action is a controversial issue, which refers to policies that take factors in-
cluding race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or national origin into consideration in or-
der to benefit an underrepresented group. This is usually justified as countering the effects
of a history of discrimination. Affirmative action can, for example, take the form of a govern-
ment program to provide immigrant or minority groups who primarily speak a marginalized
language with extra teaching in the majority language, so that they are better able to com-
pete for places at university or for jobs.
The Modified Conditional Cash Transfer (MCCT) Program, which is currently being
implemented by the Philippine government, can also serve as a starting point to address
the low access to secondary education (as well as to health care) among vulnerable Filipi-
nos such as itinerant indigenous families and those that are displaced by natural and man-
made disasters (e.g., armed conflicts), among others. In addition to efforts that would help
minimize the occurrence of conflicts, there is a need to increase access to decent housing
and other infrastructure services, particularly safe drinking water and basic sanitation,
among ethnic groups who have been displaced by conflicts, especially in Mindanao.
20
 Filipinos had higher access to and more equal access to primary education services, but
lower and less equal access in terms of secondary education services. The lower and less
equal school participation rate in secondary education can partly be attributed to lack of physi-
cal access. While primary schools can be found in almost all barangays, secondary schools
are usually located in the poblacion or urban centers within the municipalities. One way to ad-
dress the lack of physical access to education facilities is by setting up student dormitories
near the school facility. For instance, the city of Panabo has established a dormitory for
Lumad children so that children do not have to walk several kilometers a day to reach the
school. Furthermore, the Philippine government has been exerting efforts to improve access
of ethnic groups to education through various programs. One such program is the Indigenous
Peoples Education Program (IPED) of the Department of Education (DepEd) . In 2011, DepEd
adopted the National Indigenous Peoples Education Policy Framework and has been imple-
menting the IPED program since then. This and similar programs need to be evaluated to see
if they have been effective and can therefore be scaled up.

Inequalities exists today:

There are five systems or types of social inequality: wealth inequality, treatment and responsi-
bility inequality, political inequality, life inequality, and membership inequality. Political inequal-
ity is the difference brought about by the ability to access governmental resources which
therefore have no civic equality. So as the government really existing their effort to fill the gap
of all the said inequalities that still exist today. There is no doubt that every sector, every mi-
norities, every ethnic groups had a voice in the Government thru the Partylist Representative
to see to it that all forms of discriminatory by its nature shall be given due course.

Republic Act No. 8371, otherwise known as “The Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of
1997” (IPRA)The State recognizes the inherent dignity and equal and inalienable rights of all
members of Philippine society as the foundation of freedom, justice and peace. The rights of
indigenous cultural communities / indigenous peoples are universal, indivisible, interdepend-
ent and interrelated. It is, therefore, the policy of the state to recognize and promote all individ-
ual and collective rights of ICCs/IPs within the framework of national unity and development in
accordance with the Constitution and applicable norms and principles.
The Act makes provision for the promotion and recognition of the rights of Indigenous
Cultural Communities/Indigenous Peoples (ICCs/IPs), with a view to preserve their culture,
traditions and institutions and to ensure the equal protection and non-discrimination of mem-
bers. The Act is divided into the following Chapters: General Provisions (I); Definition of Terms
(II); Rights to Ancestral Domains (III); Right to Self-governance and Empowerment (IV); Social
Justice and Human Rights (V); Cultural.
There are many Laws that protects the minorities because they are part of the Philippine gov-
ernment that indeed should benefit whatever the benefits due to them.
The Anti Discriminatory Act that provides shelter of equality among equals that indeed
no person shall be indiscriminate solely by reason of the status in the society.

21
Practice task 1: Draw a picture to show the difference between ethnicity and race.
Practice task 2: In your own idea, cite an example wherein discrimination in ethnic commu-
nity is happening.
Practice task 3: What would be your suggestion/solution if these inequalities in the minori-
ties still happening today.
Practice task 4: Are the programs of governments in addressing these issues enough?
Why you said so?
Criteria: 1. grammar and mechanics
2. idea/content
3. organization

The racial term “African American” can refer to:

1. A black person living in the United States
2. A persons whose ancestors came to the United States through the slave trade
3. A white person who originated in Africa now lives in the United States
4. Any of the above

What is the one defining feature of a minority group?

1. Self-definition
2. Numerically minority
3. Lack of power
4. Strong cultural identity

Ethnicity describes shared:

1. Belief
2. Language
3. Religion
4. Any of the above

Which of the following is an example of a numerical majority being treated as a subordi-

nate group?
1. Jewish people in Germany
2. Creoles in New Orleans
3. White people in Brazil
4. Blacks under apartheid in South Africa

Scapegoat theory shows that:

1. Subordinate groups blamed dominant groups for their problems
2. Dominant groups blamed subordinate groups for their problems
3. Some people are predisposed to prejudiced
4. All of the above

22
1. Why do you think the term “minority” has persisted when the word “subordinate” is more
descriptive?
2. How do you describe your ethnicity? Do you include your family’s country of origin? Do
you consider yourself multiethnic? How does your ethnicity compare to that of the peo-
ple you spend most of your time with?
An ethnic minority is a group of people who differ in race or color or in national, reli-
gious, or cultural origin from the dominant group — often the majority population — of the
country in which they live.
Example of ethnic minority:
In the United States, for example, non-Hispanic Whites constitute the majority (63.4%)
and all other racial and ethnic groups (Hispanic or Latino, African Americans, Asian Ameri-
cans, American Indian, and Native Hawaiians) are classified as "minorities".
Who are black and minority group:
'BAME' stands for 'Black, Asian and minority ethnic' and 'BME' stands for Black and
Minority Ethnic'. The terms are widely used by government departments, public bod-
ies, the media and others when referring to ethnic minority groups.

Difference between Racial minority and Ethnic minority:

Race is based on biology, while ethnicity is based on culture. ... On the other hand,
a minority is any category of people distinguished by either physical or cultur-
al difference that a society has subordinated.
What are the 6 Ethnic Groups:
The state officially categorizes its population into six groups: white, African American,
Native American/Alaskan Native, Pacific Islander, Asian, and Native Hawaiian. From those
groups, Americans identity with ethnic groups that are even more specific.Jul 18, 2019
dominant group - a group of people who have more power in a society than any of
the subor dinate groups

Ethnicity-shared culture, which may include heritage, language, religion, and more

minority group-any group of people who are singled out from the others for differential and
unequal treatment

scapegoat theory-a theory that suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfo-
cused aggression onto a subordinate group

social construction of race-the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable

subordinate group-a group of people who have less power than the dominant group

23
 WEEK 10 Government Programs in Addressing
Global Inequalities
10.3
INTRODUCTION
Different ways of viewing the facts. When people talk about global income inequality there
are a number of things that could be referred to. First, one might think of the inequality within
countries across the world. From this perspective, the question in need of an answer would be:
“How has inequality within individual countries changed globally in recent decades?” The short
answer is that it has increased in most places. This is certainly the case in most of the developed
world since the 1980s, while in Emerging Markets and Developing Countries (EMDCs) there are
greater differences across time and regions. Looking at disposable incomes at the household
level (the most commonly used measure in international comparisons) most countries in Asia
and Eastern Europe have seen marked increases of inequality, while the trend seems to have
been the opposite in Latin America and in large parts of Africa. In level terms, the development
has been one of convergence since, on average, the countries in Eastern Europe and Asia start-
ed at much lower levels than those in Latin America and Africa. In the Philippines, we almost see
the inequalities even among equals. The riches become more richest and the poor become
poorest. What will be the causes and somehow solution to these global inequalities.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

1. understand the global inequalities
2. know the factors that affects global inequalities
3. know the programs of Government that may lessen the global inequalities

Inequality is a vicious cycle.“The rich get richer, the poor get poorer” is not just a cliche.
The concept behind it is a theoretical process called “wealth concentration.” Under certain condi-
tions, newly created wealth is concentrated in the possession of already-wealthy individuals [5].
The reason is simple: People who already hold wealth have the resources to invest or
to leverage the accumulation of wealth, which creates new wealth. The process of wealth con-
centration arguably makes economic inequality a vicious cycle. The effects of wealth concentra-
tion may extend to future generations [3]. Children born in a rich family have an economic ad-
vantage, because of wealth inherited and possibly education, which may increase their chances
of earning a higher income than their peers. These advantages create another round of the vi-
cious cycle.The French economist Thomas Picketty recently published a book, Capital in the
Twenty-First Century [6]. Picketty’s thesis supports the previous proposition. It is a 700-page
book on the topic of income inequality. The rich collection of statistics in the book shows that in
almost every country (examined by Picketty), the wealth gap has widened since 1980. Picketty
holds the view that inequality will remain as long as the aforementioned wealth concentration
process persists through generations. However, Picketty argued that global inequality has prob-
ably decreased, as there has been rapid growth in Asia partly at the expense of lower-to-middle
income earners in developed countries. The statistics show economic inequality is not just the
top 10 percent of the population is richer than the bottom 20 percent. Rather, it is “1 percent ver-
sus the remaining 99 percent,” i.e. the top 1 percent of the population has the vast majority of
wealth in the economy and control of financial markets.
24
PRE-TEST

Write True if the statement is True and write false if the statement is False.
1. Global inequality, one the determining factor is education
2. In solving inequalities among and between countries, it needs to strengthen the edu-
cation as the source of good opportunity.
3. If you failed to finish your education, does it mean that there is an income inequalities
between you and other person?
4. income inequality, include higher rates of health and social problems, and lower
rates of social goods, a lower population-wide satisfaction and happiness and even a
lower level of economic growth when human capital is neglected for high-end con-
sumption.
5. Accordingly, education affects the wages of the workers.

Learning Activities:

International inequality refers to the idea of inequality between countries. This can be com-
pared to global inequality which is inequality between people across countries. This may
refer to economic differences between countries. As well as medical care and education
differences. Wikipedia
 Why there is global inequality?
Global inequality is driven by changes both of the inequality within countries and
the inequality between countries. Since then, inequality between countries has declined.
As is shown in this visualization, the inequality of incomes between different countries is
much higher than the inequality within countries.
 What are the effects of global inequality?
Effects of income inequality, researchers have found, include higher rates of
health and social problems, and lower rates of social goods, a lower population-wide satis-
faction and happiness and even a lower level of economic growth when human capital is
neglected for high-end consumption
The Causes of Economic Inequality:
Difference in income plays a role. One important factor contributing to different levels
of wealth is people are paid different wages. There are several reasons why some people
are paid millions while some merely earn minimum wage.

1. Wages are determined by labor market.

Wages are a function of the market price of skills required for a job [1]. In a free mar-
ket, the “market price of a skill” is determined by market demand and market supply. The
market price of a skill, and hence the wage for the job that requires the skill, is low if a large
number of workers (high supply) are willing and able to offer that skill but only a few em-
ployers need it (low demand). On the contrary, when there is low supply but high demand
for a skill, the wage for a job requiring the skill goes up.
2. Education affects wages.
Individuals with different levels of education often earn different wages [2]. This is
probably related to reason one: the level of education is often proportional to the level of
skill. With a higher level of education, a person often has more advanced skills that few
workers are able to offer, justifying a higher wage.
25
The impact of education on economic inequality is still profound in developed countries and cit-
ies [3]. Although there are usually policies of free education in developed nations, levels of edu-
cation received by each individual still differ, not because of financial ability but innate qualities
like intelligence, drive and personal ability. For example, in Hong Kong, 12 years of free educa-
tion are provided for each citizen, not covering tertiary education, offered only when students
receive certain results on public exams. Moreover, receiving the same level of education does
not mean receiving education of the same quality. This accounts for the difference in abilities
and hence wages for individuals all receiving, for example, 12 years of education. Therefore, it
seems no matter how good the social welfare policy of a country is at preventing denial of edu-
cation due to financial difficulties, differences in education, in terms of levels and quality, still
play a prominent role in economic inequality.

3. Growth in technology widens income gap.

Growth in technology arguably renders joblessness at all skill levels [3]. For unskilled
workers, computers and machinery perform a lot of tasks these workers used to be do. In many
jobs, such as packaging and manufacturing, machinery works even more effectively and effi-
ciently. Hence, jobs involving repetitive tasks have largely been eliminated. Skilled workers are
not immune to the nightmare of losing jobs. The rapid development in artificial intelligence may
ultimately allow computers and robots to perform knowledge-based jobs [3]. The impact of in-
creasing unemployment is stagnant or decreasing wages for most workers, as there is a low
demand for but high supply of labor. A small portion of society, usually the owners of capital,
controls an ever-increasing fraction of the economy [3]. The income gap between workers who
earn by their skills and owners who earn by investing in capital has widened.
Although both skilled and unskilled workers are adversely affected by the technological
advance, it seems unskilled workers are subject to worse outcomes [3]. This is because the la-
bor market may still need skilled workers to use computers and operate the advanced ma-
chines. The rightward shift in the demand for skilled labor creates an increase in the relative
wages of the skilled compared to the unskilled workers. Hence, the income gap among workers
also has widened.

4. Gender does matter.

In many countries, there is a gender income gap in the labor market [3]. For example, in
America, the median full-time salary for women is 77 percent of that of men [4]. However, wom-
en who work part time make more on average than men who work part-time [4]. Additionally,
among people who never marry or have children, women make more than men [4].
It may be difficult to justify such differences. According to a U.S. Census report [4], the wage
gap is not fully explained even after accounting for key factors that affect earnings, such as dis-
crimination and the tendency of women to consider factors other than pay when looking for
work. The only thing we know for sure is that gender does contribute to a difference in wages in
society and hence economic inequality.

5.Personal factors.
It is generally believed that innate abilities play a part in determining the wealth of an indi-
vidual. Hence, individuals possessing different sets of abilities may have different levels of
wealth, leading to economic inequality [3]. For example, more determined individuals may keep
improving themselves and striving for better achievements, which justifies a higher wage. An-
other example is intelligence [3]. A lot of people believe that smarter people tend to have higher
income and hence more wealth. This is debatable. In the book IQ and the Wealth of Nations,
Dr. Richard Lynn opined that there is a correlation of 0.82 between average IQ and GDP. How-
ever, Stephen Jay Gould, in the book The Mismeasure of Man, criticized it for employing the
wrong methods of evaluation.
26
 In addition to innate abilities, diversity of preferences, within a society or among different
societies, contributes to the difference in wealth [3]. When it comes to working harder or hav-
ing fun, equally capable individuals may have totally different priorities, resulting in a differ-
ence in their incomes. Their saving patterns may also differ, leading to different levels of ac-
cumulated wealth.
Causes for Global Inequality
 Political goals.
 Exploitation of poor countries.
 Tax avoidance.
 Lack of education.
 Lack of innovation.
 Gender inequality.
 Insecurity regarding property rights.
 Low investment incentives for firms.

Global Inequality: Causes, Effects & Solutions

CAUSES EFFECTS SOLUTIONS

Political goals Health effects Better access to education

Exploitation of poor countries Social tensions Financial subsidies
Tax avoidance Increased probability for con- Create incentives for firms to
flicts locate to poor areas
Lack of education Frustration Increase incentives for inno-

Insecurity regarding poverty Drug abuse World wide support

Low investment incentives Crime Global wealth tax

Low living quality poverty Improves workers’ right

Regional factors Starvation Establish minimum wages
Wars Lack to access to education Increase national stability

Famine Bad working condition Improve trade policies

Consumption behaviour Terrorism Change consumption behav-
ior
Natural Disaster Convince others

Global inequality (also sometimes referred to as international inequality) can be defined

as the inequal distribution of material resources and income across countries. Apart from eco-
nomic figures, global inequality may also refer to the access to medical care and also to edu-
cation. According to the global wealth report of Global Suisse, half of the worldwide wealth is
owned by the richest 1% of people. This also implies huge international inequality which has
many adverse consequences.

27
Causes for Global Inequality
 Political goals
 Exploitation of poor countries
 Tax avoidance
 Lack of education
 Lack of innovation
 Gender inequality
 Insecurity regarding property rights
 Low investment incentives for firms
 Low living quality
 Regional factors
 Conflicts
 Famine
 Consumption behaviour
 Natural disasters

1. Political goals
Although often proclaimed by politics, global inequality favors some countries and
gives them an edge over poor countries in terms of technological progress and therefore
gives those countries a competitive advantage. Thus, it is often quite favorable for rich
countries to keep other countries poor in order to sustain their advantage and their power.
Therefore, political goals play a big role in the development and maintenance of global ine-
quality.

2. Exploitation of poor countries

Poor countries often get exploited by rich countries in several ways. Since poor coun-
tries often depend on the demand of rich countries, they are heavily reliant and become de-
pendent. Thus, rich countries can often dictate the terms on which the countries interact
and make business. Moreover, rich countries also tend to shift their problems to foreign
countries. An example for this is the transportation of waste from Western countries to poor
countries in Africa in order to get rid of the waste problem. Additionally, firms often exploit
poor countries in terms of working conditions and low wages. Therefore, people and poor
countries as a whole are often exploited by rich countries or multi-national firms which leads
to a significant level of inequality.

3. Tax avoidance
Big firms often try to avoid taxes whenever possible. They are also quite successful in
doing so, since they are able to hire the best tax consultants and are also quite flexible in
terms of shifting their money in order to avoid taxes. Although beneficial for firms, tax avoid-
ance contributes to the global inequality issue since taxes are usually collected to finance
public infrastructure and to improve the living conditions for locals. If firms do not pay their
taxes, large amounts of money are missing and global inequality tends to increase.

28
4. Lack of education
Education is key to escape poverty and to build wealth. However, especially in poor
countries, people often do not have access to education and therefore suffer from a lack of
education. Moreover, children often have to work in order to earn money for their families
and do not have time to attend school. In addition, in many developing countries, education
levels are quite low in general, which makes it even harder for people to escape poverty.
Since uneducated people often have no chance to escape poverty and to move in order to
find a better future, those people are likely to stay in their home countries. Hence, a lack of
education increases international inequality.

5. Lack of innovation
Innovation and technological progress are crucial in order to fight global inequality.
However, in many poor countries, there is just a low level of innovation since governments
do not offer the incentives or even do prohibit actions that would increase innovation levels.
Moreover, in some cultures, innovation is considered to be dodgy since people fear their
old values are eroded through technological progress. In addition, innovation is often
slowed down since many poor countries suffer from a severe level of corruption and firms
are not willing to open branches in those regions.

6. Gender inequality
In many countries, men and women are not treated as equally valuable and women
often have only pretty confined rights. This gender inequality also contributes to global ine-
quality since women are often not able to get proper education and therefore stay trapped
in poverty.

7.Insecurity regarding property rights

In order to make poor countries attractive for investors, their property rights have to be
assured. Imagine you are considering to invest in a country. Would you invest if you have to
fear expropriation in the near future? I don’t think so. Moreover, especially in big compa-
nies, shareholders and the management will always refrain from engaging in those kinds of
investments since they consider it to be too risky. In order to make these countries more
attractive to invest in and therefore to increase wealth levels, governments have to ensure
stable investment conditions.

8. Low investment incentives for firms

Governments also have to make investing in their countries more profitable. For in-
stance, this could mean giving subsidies or tax advantages to firms if they are willing to
open branches in their countries. This could also include providing appropriate infrastruc-
ture and living conditions to attract smart people from all over the world. By doing so, the
overall income level in these countries will likely increase and global inequality will de-
crease.

9.Low living quality

Many poor countries also have quite low living standards. This includes hygienic
standards, quality of hospitals, public transportation and other infrastructure for daily life.
These low living standards are a big problem since they may discourage international pro-
fessionals to move to those countries since these professionals likely strive for higher living
standards. In turn, this leads poor countries to stay poor since they will not be able to keep

29
10. Regional factors
Some factors are predetermined and cannot be changed. For example, this includes cli-
matic conditions. In countries with high air temperature and high humidity levels, physical work
is much more exhausting than in countries with moderate climatic conditions. Therefore, peo-
ple who are living in countries with extreme climatic conditions will likely not be able to accom-
plish the same amounts of work compared to people living in comfort climate zones. Conse-
quently, countries who suffer from extreme climatic conditions are also likely to produce less
and in turn have a higher probability to stay poor.
11. Conflicts
Wars also contribute to global inequality. Large amounts of money and resources are
wasted in conflicts all over the world each single year. Imagine those resources had been
used for the development of infrastructure purposes instead! By engaging in conflicts, govern-
ments waste large amounts of resource and also threaten the life of many people.
12. Famine
Famine can be regarded as a cause as well as an effect of global inequality. Famine can
cause international inequality since people who suffer from food scarcity have less physical
and mental power to accomplish their goals and therefore are more likely to stay poor. Moreo-
ver, famine also increases the probability for conflicts since people are more frustrated which
in turn also leads to an increase in inequality.

13. Consumption behavior

Consumption levels are rising all over the world. Especially in our Western world, we
consume large amounts of material goods. Moreover, people in countries which had been
poor in past decades now aspire similar lifestyles. This leads to many serious problems since
in order to meet the demand for material goods, excessive amounts of resources have to be
extracted out of the ground. Many poor countries are exploited by rich countries and compa-
nies in the sense that resources and land for resource extraction are bought at quite low pric-
es which in turn makes rich countries and companies even more rich while poor countries stay
poor, eventually leading to even more global inequality.

14.Natural disasters
Apart from human-made global inequality, there are also natural factors that contribute to
differences of wealth across countries. Regions that are hit by natural disasters are much
more likely to suffer from low financial standards than countries who are lucky to be spared by
those adverse natural events since the affected countries have to frequently rebuild their infra-
structure which takes large amounts of money and resources.

Effects of Global Inequality:

1. Health effects
Global inequality causes severe health effects for many people worldwide. Since low lev-
els of income and wealth also often imply insufficient access to healthcare, many people may
suffer from severe health conditions or even death since they will not be able to get the appro-
priate treatment. Moreover, in many developing countries, there sometimes are quite good pri-
vate hospitals, but most of the locals are simply not able to afford this kind of treatment and
will therefore be on low-quality public hospitals or even on treatment at home without consulta-
tion of a doctor. Hence, there may be severe health effects caused by global inequality in poor
developing countries.

30
2.Social tensions
Financial inequality often contributes to social tensions since people are often greedy
and also jealous. Especially when the own living conditions are quite bad, it is hard to grant
somebody a better lifestyle. Imagine you cannot afford to send your kids to school and sup-
ply them with sufficient food when at the same moment your neighbour can do all this. How
would you feel about that?

3.Increased probability for conflicts

Global inequality can also lead to severe conflicts in poor regions. People may fight
over resources and other material things. This is especially true when it comes to basic
needs like food and water supply. The poorer people are, the more incentive they have to
engage in conflicts since they have not much to lose and have to fight in order to survive.
Moreover, poverty can also lead to populism and the resulting adverse effects.

4.Frustration
Inequality often also leads to frustration for the people who suffer from the adverse
effects of poverty. Many people will simply lose their will to improve their life since they do
not believe that they ever get out of poverty. This frustration may lead to conflicts and may
also impact the social behavior of people in an adverse manner.

5.Drug use
Inequality and financial shortage may also lead to the use of certain substances. Peo-
ple will often try to escape reality for a while by doing drugs or engage in the consumption
of other harmful substances. In fact, there is a strong correlation between drug use and the
poverty level of people. Many people may simply be tired of their daily life and their adverse
financial conditions and do not have too much to lose. Therefore, doing drugs may become
quite appealing to these groups of people.

6. Poverty
Global inequality also implies economic inequality, poverty and global hunger for large
numbers of people worldwide. While a small fraction of the world population owns the ma-
jority of our material wealth, the majority of people owns almost nothing. Poverty leads to all
kinds of adverse effects for the people who have to deal with this issue.

7. Starvation
Starvation can be the consequence of international inequality for many people in poor
developing countries. Especially in regions where farming is not possible due to climatic
conditions or water shortages, people may not be able to produce enough food to feed all
family members.

8. Lack of access to education

People may also not be able to attend school and get proper education due to ine-
quality around the world. Children often have to work in order to supply financial support for
their families instead of attending school. A lack of education will in turn trap people in pov-
erty since education is often the only way out of the dilemma.

9. Bad working conditions

Global inequality often also leads to bad working conditions for people living in poor
developing countries. Since there is often a high level of unemployment, people rely on the
work provided by companies. They simply have no choice since they need money to feed
their families. Thus, firms can easily exploit these people and treat them quite poorly.
31
10. Radical movements
Inequality often leads to jealousy and frustration which in turn can lead people to engage
in radical movements and actions. People who suffer from poor living conditions are usually
easier to recruit than people who enjoy their life since those people have nothing to lose. There-
fore, promises made by radical organizations may seem quite convincing for those people.

11. Migration
Global inequality can also lead to migration. Many people may have to leave their home
country due to extreme poverty and may try to move to rich Western countries in order to have
a better future.

Solutions for Global Inequality:

1. Better access to education
In order to fight global inequality, governments in poor countries have to ensure access to
education. This could mean supporting poor families with financial aid. It could also mean
spending more money on teachers and research facilities. By doing so, people get a better edu-
cation and a better understanding on how to build businesses which in turn will likely increase
their living standards and may also increase the overall wealth of the respective country.

2. Financial subsidies
Poor countries rely on financial subsidies from rich countries in order to progress and fight
the adverse causes related to poverty and inequality. Therefore, it is crucial to set up and en-
large global funding programs for poor countries.

3. Create incentives for firms to locate to poor areas

In order to make it more attractive for firms to open branches in poor areas, governments
and municipalities should increase the financial incentive for firms to do so. This could come in
tax advantages for those regions or also from other kinds of financial support. The jobs that are
created will help to fight global inequality since the average income of people in those countries
will likely increase.

4. Increase incentives for innovation

Innovation is crucial in order to progress as a country and increase the average income of
people. Governments have to make sure that firms have sufficient incentive for innovation. This
could come through the protection of property rights or also through financial subsidies.

5. Worldwide support
Countries all over the world should work together in order to share their newest research
findings on all kinds of topics so that poor countries are able to profit from those findings.
Therefore, poor countries may be able to catch up to developed countries and global inequality
may be lowered due to global support.

6. Global wealth tax

A global wealth tax could be another measure to fight inequality. This could come in the
form that people who have large amounts of financial wealth will be charged a certain percent-
age amount. This money could in turn be used for the improvement of infrastructure and other
facilities in poor developing countries and thus may lower global inequality. However, a global
wealth tax strategy is likely quite hard to execute since all countries all over the world would
have to agree to this tax in order to prevent loopholes.

32
7. Improve workers’ rights
Governments should also improve the rights of workers. In many poor countries, working
conditions are quite bad and workers get exploited by companies. In order to lower the inequali-
ty in working conditions across countries, local authorities should set stricter rules for firms to
treat their employees better.

8. Establish minimum wages

Minimum wages are another measure to fight global inequality. In many regions, especial-
ly in countries where there is a high unemployment rate, people rely on their jobs and compa-
nies exploit these people by paying quite low wages. Establishing minimum wages would in-
crease the average income of people and would therefore contribute to a reduction in interna-
tional inequality.

9. Increase national stability levels

In order to attract renowned firms and therefore create higher levels of income, it is crucial
for countries to have ensure economic conditions and peace. Only then will companies consid-
er investing and building branches in these countries.

10. Improve trade policies

Some poor countries refrain from trade with other countries for different reasons. Howev-
er, international trade can be quite beneficial for the local economy if trading conditions are set
up in a fair manner. Hence, it is crucial for countries to open up to trade with other countries in
order to improve their wealth and to decrease global inequality.

11. Change consumption behavior

Everyone of us can make a difference in our daily life to reduce global inequality. You can
make your contribution by buying things that are produced under fair conditions. There
are several labels that ensure fair working conditions that you should pay attention to. Moreo-
ver, refrain from buying stuff from companies that are known for exploiting workers in poor
countries. Don’t blame industries for exploiting their employees, blame yourself for buying those
items! Industries only meet the demand of people. If no one is buying stuff from companies that
is produced under adverse working conditions, those companies will change their minds and
improve their working conditions since they would go out of business otherwise.

12. Convince others

Changing your consumption behavior in a manner that contributes to a reduction in global
inequality is a first step. However, you should also try to convince other people on the im-
portance of fighting global inequality whenever possible. Show them how easy it is to make a
contribution in their daily life. By doing so, you can multiply your positive impact and contribute
to improved living standards for many people worldwide.

Conclusion:
Global inequality is a big problem that has many severe adverse effects for poor countries
and the people living in those regions. Global inequality can be either caused by human actions
or also by natural circumstances. In order to fight international inequality, it is crucial that coun-
tries all over the world work together and share their newest research findings with each other.
Moreover, rich countries are in charge to provide financial subsidies for poor countries in order
to enable poor countries to progress. You can also contribute to a reduction in inequality in your
daily life by changing your consumption behavior. All these actions can lead to a state where
global inequality is reduced significantly and people all over the world will benefit from the posi-
tive related effects.

33
How can inequality be reduced:
Governments can intervene to promote equity, and reduce inequality and poverty,
through the tax and benefits system. This means employing a progressive tax and benefits sys-
tem which takes proportionately more tax from those on higher levels of income, and redistrib-
utes welfare benefits to those on lower incomes.

Policies to reduce inequality and poverty:

Reducing inequality and poverty, and promoting equity, are important macro-economic
objectives. The widening income gap between the rich and poor has highlighted the need to
understand the causes of relative inequality and poverty, and to construct suitable policies to
reduce poverty and narrow the income gap.

The principles of horizontal and vertical equity

Policy towards inequality and poverty is influenced by the desire to achieve both horizon-
tal and vertical equity. Horizontal equity means that, as a guideline for tax and benefits policy,
individuals in the same financial circumstances have the same fundamental ability to pay taxes,
and, therefore, should be taxed at the same rate. The principle of vertical equity suggests that,
when individuals are in different circumstances and have different abilities to pay, they should
not be taxed at the same rate. The UK tax system, like many, tries to achieve both horizontal
and vertical equity. Income tax is calculated as a % of earnings, so as income rises the tax take
rises, meaning that Individuals earning the same income will be taxed at the same rate, and
those earning more or less will pay more or less tax. The system also has bands of tax, with a
tax-free allowance, so that at very low income, no tax is paid, and at very high income the up-
per tax band will apply. Horizontal equality is achieved because everyone pays in the same tax
band pays the same tax. This means that a high earning individual will get the same tax-free
allowance as the low paid, and will pay tax at the same rate as others over the different bands
of income.

The tax and benefits system:

Governments can intervene to promote equity, and reduce inequality and poverty, through
the tax and benefits system. This means employing a progressive tax and benefits system
which takes proportionately more tax from those on higher levels of income, and redistributes
welfare benefits to those on lower incomes.

Stages of redistribution:
Original income can be adjusted in a number of ways to either increase or decrease post-
tax income.

Cash benefits:
Cash benefits are designed to help those on low or zero original income, and include con-
tributory and non-contributory benefits.
Contributory benefits, such as pensions and job-seekers’ allowance, are those where indi-
viduals or employers make a contribution into the National Insurance Fund.
Non-contributory benefits, such as housing benefit, income support, carer’s benefit and
child support, do not require a previous contribution to have been made. Generally, there are
tests to see if individuals actually need these benefits, called means tests, though child benefit
is not means tested and is a universal benefit available to all families with children.

34
Direct taxes:
Income tax in the UK is mildly progressive and helps to redistribute income. This is be-
cause:
1. Individuals on low incomes pay no income tax. In 2014 the tax-free ‘personal’ allowance
was £10,000.
2. Beyond this, income earners pay tax at the ‘basic rate’, which is currently 20%.
3. Those on ‘higher incomes’ pay tax on some of their income at a higher tax rate, which is
40%.
4. A higher rate of 45% for those earning over £150,000 of taxable income.
These tax bands help narrow the income gap and so help reduce inequality.

Indirect taxes:
In contrast, indirect taxes are regressive meaning that, as a percentage of income, the
proportion of tax paid declines at higher income levels, and, as such, the burden of the tax is
largely on the poor. This means that, as a rule, indirect taxes widen the income gap.
The progressive effects of direct tax, and regressive effects of indirect tax generally can-
cel each other out.

Benefits in kind:
Benefits in-kind are those services, such as healthcare and education, that are provided
free or heavily discounted at the point of consumption. These benefits can make a considerable
impact on final income, increasing it considerably for the poorest, and narrowing the gap be-
tween rich and poor.

Criticisms of progressive taxes and benefits:

Taxes and benefits clearly compensate for the failure of labour markets to provide suffi-
cient original income for all citizens. However, such intervention can be criticised because:
1. It may create a disincentive effect, which occurs when individuals are discouraged from
working hard because they pay more of their income in taxes.
It may create moral hazard, where some individuals may not look for ways to improve
their own position because the state provides insurance against poverty, unemployment, and
disability.

For information on Welfare Reform

The National Minimum W age
The long-term aim of a minimum wage is to remove the problem of poverty pay, which exists
when the earnings from paid work do not result in a living wage and fail to push people out of
poverty.

Policies to reduce unemployment:

Unemployment is a major cause of poverty and inequality. Unemployment can be re-
duced by:
1. Government sponsored job creation schemes.
A monetary or fiscal stimulus to aggregate demand.
1. Active labour market policies to increase employability, such as re-training schemes.
Welfare-to-work schemes which encourage labour market participation.

35
Poverty:
The alleviation of poverty is increasingly seen as a fundamental economic objective. Pov-
erty creates many economic costs in terms of the opportunity cost of lost output, the cost of
welfare provision, and the private and external costs associated with exclusion from normal
economic activity. These costs include the costs of unemployment, crime, and poor health. In
addition, the poor have little disposable income, and so cannot spend and generate income for
firms and jobs for other individuals. Widespread poverty is also an important constraint prevent-
ing economic development.

There are two ways to define poverty:

1. Absolute poverty
Absolute poverty is poverty that is unrelated to a particular economic or social context. In
other words it is a general definition of poverty which is valid at all times and for all economies.
Agreeing such a definition is extremely hard to do.
One straightforward definition of absolute poverty is ‘…being unable to subsist…’ that is, unable
to eat, drink, have shelter and clothing. A common universal measure of extreme poverty
is .receiving less than $1.25 a day. Extreme poverty if defined as not being able to buy enough
food to survive.

2. Relative poverty
It can be argued that poverty is best understood in a relative way – what is poor in New
York is not the same as in Mumbai.
One approach is to look at ‘deprivation’, the poor being defined as those who are deprived from
the benefits of a modern economy, such as clean water and education.

The Human Poverty Index – HPI

The Human Poverty Index (HPI), which was introduced in 1997, is a composite index
which assesses three elements of deprivation in a country – longevity, knowledge and a decent
standard of living.
There are two indices; the HPI – 1, which measures poverty in developing countries, and the
HPI-2, which measures poverty in OCED developed economies.
HPI-1 (for developing countries)
The HPI for developing countries has three components:
1. The first element is longevity, which is defined as the probability of not surviving to the age
of 40.
2. The second element is knowledge, which is assessed by looking at the adult literacy rate.
3. The third element is to have a ‘decent’ standard of living. Failure to achieve this is identified
by the percentage of the population not using an improved water source and the percentage of
children under-weight for their age.
As a region of the world, Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest level of poverty as a proportion of
total population, at over 60%. The second poorest region is Latin America, with 35% of its pop-
ulation living in poverty.
HPI-2 (for developed – OECD countries)
The indicators of deprivation are adjusted for advanced economies in the following ways:
1. Longevity, which for developed countries is considered as the probability at birth of not sur-
viving to the age of 60.
2. Knowledge is assessed in terms of the percentage of adults lacking functional literacy skills,
and;

36
Poverty and Inequality Reducing Programs: Lessons from the Philippines:
Poverty and Inequality Reducing Programs
1. 4Ps Conditional Cash Transfer to reduce inequalities in opportunities in education and re-
duce intergenerational poverty
2. Community Based Monitoring System (CBMS) as a tool to reduce poverty and inequality at
the local level

The Philippines’ Conditional Cash Transfer Program: Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program
(4Ps)
Program Description
To promote investment in human capital that ensures children belonging to poor house-
holds, aged 0-18, grow up healthy and stay in school
Utilizes the conditional cash transfer scheme wherein beneficiaries receive cash grants
based on their compliance to their co-responsibilities.
Eligibility
 Household is “poor” based on the Listahanan (formerly known as the National Household
Targeting System for Poverty Reduction)
 Must have children aged 0-18 or have a pregnant member at the time of the enumeration.
The program expanded the age coverage of eligible children beneficiaries from 0-14 to 0-
18 years old to ensure that school-aged children will be given financial assistance until
they reach 18 years old or finish high school, whichever comes first.
 Must be willing and able to comply with the conditionalities of the program as part of their
co-responsibilities.

Program Features/Design
 Health Grant: P500 per month
 Education Grant Elementary - P300 per month for 10 months
 High School – P500 per month for 10 months
 Maximum of three (3) children per household is covered by the program Children benefi-
ciaries are covered until they exceed the age 18 or finish high school, whichever comes
first.

Accordingly, the household will exit from the program when all the children beneficiaries
graduate from high school or reach the maximum age of eligibility.
Conditionalities :
FOR EDUCATION
 Children 6-18 years old enroll in primary/secondary schools or equivalent Alternative
Learning System/Alternative Delivery Method, and have at least 85% school attendance
 Children 3-5 years old attend daycare/preschool program with at least 85% school attend-
ance
High school students are required to obtain a passing General Weighted Average (GWA)
prescribed by the DepEd. High school students must also be promoted to the next grade
level in the succeeding school year.

FOR HEALTH
Children 0-5 years old get regular preventive health check-ups, growth monitoring and vac-
cines
Pregnant women get pre-natal care and attended by skilled/professional health worker dur-
ing child birth.
Mothers who have given birth get post-natal care in accordance with the standard DOH
protocol
37
 High school students are required to obtain a passing General Weighted Average
(GWA) prescribed by the DepEd. High school students must also be promoted to the
next grade level in the succeeding school year.

FOR HEALTH
 Children 0-5 years old get regular preventive health check-ups, growth monitoring and
vaccines
 Pregnant women get pre-natal care and attended by skilled/professional health worker
during child birth.
 Mothers who have given birth get post-natal care in accordance with the standard
DOH protocol
 Children 6-14 years old must receive deworming pills twice a year.

FOR FAMILY DEVELOPMENT SESSION

Eligible households will have to attend the Community Assembly (ComAss) for their
actual registration for the program. Households are required to submit documentary re-
quirements such as marriage certificate and birth certificates of the children

KEY FEATURES OF CBMS

 It is an organized way of collecting household and individual level data with the follow-
ing features:
 Designed primarily to provide inputs for local level planning and budgeting; lodged at
the planning units of local government units
 Census of all households in the community
Conducted periodically Provides data on the different dimensions of poverty, including
the multidimensional poverty index (MPI)
Can provide data for 32 out of the 232 SDG indicators, including the desired disaggre-
gations (“Leaving no one behind”)
CBMS aims to:
 Promote transparency and accountability
 Support rational allocation or resources
 Empower the community
CBMS Responds to:
 Lack of necessary disaggregated data for:
 Diagnosing extent of poverty at the local level
 Determining the causes of poverty
 Formulating appropriate policies and program Identifying eligible beneficiaries
 Assessing impact of policies and programs

38
 Assessing impact of policies and programs
Need for support mechanisms for the implementation of the decentralization policy : CBMS
facilitates greater transparency and accountability in local CBMS facilitates greater trans-
parency and accountability in local governance.

“As long as poverty, injustice and gross inequality persist in our world, none of us
can truly rest.”
Nelson Mandela

Practice task 1: Draw a picture to show the gaps which results to global inequalities.
Criteria: 1. originality
2. clear/idea
3. colourful

Practice task 2: Discuss inequalities in your barangay that may resultsin global inequalities
Practice task 3: What would be your suggestion/solution if these inequalities still happening
today.
Practice task 4: Are the programs of governments in addressing these issues enough?
Why you said so?
Criteria: 1. grammar and mechanics
2. idea/content
3. organization

1. Why there is global inequality?

1. driven by changes both of the inequality within countries and
the inequality between countries.
2. inequality between countries has declined.
3. inequality of incomes between different countries is much higher than
the inequality within countries.
4. all of the above

2. What are the effects of global inequality?

1. effects of income inequality, researchers have found, include higher rates of health
and social problems, and lower rates of social goods, a lower population-wide satis-
faction and happiness and even a lower level of economic growth when human
capital is neglected for high-end consumption
2. Global inequality is driven by changes both of the inequality within countries and
the inequality between countries. Since then, inequality between countries has de-
clined. As is shown in this visualization, the inequality of incomes between different
countries is much higher than the inequality within countries.

39
 3.difference in income plays a role. One important factor contributing to different levels
of wealth is people are paid different wages. There are several reasons why some
people are paid millions while some merely earn minimum wage.
4. none of the above

3. The Causes of Economic Inequality:

1. driven by changes both of the inequality within countries and the inequality between
Countries,inequality between countries has declined, inequality of incomes between
different countries is much higher than the inequality within countries.
2. difference in income plays a role. One important factor contributing to different lev-
els of wealth is people are paid different wages. There are several reasons why
some people are paid millions while some merely earn minimum wage.
3.effects of income inequality, researchers have found, include higher rates of health
and social problems, and lower rates of social goods, a lower population-wide satis-
faction and happiness and even a lower level of economic growth when human
capital is neglected for high-end consumption.
4. none of the above

40
 References

Module 10.1

 Understanding Culture, Society and Politics

 Reader’s guide/Teacher’s guide
 www.google.com
 GAD (PPT from DSWD)

Module 10.2

 Caver, Helen Bush, and Mary T. Williams. 2011. “Creoles.” Multicultural America, Coun-
tries and Their Cultures, December 7. Retrieved February 13, 2012 (http://
www.everyculture.com/multi/Bu-Dr/Creoles.html).
 CNN Library. (February 22, 2014). “Trayvon Martin Shooting Fast Facts.” CNN US. N.p.,
Retrieved October 9, 2014 (http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/05/us/trayvon-martin-shooting-
fast-facts/)
 Dollard, J., et al. 1939. Frustration and Aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
 Graves, Joseph. 2003. The Emperor’s New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the
Millennium. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
 Omi, Michael, and Howard Winant. 1994. Racial Formation in the United States: from the
1960s to the 1990s (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
 Wagley, Charles, and Marvin Harris. 1958. Minorities in the New World: Six Case Studies.
New York: Columbia University Press.
 Wirth, Louis. 1945. “The Problem of Minority Groups.” The Science of Man in the World
Crisis, edited by R. Linton: 347. In Hacker, Helen Mayer. 1951. Women as a Minority
Group. Retrieved December 1, 2011 (http://media.pfeiffer.edu/lridener/courses/
womminor.html).World Health Organization. 2011. “Elder Maltreatment.” Fact Sheet N-
357. Retrieved December 19, 2011 (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs357/en/
index.html).

Module 10.3

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_inequality
 https://www.credit-suisse.com/about-us/en/reports-research/global-wealth-report.html
 https://www.fairtradewinds.net/guide-fair-trade-labels/

41