DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW

MINOR PROJECT
ON

“NUMERICAL METHODS TO SOLVE FIRST ORDER

ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS”

Submitted by- Submitted to -

Pranjal Dwivedi Prof. R.R Yadav
Roll no. – 2110011015884 Department Of Mathematics
B.Sc 6th Semester University Of Lucknow
University Of Lucknow
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Prof. R.R.

Yadav sir for their invaluable guidance and unwavering support
throughout the completion of this term assignment.
Their expertise, encouragement and dedication have been
instrumental in shaping and refining the contents of this work. I
am so deeply apprectiative of friends for their understanding,
encouragement and patience during the demanding periods of
research and writing. Their unwavering support provided the
necessary motivation to navigate through the intricacies of this
academic endeavor.

Finally, I express my gratitude to the numerous resources,

literature, and individuals whose contribution and their
respective fields formed the foundation of this assignment.

Pranjal Dwivedi
B.Sc. 4th year
VIth Semester
[2110011015884]
CONTENT
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Abstract

Numerical methods are fundamental tools for solving first-order ordinary

differential equations (ODEs) in various scientific and engineering fields. This
thesis provides a comprehensive study of numerical techniques tailored for
efficient and accurate solutions to such equations. The primary focus is on
understanding, implementing, and analyzing the performance of key methods
including Picard’s Method, Taylor’s Method, Euler's method, the Modified
Euler method, the Runge-Kutta method, Milne Predictor-Corrector Method,
Adam-Bashforth method. Theoretical analysis and practical examples are used
to demonstrate the strengths and limitations of each method, offering insights
into their application in real-world problems.

Through a comparative study, this thesis aims to guide practitioners and

researchers in selecting the most appropriate numerical method for solving first-
order ODEs based on considerations such as accuracy, efficiency, and
computational cost. The findings presented here contribute to the advancement
of numerical methods for ODEs, offering valuable insights for future research
and practical applications in diverse fields ranging from physics and
engineering to biology and economics.
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Introduction.

Differential equations are fundamental in describing the behavior of numerous phenomena in

science and engineering. While analytical solutions exist for some differential equations,
many real-world problems require numerical methods for approximation. This thesis focuses
on numerical methods for solving first-order ordinary differential equations (ODEs), which
are crucial in diverse fields like physics, engineering, biology, and economics.

Differential equations are among the most important mathematical tools used in pro ducing
models in the physical sciences, biological sciences, and engineering. In this text, we consider
numerical methods for solving ordinary differential equations, that is, those differential
equations that have only one independent variable.

The differential equations we consider in most of the book are of the form

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡, 𝑦(𝑡))

where Y (t) is an unknown function that is being sought.

The given function f (t, y) of two variables defines the differential equation, and examples are
given in Chapter.

This equation is called a first-order differential equation because it contains a first-order

derivative of the unknown function, but no higher-order derivative. The numerical methods
for a first-order equation can be extended in a straightforward wayto a system of first-order
equations. Moreover, a higher-order differential equation can be reformulated as a system of
first-order equations.
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 Objective of the thesis:

The primary objective of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive analysis and comparison of
numerical methods for solving first-order ordinary differential equations (ODEs). The study
aims to deepen the understanding of these methods, including their theoretical principles,
practical implementation, and computational efficiency, with the goal of identifying their
strengths, weaknesses, and suitability for different types of ODEs and applications.

1. To Analyze and Compare Numerical Methods

The first objective is to analyze and compare Picard's method, Taylor's method, Euler's
method, modified Euler method, Runge-Kutta method, Milne predictor-corrector method, and
Adams-Bashforth method for solving first-order ODEs. Each method will be examined in
detail, including its algorithm, implementation details, and theoretical analysis. The
comparative analysis will evaluate the methods based on accuracy, efficiency, and
computational cost, providing insights into their performance and applicability.

2. To Provide a Comprehensive Understanding

The second objective is to provide a comprehensive understanding of each numerical method,

including its underlying principles and assumptions. This includes a detailed examination of
the mathematical concepts and techniques used in each method, as well as practical
considerations for implementation. By providing a detailed analysis, this thesis aims to
deepen the understanding of these methods and their practical implications.

3. To Identify Strengths and Weaknesses

Another objective is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each numerical method in
solving first-order ODEs. This includes analyzing the method's ability to accurately
approximate solutions, its computational efficiency, and its stability properties. By
identifying the strengths and weaknesses of each method, this thesis aims to provide insights
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into when and how to effectively use these methods in practical applications.

4. To Evaluate Practical Applicability

The fourth objective is to evaluate the practical applicability of each numerical method in
real-world problems. This includes examining the method's performance in solving ODEs
that arise in various fields such as physics, engineering, biology, and economics. By
evaluating the practical applicability of each method, this thesis aims to provide guidance on
selecting the most appropriate method for specific problems and applications.

5. To Contribute to the Body of Knowledge

Finally, this thesis aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in numerical methods
for ODEs. By providing a detailed analysis and comparison of these methods, this study
seeks to advance the understanding of these methods and their practical implications.
Additionally, this thesis aims to provide valuable insights for future research and
development in the field of numerical methods for ODEs.

Overall, this thesis seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis and comparison of numerical
methods for solving first-order ODEs, with the goal of advancing the understanding of these
methods and their practical implications.

 Scope and Limitations:

The scope of this thesis encompasses a detailed examination and comparison of numerical
methods for solving first-order ordinary differential equations (ODEs). The study focuses on
seven main methods: Picard's method, Taylor's method, Euler's method, modified Euler
method, Runge-Kutta method, Milne predictor-corrector method, and Adams-Bashforth
method. These methods are fundamental in numerical analysis and find wide application in
various fields such as physics, engineering, biology, and economics. The scope also includes
an analysis of the theoretical principles, practical implementation, and computational
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efficiency of each method.

1. In-Depth Analysis of Numerical Methods

One of the key aspects of the scope is to provide an in-depth analysis of each numerical method.
This includes a detailed examination of the algorithm, implementation details, and theoretical
background of each method. By providing a comprehensive analysis, this thesis aims to deepen
the understanding of these methods and their practical implications.

2. Comparative Analysis

Another important aspect of the scope is the comparative analysis of the numerical methods.
The study will compare the methods based on various criteria such as accuracy, efficiency, and
computational cost. By comparing these methods, this thesis aims to identify their strengths,
weaknesses, and suitability for different types of ODEs and applications.

3. Practical Applicability

The scope also includes an evaluation of the practical applicability of each numerical method.
This involves examining the performance of the methods in solving ODEs that arise in real-
world problems. By evaluating the practical applicability of each method, this thesis aims to
provide guidance on selecting the most appropriate method for specific problems and
applications.

4. Contribution to Knowledge

Furthermore, this thesis aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in numerical
methods for ODEs. By providing a detailed analysis and comparison of these methods, this
study seeks to advance the understanding of these methods and their practical implications.
Additionally, this thesis aims to provide valuable insights for future research and development
in the field of numerical methods for ODEs.
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Limitations

Despite the comprehensive scope outlined above, there are certain limitations to this study.
Firstly, the study focuses solely on first-order ODEs and does not cover higher-order ODEs or
partial differential equations. Secondly, the analysis is limited to the methods mentioned above
and does not include other numerical methods for solving ODEs. Thirdly, the study does not
consider the implementation of these methods in specific software environments or
programming languages. Lastly, the practical applicability of these methods may vary
depending on the specific problem and may require further validation in practical scenarios.

In conclusion, while this thesis aims to provide a comprehensive analysis and comparison of
numerical methods for solving first-order ODEs, it is important to recognize the scope and
limitations of the study. By addressing these limitations, this thesis seeks to provide valuable
insights and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in numerical methods for ODEs.

 Structure of the Thesis:

This thesis is structured to provide a comprehensive analysis and comparison of numerical

methods for solving first-order ordinary differential equations (ODEs). The structure is
designed to guide the reader through the theoretical principles, practical implementation, and
comparative analysis of these methods, with the aim of deepening understanding and providing
valuable insights for practitioners and researchers.

1. Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the thesis by providing an overview of the importance of
numerical methods in solving ODEs. It outlines the objectives of the thesis, the scope of the
study, and the structure of the thesis.

2. Mathematical Preliminaries
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This chapter provides the necessary background in mathematics for understanding the
numerical methods discussed in later chapters. It covers topics such as differential equations,
linear algebra, and numerical linear algebra.

3. Picard's Method

This chapter focuses on Picard's method for solving first-order ODEs. It includes a detailed
explanation of the method, its algorithm, and practical implementation. The chapter also
discusses the theoretical analysis of the method and its practical applicability.

4. Taylor's Method

The chapter on Taylor's method provides a comprehensive analysis of this method, including
its algorithm, implementation details, and theoretical background. The chapter also compares
Taylor's method with other numerical methods for solving ODEs.

5. Euler's Method

This chapter examines Euler's method for solving first-order ODEs, including its algorithm,
implementation details, and theoretical analysis. The chapter also discusses the strengths and
limitations of Euler's method in practical applications.

6. Modified Euler Method

The chapter on the modified Euler method provides an in-depth analysis of this method,
including its algorithm, implementation details, and theoretical background. The chapter also
compares the modified Euler method with other numerical methods for solving ODEs.

7. Runge-Kutta Method

This chapter focuses on the Runge-Kutta method for solving first-order ODEs. It includes a
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detailed explanation of the method, its algorithm, and practical implementation. The chapter
also discusses the theoretical analysis of the method and its practical applicability.

8. Milne Predictor-Corrector Method

The chapter on the Milne predictor-corrector method provides a comprehensive analysis of this
method, including its algorithm, implementation details, and theoretical background. The
chapter also compares the Milne predictor-corrector method with other numerical methods for
solving ODEs.

9. Adams-Bashforth Method

This chapter examines the Adams-Bashforth method for solving first-order ODEs, including
its algorithm, implementation details, and theoretical analysis. The chapter also discusses the
strengths and limitations of the Adams-Bashforth method in practical applications.

10. Comparative Analysis

The comparative analysis chapter evaluates the numerical methods discussed in earlier chapters
based on criteria such as accuracy, efficiency, and computational cost. The chapter provides
insights into the strengths and limitations of each method and offers guidance for selecting the
most appropriate method for specific problems and applications.

11. Conclusion

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the thesis and discusses the implications of the
study. It also suggests areas for future research and development in the field of numerical
methods for solving first-order ODEs.

12. References

The references section lists all the sources cited in the thesis, providing readers with additional
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resources for further reading and research.

 Significance of the Study:

The study of numerical methods for solving first-order ordinary differential equations (ODEs)
holds significant importance in various fields of science and engineering. This thesis aims to
provide a comprehensive analysis and comparison of these methods, highlighting their
strengths, weaknesses, and practical applicability. The significance of this study lies in several
key areas:

1. Advancing Knowledge in Numerical Methods

This study contributes to the advancement of knowledge in numerical methods for ODEs by
providing a detailed analysis and comparison of seven main methods: Picard's method, Taylor's
method, Euler's method, modified Euler method, Runge-Kutta method, Milne predictor-
corrector method, and Adams-Bashforth method. By conducting a thorough examination of
these methods, this study seeks to deepen the understanding of their theoretical principles and
practical implications.

2. Practical Implications for Real-World Problems

The practical applicability of numerical methods for ODEs is of paramount importance in

solving real-world problems in various fields such as physics, engineering, biology, and
economics. This study evaluates the performance of these methods in solving ODEs that arise
in practical scenarios, providing valuable insights for practitioners and researchers. By
identifying the most suitable methods for specific problems and applications, this study aims
to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of numerical computations in practical settings.

3. Guidance for Practitioners and Researchers

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One of the key contributions of this study is to provide guidance for practitioners and
researchers in selecting the most appropriate numerical method for solving ODEs. The
comparative analysis of these methods based on criteria such as accuracy, efficiency, and
computational cost offers valuable insights into their strengths and limitations. This guidance
can help practitioners and researchers make informed decisions when choosing a numerical
method for their specific problems and applications.

4. Potential for Future Research and Development

This study also has the potential to inspire future research and development in the field of
numerical methods for ODEs. By identifying areas where further improvements can be made
and new methods can be developed, this study lays the groundwork for future advancements
in numerical analysis. The insights provided in this study can serve as a foundation for future
research projects aimed at enhancing the efficiency and accuracy of numerical computations
in solving ODEs.

5. Contribution to Education and Training

Lastly, this study contributes to education and training in the field of numerical analysis by
providing a comprehensive overview of these methods. The detailed analysis and comparison
of these methods can serve as a valuable resource for students and educators seeking to deepen
their understanding of numerical methods for ODEs. By enhancing the educational resources
available in this field, this study aims to contribute to the development of skilled professionals
capable of solving complex problems using numerical techniques.

In conclusion, this study on numerical methods for solving first-order ODEs holds significant
importance in advancing knowledge, solving real-world problems, guiding practitioners and
researchers, inspiring future research, and contributing to education and training. By
providing a comprehensive analysis and comparison of these methods, this study aims to
make a valuable contribution to the field of numerical analysis and its practical applications.
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Mathematical Preliminaries:

A number of problems in science and technology can be formulated into differential

equations. The analytical methods of solving differential equations are applicable only to a
limited class of equations. Quite often differential equations appearing in physical problems
do not belong to any of these familiar types and one is obliged to resort to numerical
methods. These methods are of even greater importance when we realize that computing
machines are now readily available which reduce numerical work considerably.

Solution of a differential equation: The solution of an ordinary differential equation

means finding an explicit expression for y in terms of a finite number of elementary functions
of x. Such a solution of a differential equation is known as the closed or finite form of
solution. In the absence of such a solution, we have recourse to numerical methods of
solution.

Let us consider the first order differential equation:

dy/dx = f(x,y) given y(𝒙𝟎 )= 𝒚𝟎 (1)

to study the various numerical methods of solving such equations. In most of these methods,
we replace the differential equation by a difference equation and then solve it. These methods
yield solutions either as a power series in x from which the values of y can be found by direct
substitution, or a set of values of x and y. The methods of Picard and Taylor series belong to
the former class of solutions. In these methods, y in (1) is approximated by a truncated series,
each term of which is a function of x. The information about the curve at one point is utilized
and the solution is not iterated. As such, these are referred to as single-step methods.
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The methods of Euler, Runge-Kutta, Milne, Adams-Bashforth, etc. be- long to the latter class
of solutions. In these methods, the next point on the curve is evaluated in short steps ahead,
by performing iterations until sufficient accuracy is achieved. As such, these methods are
called step-by-step methods.

Euler and Runga-Kutta methods are used for computing y over a lim- ited range of x- values
whereas Milne and Adams methods may be applied for finding y over a wider range of x-
values. Therefore Milne and Adams methods require starting values which are found by
Picard’s Taylor series or Runge-Kutta methods.

 Initial and boundary conditions

An ordinary differential equation of the nth order is of the form:

F(x,y,dy/dx,d2y/dx2,……….,dny/dxn)= 0 (2)

Its general solution contains n arbitrary constants and is of the form:

𝝓(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒄𝟏 , 𝒄𝟐 , … . , 𝒄𝒏 ) = 𝟎 (3)

To obtain its particular solution, n conditions must be given so that the constants c1, c2,…, cn
can be determined.

If these conditions are prescribed at one point only (say:x0), then the differential equation
together with the conditions constitute an initial value problem of the nth order.

If the conditions are prescribed at two or more points, then the problem is termed as
boundary value problem.

In this chapter, we shall first describe methods for solving initial value problems and then
explain the finite difference method and shooting method for solving boundary value
problems.
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CHAPTER 1:

Picard’s Method Of Successive Approximations

1.1 Overview

Picard's method, also known as the method of successive approximations, is a fundamental

technique in the field of numerical analysis used to approximate solutions to ordinary
differential equations (ODEs). The method is based on the concept of fixed-point iteration
and is particularly useful for solving initial value problems (IVPs) where an initial condition
is specified.

Principle of Picard's Method:

At its core, Picard's method relies on the idea of approximating a solution to an ODE by
iteratively improving an initial guess. The method is based on the Picard-Lindelöf theorem,
which guarantees the existence and uniqueness of a solution to an IVP under certain
conditions on the function f(x, y) and the initial condition y(𝐱 𝟎 )= 𝐲𝟎 .

1.2 FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM

Consider the first order equation

ⅆ𝒚
= 𝑭(𝒙, 𝒚) (1)
ⅆ𝒙

It is required to find that particular solution of (1) which assumes the value y0 when
x=x0. Integrating (1) between limits, we get
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𝒚 𝒙 𝒙
∫𝒚 ⅆ𝒚 = ∫𝒙 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) or y-y0 = ∫𝒙 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚)ⅆ𝒙 (2)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

This is an integral equation equivalent to (1), for it contains the unknown y under the
integral sign.
As a first approximation y1 to the solution, we put y=y0 in f(x, y) and integrate (2),
giving:

𝒙
y1 = y0 + ∫𝒙 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚𝟎 )ⅆ𝒙
𝟎

For a second approximation y2, we put y = y1 in f(x, y) and integrate (2), giving:

𝒙
y2 = y0 + ∫𝒙 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚𝟏 )
𝟎

Similarly, a third approximation is:

𝒙
y3 = y0 + ∫𝒙 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚𝟐 )
𝟎

Continuing this process, we obtain y4, y5,….,yn ,where

𝒙
yn = y0 + ∫𝒙 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 )
𝟎

Hence this method gives a sequence of approximations 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 … … each giving a

better result than the preceding one.
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1.3 LIMITATIONS

Certainly! Here are some generalized and simplified limitations of Picard's method:

1. Convergence Dependence: The method's convergence can depend heavily on the

function and initial guess, making it less reliable for certain types of equations.

2. Computational Intensity: Calculating successive approximations can be

computationally intensive, especially for complex functions or large intervals.

3. Local Solution: It provides solutions that are valid only in a small neighborhood of the
initial point, limiting its applicability to broader contexts.

4. Sensitivity to Parameters: The method can be sensitive to small changes in

parameters, which may affect the convergence behavior.

5. Not Universally Applicable: While effective for many problems, Picard's method may
not be suitable for all types of differential equations, particularly those with irregular
solutions or singularities.

6. Limited to First-Order Equations: While extensions exist for higher-order equations,

the method's simplicity and applicability are more straightforward for first-order
equations.

7. Convergence Criteria: The convergence criteria can be challenging to determine,

requiring careful consideration and potentially multiple iterations to achieve satisfactory
results.

These limitations highlight the need for careful consideration and possibly the use of
alternative methods depending on the specific characteristics of the problem.
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1.4 EXAMPLES:

EXAMPLE 1

Using Picard's process of successive approximations, obtain a solution up to the fifth

approximation of the equation 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 + 𝑥, such that 𝑦 = 1 when 𝑥 = 0. Check your
answer by finding the exact particular solution.

Solution:
𝑥
(i) We have 𝑦 = 1 + ∫𝑥0 (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑥

First approximation. Put 𝑦 = 1 in 𝑦 + 𝑥, giving

𝑥
𝑦1 = 1 + ∫ (1 + 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 /2
𝑥0

Second approximation. Put 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 /2 in 𝑦 + 𝑥, giving

𝑥
𝑦1 = 1 + ∫ (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 /2)𝑑𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 /6
𝑥0

Third approximation. Put 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 /6 in 𝑦 + 𝑥, giving

𝑥
𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑦3 = 1 + ∫ (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 /6)𝑑𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + +
𝑥0 3 24

Fourth approximation. Put 𝑦 = 𝑦3 in 𝑦 + 𝑥, giving

𝑥
2
𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑦4 = 1 + ∫ (1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 + + ) 𝑑𝑥
0 3 24
3 4
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥5
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + + +
3 12 120

Fifth approximation, Put 𝑦 = 𝑦4 in 𝑦 + 𝑥, giving

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𝑥
𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑦5 = 1 + ∫ (1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + + + ) 𝑑𝑥 (1)
0 3 12 120
𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + + + + (1)
3 12 60 720

(ii) Given equation

𝑑𝑦
− 𝑦 = 𝑥 is a Leibnitzs linear in 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Its, I.F. being 𝑒 −𝑥 the solution is

𝑦𝑒 −𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐

= −𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 − ∫ (−𝑒 −𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐 = −𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐

∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1

Since 𝑦 = 1, when 𝑥 = 0, ∴ 𝑐 = 2.

Thus the desired particular solution is

𝑦 = 2𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1 (2)

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
Or using the series: 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + +⋯
2! 3! 4!

We get

𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6
𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + + + + + ⋯∞ (3)
3 12 60 360

Comparing (1) and (3), it is clear that (1), approximates to the exact particular solution (3)
upto the term in 𝑥 5 .

NOTE Obs. At 𝑥 = 1, the fourth approximation 𝑦4 = 3.433 and the fifth approximation 𝑦5 =
3.434 whereas the exact value is 3.44 .
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EXAMPLE 2

Find the value of 𝑦 for 𝑥 = 0.1 by Picard's method, given that

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑥
= , 𝑦(0) = 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥

𝑥 𝑦−𝑥
Solution: We have 𝑦 = 1 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝑦+𝑥

First approximation. Put 𝑦 = 1 in the integrand, giving

𝑥 𝑥
𝑦−𝑥 2
𝑦1 = 1 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 1 + ∫ (−1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑦+𝑥 0 1+𝑥
= 1 + [−𝑥 + 2 log(1 + 𝑥 )]0𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 2 log(1 + 𝑥 ))

Second approximation. Put 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 + 2log(1 + 𝑥) in the integrand, giving

𝑥
1 − 𝑥 + 2log(1 + 𝑥) − 𝑥
𝑦2 = 1 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 − 𝑥 + 2log(1 + 𝑥) + 𝑥
𝑥
2𝑥
= 1 + ∫ [1 − ] 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 2log(1 + 𝑥)

which is very difficult to integrate.

Hence we use the first approximation and taking 𝑥 = 0.1 in (𝑖) we obtain

𝑦(0.1) = 1 − (0.1) + 2log 1.1 = 0.9828