Electromagnetic Waves

1. Electromagnetic waves: - Electromagnetic waves are those waves in which there are
sinusoidal variations of electric and magnetic field vectors at right angles to each other as
well as right angles to the direction of wave propagation.

2. Origin of electromagnetic waves: -

a. An electric charge at rest has an electric field in the region around it, but no magnetic
field. A moving charge produces both the electric and magnetic fields.
b. If a charge is moving with a constant velocity (current is not changing with time), the
electric and magnetic field will not change with time, hence no electromagnetic waves
are produced.
c. But if the charge is moving with a non-zero acceleration, both the magnetic field and
electric field will change with space and time, it then produces electromagnetic waves.
Hence accelerated charge emits electromagnetic waves.
e.g: L-C circuit is an oscillatory circuit where the charge is oscillating across the
capacitor and inductor.

3. Velocity of electromagnetic waves: -

a. The electromagnetic wave can propagate through the space with the speed of light (3 x
108 m/s)
b. Maxwell found that the electromagnetic waves should travel in vacume (or free space)
with a speed given by,
1
c= ɛo → Permitivity in free space = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 M-2
√ 𝜇 𝑜 𝜀𝑜

µo → Permeability in free space = 4π x 10-7 Tm/A

1
c= = 3 x 108 m/s
√4𝜋 × 10−7 ×8.85 × 10−12

and in medium is,

 1
c=
√𝜇𝜀

4. Properties of electromagnetic waves: -

a. Electromagnetic waves are produced by the accelerated or oscillating charge.
b. Electromagnetic waves do not require any material or medium for propagation.
c. These waves travel in free space with a speed 3 x 108 m/s and is given by
1
c=
√ 𝜇 𝑜 𝜀𝑜

d. The direction of variation of electric and magnetic field vectors are perpendicular to
each other as well as perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse.
e. Electromagnetic waves carry energy which is divided equally between electric and
magnetic waves.
f. The electric vector is responsible for the optical effect of an electromagnetic waves and
is call light vector.

5. Classification of electromagnetic waves: -

Electromagnetic wave Range
Applications
spectrum (Wavelength in meter)
Used in medicine to destroy
Gamma Rays 10-12 to 10-15 m
cancer and tumor cell.
Used in diagnostic tool in
X – rays 10-12 to 10-9 m
medicine and machinery.
Use in photocells and in
Ultra Violet rays 10-9 to 4 x 10-7 m
water purifiers
Light or Visible spectrum 4 x 10-7 to 7 x 10-7 m Visual

Infra-red rays 7 x 10-7 to 10-13 m Used in night vision

Microwaves 10-3 to 10-1 m Used in communication

Radio waves Longer than 0.1 m Used in communication.

6. Maxwell’s Equation of electromagnetic waves: -

1
a. Gauss law of electromagnetic: - Electric flux through a closed surface is times the
𝜀𝑜
total charge ‘q’ enclosed by surface.
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛
Φ𝐸𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = or ∮𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜

b. Gauss law of magnetism: - Magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero.
 Φ𝐵𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 0 or ∮𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗ . 𝑑𝐴
c. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: - Changing magnetic field induces an
electric field.
− 𝑑 𝜙𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ =
∮𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑡
d. Ampere-maxwell law: - Changing electric field induces a magnetic field.
𝑑 𝜙𝐵
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = µo (ic + id) or ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = µo (i + ɛo )
𝑑𝑡
 Polarisation
1. Light: - Light consist of electric and magnetic vectors vibrating continuously with time in
a plane transverse to the direction of propagation of light.
→ Electric vector is only responsible for optical effect and hence known as light vector.
→ In propagation only the vibration of the electric vector is considered.
2. Comparison between Unpolarised and polarised light: -
Unpolarised light Polarised light
1. The light having vibrations along all 1. The light having vibration only along a
possible direction perpendicular to the single plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. direction of propagation of light.
2. It is symmetrical about its direction of 2. Vibration of polarised light are one
propagation. sided. Hence it is dissymmetrical about
the direction of propagation of light.
3. It consists of infinite number of waves.
Each wave has its own vibration. 3. Polarised light parallel to
plane of paper.
Polarised light
perpendicular to plane of paper.
4. Due to this for any position of crystal 4. When polarised light is passed through
there will be one vibration parallel to a single rotating crystal, a change in
its axis. the intensity of emergent light is
5. When this light is passed through observed.
single rotating tourmaline crystal, no
change in intensity of light is observed.

3. Polarisation of light: - The phenomenon of restriction of vibration of electric field vector

in a single plane is called polarization. Such light is known as polarized light.
Types of Polarisations: -
a. Plane or linear polarisation: - Light waves in which the oscillations occur in a single
plane.

b. Circularly Polarised light: - In the course of wave propagation the magnitude of the
electric vector 𝐸⃗ stay constant but it rotates at a constant rate about the direction of
propagation and sweep a circular helix in space.
 c. Elliptically polarised light: - The magnitude of electric vector 𝐸⃗ changes with time
and the vector 𝐸⃗ rotates about the direction of propagation and sweep a flattened helix
in space.

4. Methods of producing polarised light: -

a. Reflection b. Refraction c. Scattering d. Selective absorption
e. Double refraction.

5. Law of Malus: -
Statement: - When a completely plane polarised light beam is incident on the analyser,
then the intensity of polarised light emerging from the analyser is proportional to the
square of the cosine of the angle between the planes of polariser and analyser.
i.e I α Cos2θ
⸫ I = Io Cos2θ
Where, I → Intensity of light transmitted by the analyser.
Im → Intensity of light transmitted by the polariser
2
Cos θ → Angle between the planes of analyser and polariser
 Proof of law of Malus: -

Let Ao be the amplitude of the incident plane

polarized light. Let θ be the angle between
planes of transmission of the analyzer and the
polarizer. The amplitude Ao may be resolved
into two components: Ao Cos θ and Aosin θ.
The vibrations of the former are parallel to the
plane of the transmission of the analyzer, while
the vibrations of the latter are perpendicular to
this that is Ao Cos θ is transmitted by the
analyzer while Ao Sin θ is eliminated.

Therefore, the intensity of transmitted beam. I = A2 but A = Ao Cos θ

⸫ I = Ao2 Cos2 θ

I = Io Cos2 θ

The intensity of incident beam Io is constant, therefore,

I α cos2 θ

This is called as Law of Malus.

6. Double Refraction (Bifringence): -

Statement: - When unpolarised light is incident on the anisotropic media, then the beam
after entering the anisotropic media gets split into two components of plane polarised light,
one of which always obeys Snell’s law of refraction and the other does not obey. The plane
of vibration of polarised light are mutually perpendicular to each other. This phenomenon
is called as double refraction.
• The crystals exhibiting this property is called as double refracting crystal. E.g
Tourmaline, Calcite, Quartz and ice.
• The ray which obeys Snell’s law of refraction is called as Ordinary ray and the other
does not obey Snell’s law of refraction is called as Extra-ordinary ray.
 • If incident light rays are along the optic axis or in a direction parallel to optic axis,
the double refraction is not observed.

7. Huygens Theory of double refraction: -

1. A monochromatic source of light in the double refracting crystal is the origin of two
wavefronts.
a) Ordinary wavefront b) Extra-ordinary wavefront
2. Ordinary ray travel with constant velocity in all the direction and hence represented by
a spherical wavefront or a sphere.
3. Extra-ordinary ray travel with different velocity in the different direction and hence
represented by a elliptical wavefront or an ellipse.
4. The velocity of O and E ray remains constant along the optic axis ang hence sphere and
ellipse touches each other along the optic axis.
5. Two types of double refracting crystal : If the sphere lies inside the ellipse then the
crystal is called as a negative crystal. eg. Calcite, tourmaline.
6. If the ellipse lies inside the sphere, then that crystal is called as a positive crystal. eg.
Ice, quartz.

Positive crystal Negative crystal

Vo > Ve, μo < μe Vo < Ve, μo > μe
8. Liquid crystal display (LCD) construction and working: -
Construction:
1. The Nematic crystal rotates plane of vibration of plane polarized light without
electric potential and loses this property when small electric potential of 2-3 volt is
applied. The amount of rotation is proportional to thickness of crystal.
2. This liquid crystal of thickness which rotates plane of vibration of polarized light
through 90˚ is placed between two thin glass plates provided with thin transparent
metallic coating for electrical contact and this system is placed between two Polaroid
with mutually perpendicular axes and a mirror is placed beyond second Polaroid as
shown in fig.

Working:
Without electric potential:
1. When unpolarized light falls on Polaroid-1, it transmits plane-polarized light
having vibrations parallel to its axis.
2. If no electric potential then it rotates plane of vibration through 90˚ therefore plane
of vibration become parallel to the axis of Polaroid-2 and it is transmitted
completely, this light falls on mirror and get reflected .this reflected light follows
similar reverse path and display appears bright as shown in fig.(a).

With electric potential:

1. If electric potential is applied across the crystal, then it does not rotate plane of
vibration hence plane vibration remains perpendicular to the axis of Polaroid-2
and not get transmitted therefore no light is reflected up to the display as shown
in fig.(b) and display appears dark.
2. In seven segments display each segment is one such system and when you press
key of particular number then those liquid crystal get electric potential and
appear dark then that number get displayed.
 Interference
1. Superposition Principle: - When two or more waves meet, at a point, each wave produces
its own disturbance independent of the other wave.

2. Interference: - It is the phenomenon in which two or more waves superimpose to form a

resultant wave of greater, lower, or the same amplitude.

3. Types of Interference: -

a. Constructive interference: - When two light waves meet at a point in phase,

the resultant amplitude is addition of the two individual amplitudes. This leads
to increases in intensity. As intensity is proportional to square of the amplitude.

b. Destructive Interference: - If the light waves are out of phase or completely

out of phase, the resultant amplitude is difference between the two amplitudes.
This leads to decrease in intensity.

4. Conditions for constructive and destructive interference: -

a. Constructive: -
i. Path difference (Δ λ) between two waves of
wave length λ is
Δ λ = n λ n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ……
ii. Phase difference (Δ φ) between two waves is
Δ φ = 2m π m = 0, 1, 2, 3 ……
 • The minimum path difference and phase
difference = 0

b. Destructive: -
i. Path difference (Δ λ) between two waves of
wave length λ is
𝜆
Δ λ = (2n+1) n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ……
2
ii. Phase difference (Δ φ) between two waves is
Δ φ = (2m+1) π m = 0, 1, 2, 3 ……
• The minimum path differences
𝜆
Δλ=
2
• The minimum phase differences
Δφ=π

5. Methods: -
a. Division of wavefront: -
Diffraction is used in
young’s double slit
experiment to divide the
wavefront

b. Division of Amplitude: -
Incident light is partially
transmitted and partially
reflected from the semi-silvered
surface of a glass plate. Division
of amplitude can be achieved
using extended source.

6. Equivalent path difference in air and medium: -

A distance ‘d’ traversed by light in a medium of refractive index ‘µ’ has its equivalent
optical path ‘µd’.
𝑐 𝑑 ′⁄ 𝑑′
Refractive index, µ = ⇒ µ= 𝑑 𝑡 =
𝑣 ⁄𝑡 𝑑
d' = µd
 Path difference (Δ λ) = path/wavelength in medium – path/wavelength in air
= (µd + x) – d’
E.g: - Path difference (Δ λ) = (µd + x) – d’
= (2 λ + 1.5 λ) – 3 λ
= 3.5 λ – 3 λ
= 0.5 λ
𝜆
=
2
Which is destructive in nature.

7. Phase change due to reflection (Stoke’s Law): -

When light is reflected from rarer – to – denser
medium boundary, there is phase change for
the reflected ray by π or 180˚ which is
𝜆
correspond to the path difference.
2

8. Interference in thin film: -

a. Thin film: - An optical medium is called a thin film when its thickness is about the
order of 1 wavelength of light in visible region.
b. Types of thin film: -
i. Uniform thickness thin film
ii. Wedge shape (non-uniform) thickness film.
i. Uniform thickness thin film: - A transparent thin film of uniform thickness
bounded by two parallel surfaces.
ii. Wedge shape thickness thin film: - A thin film having zero thickness at one end
and progressively increasing to a particular thickness at the other end.

9. Interference in uniform thickness film: -

 Let us consider a thin parallel film of a transparent material bounded by two surfaces.
Let µ = R.I. of material of film
t = uniform thickness of the film.
i. When light incident on a parallel thin film, a small portion of incident light gets reflected
from the top and major portion is transmitted into the film.
ii. Ray AB is the ray made incident on the top surface from a monochromatic source of
light. Ray AB gets partly reflected along BR1 & partly refracted along BC. At C, ray BC
gets partly reflected along CD & partly refracted along CT1. Ray CD again gets partly
reflected along DE & partly refracted along DR2. The process of such multiple
reflections continues at all points over the entire length of film. The ray BR1, DR2 are
seem to be reflected from the top surface of the film, are parallel, & hence forms a
reflected system.
iii. To find out path difference in reflected light let us consider rays BR1 & DR2 from
reflected system. Draw a perpendicular DN on ray BR1.
p.d. between BR1 & DR2 is,
path difference =  (BC + CD) – BN……………. (1)
Now,  BCM =  DCM
 BC = CD & BM = MD…………… (2)
putting (2) in (1), p. d.= 2 (BC) – BN ………………………. (3)
By solving the equation (3) trigonometrically,
p. d. = 2t Cos r………………………… … (4)
Eq. (4) is a theoretical value of p. d. between rays BC & BN.
According to Stoke’s treatment the ray BR1 being reflected at rarer-to-denser medium
boundary, undergoes path change of /2 (due to equivalent phase change of π or 180˚),
while the ray DR2 being refracted by denser medium to rarer medium at point D does
not undergo any such change. Therefore effective p. d. becomes
𝜆
p. d. = 2t Cos r + -------------------------(5)
2
Condition for constructive interference:
p. d. = n  -------------------------(6)
Comparing equation (5) & (6)
𝜆
 2t Cos r + =n
2
𝜆
 2t Cos r = (2n – 1) ---------from (5)
2
Condition for destructive interference:
𝜆
p. d. = (2n+1) -------------------------(7)
2
Comparing equation (5) & (7)
𝜆 𝜆
 2t Cos r + = (2n+1)
2 2
 2t Cos r = n ---------from (5)
 10. Very Thin film: - In very thin film thickness ‘t’ is very small, then path difference in
reflected light is ( >> t)
𝜆
p. d. = 2t Cos r + (t = 0)
2
𝜆
p. d. =
2
𝜆
 p. d. = is for destructive interference,
2
 Excessively thin film appears dark in reflected light.

11. Very thick film: - For a film of large thickness, the condition for constructive interference
will be satisfied for a very large number of wavelengths from the visible region at a
particular angle. Hence reflected light will be white. (t >> )
𝜆
p. d. = 2t Cos r + = 2t Cos r ---------(1) ( = 0)
2
and p. d = n = 0 ---------(2) ( = 0)
Comparing equation (1) and (2)
p. d = 2t Cos r = 0
 p. d. = 0 is for constructive interference,
 Excessively thick film appears bright in reflected light.

12. Interference in Non-uniform thickness film (Wedge shape): -

Wedge shape film: - A thin film having zero thickness at one end and progressively
increasing to a particular thickness at the other end.

i. Consider two plane surfaces GH &GI inclined at an angle  &enclosing a wedge-shaped air
film. The thickness of air film increases from G to H as shown in fig. When the air film is
viewed with reflected monochromatic light, equidistant interference fringes are observed
which are parallel to the line of intersection of the two surfaces.
 = R.I. & t = thickness of the film
ii. Ray AB is incident on GH surface at which it gets partly reflected along BR & partly refracted
along BC. At C again ray BC gets partly reflected along CD & ray DT is derived by the
refraction of ray CD at D on GH.
iii. Reflected system is formed by ray BR & DT which will interfere to produce interference
pattern.
 From the geometry of the diagram, it can be shown that the optical p. d. between BR & DT is
p. d. = 2  t Cos (r+)
iv. The thickness of the glass plate of the inclined position is large as compared to the wavelength
of the incident light, so the entire pattern is due to air film only.
𝜆
According to Stoke’s law, ray CD undergoes path difference change by as it is reflected by
2
rarer-to-denser medium boundary but there is no such path change in the case of ray BR being
reflected by the rarer medium at point C
𝜆
 Effective p. d. = 2t Cos (r+) + --------------(1)
2
Condition for constructive interference:
p. d. = n  -------------------------(2)
Comparing equation (1) & (2)
𝜆
 2t Cos (r+) + =n
2
𝜆
 2t Cos (r+) = (2n – 1) ---------from (3)
2
Condition for destructive interference:
𝜆
p. d. = (2n+1) -------------------------(4)
2
Comparing equation (1) & (4)
𝜆 𝜆
 2t Cos (r+) + = (2n+1)
2 2
 2t Cos (r+) = n ---------from (6)

13. Derivation for Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the separation between two consecutive dark or
bright band. Consider the wedge-shaped film of air enclosed between surface GH &GI
having the wedge angle  . Let us consider that the nth bright band formed at a distance xn
from the edge of the wedge.
The condition for the bright band is given by
𝜆
2t Cos (r+) = (2n–1) ------------------(2)
2
For normal incidence r = 0, for air film  = 1, putting into (2)
𝜆
2t cos = (2n–1)
2
From the geometry of the diagram, t = xn tan 
𝜆
 2 xn tan cos = (2n–1)
2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜆
 2 xn cos = (2n–1)
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2
𝜆
 2 xn sin  = (2n-1) -----------------(3)
2
Let us consider that (n + 1) th bright band is formed at a distance xn + 1 from the edge of
the wedge, then from the (3)
𝜆 𝜆
2 xn+1 sin  = [2(n +1) –1] = (2n + 1) -----------(4)
2 2
Subtract (3) from (4),
 𝜆 𝜆
2 xn+1 sin - 2 xn sin = (2n + 1) – (2n–1)
2 2
 2 Sin  (xn+1 – xn) = 
 (2 Sin )  =  where  = xn+1 – xn = bandwidth

=[ ]
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛

=[ ] since  is very small & measured in radians.
2
14. Applications of interference: -
i. Optical flatness testing of surface (Using wedge shape film)
ii. Anti-Reflection coating (Using uniform thickness film)
i. Optical flatness testing of surface: -
a. The surface, which will be subjected under high stress must have high surface finish.
If such surface has some irregularities, then it will lead to crack formation.
b. Due to crack, function of instrument will affect. Hence, surfaces under high stress,
should have high surface finish with optical flatness.
c. For optical flatness testing of specimen, optically flat standard surface is placed
inclined to the testing specimen as shown in fig. This will produce thin film of wedge
shape between two surfaces.

d. Wedge shape thin film when illuminated with light, then it will produce fringe
pattern. If specimen is totally flat, fringe pattern is equidistant fringes. If specimen
has inside or outside bending, then curved fringes will be observed as shown in
following diagram.
 ii. Antireflection coating: -
a. Anti-reflection coating is the thin transparent material coating given on the lenses of
optical instruments such as telescope and cameras to reduces the reflection of light
from it so as to produce bright image of an object.
b. When light is incident on lenses of optical instruments, then part of light can be
reflected. Due to reflections, intensity of transmitted light reduces. This result in
formation of poor images.
c. The reflection from lens can be decreased to a minimum by coating a thin film of
proper thickness on it. The material is properly selected such that its R.I value is
intermediate between air and glass.
d. Generally, magnesium fluoride (MgF2) with refractive index 1.38 is used as
antireflection coating. Thickness of coating is maintained as quarter of visible light
𝜆
wavelength [i.e t = ]
4
e. When light incident on it, equal quantities of light are reflected from its outer surface
and also from inner surface between it and glass. When light is reflected from outer
𝜆
and inner surface, the reflected rays undergo by path difference of or phase change
2
π.
𝜆
f. If the thickness of the film is , the two interfering rays, reflected from upper and
4
𝜆
lower surfaces differ in the path by and complete destructive interference occurs.
2
Total path difference between two reflected rays will be,
Δ λ = Δ λreflection + Δ λcoating
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
= + + +
2 2 4 4
𝜆
=3
2
Path difference is odd multiple of half wavelength i.e condition for minima. Hence,
no light in reflected system.

iii. Anti-reflection coating thickness (Derivation): -

 To produce destructive interference let us derive the equation of minimum thickness of
the film.
The path difference between ray 1 and ray 2 is,
𝜆 𝜆
p. d. = 2t Cos r + + (Addition or subtraction of full wave does not
2 2
affect the phase change)
p. d. = 2t Cos r --------------(1)

⸪ Ray1 and ray2, reflected from top and bottom of AR coating are reflected under the
same condition i.e. when the light is travelling from rarer-to-denser media, path difference of
𝜆
will be produced by both the rays according to stoke’s law.
2
To produce destructive interference between ray 1 and ray 2
𝜆
p. d. = (2n+1) n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …. --------------(2)
2
⸫ From equation (1) and (2) the path difference
𝜆
2t Cos r = (2n+1)
2
Leth, light incident normally on AR coating, ⸫ Cos r = 1 (for r = 90°)
And to have minimum thickness, put n = 0
𝜆
⸫ 2 t =
2

𝜆
t=
4𝜇
 Diffraction
1. Diffraction: - The bending of light round the corners (edges) of an obstacle of light within
the geometrical shadow is called as diffraction.
2. Dependence of the phenomenon on wavelength: -
a. When the opening is large compared to the wavelength, the waves do not bend round
the edges.
b. When opening is small, the bending effect round the edges is noticeable.
c. When the opening is very small (of the order of one wavelength.), the waves spread over
the entire surface behind the opening.
d. The diffraction of light waves become noticeable only when the size of the obstacle is
comparable to a wavelength of light.

3. Appearance of maxima and minima due to interference of secondary wavelets: -

a. Diffraction is based on Huygen’s theory. The portion of the wave front that is incident
on the opaque portion of the screen is obstructed while a small portion of the wave
front is allowed to pass through the aperture.
b. Every point on this portion of the wavefront act as a centre of spherical secondary
wavelets.
c. Constructing the envelop of these secondary wavelets, the wave spread into the region
of geometric shadow bending around the edge of the aperture.
4. Types of diffraction: -
Fraunhofer Diffraction
1. Source and scree are at infinite
distance from the slit.
2. Incident wavefront on the aperture is
plane
3. The diffracted wavefront is plane.
4. Two biconvex lenses are required to
study diffraction in laboratory.
5. Mathematical treatment is easy in this
diffraction.
6. This diffraction pattern is not sensitive
to distance.
7. No path difference between the rays
before entering the slit.
8. The maxima and minima are well
defined.
Fresnel Diffraction
1. Source and screen are at finite distance
from slit.
2. Incident wavefront on the aperture is
either spherical or cylindrical.
3. The diffracted wavefront is either
cylindrical or spherical.
4. No biconvex lenses are required.
5. Mathematical treatment is complicated
in this diffraction.
6. This diffraction pattern is sensitive to
distance, with more distance converted to
Fraunhofer.
7. Depending on distance between source
and obstacle, path difference created.
8. Maxima and minima are not well
defined.

5. Diffraction due to single slit: -

Width of single slit = a

Single slit of width ‘a’ illuminated by a plane wavefront XY of monochromatic light of
wavelength λ.
1. The diffracted light is focused on screen by using biconvex lens. The secondary
wavelets travelling normally to slit are brought to focus at P0. These wavelets all have
the same optical path, therefore a central bright spot of light is produced at P0.
 2. To study the diffraction pattern produced at P1 lying on the screen.
Divide the given slit into N no. of parallel slits each of width dx,
a = dx1 + dx2 + - - - - - - - - + dxN = ∑𝛼𝑛=1 𝑑𝑥𝑛
path difference between the rays diffracted from the top and bottom edge of slit of
width dx, as shown.
⸫ Using ABC, BC = AB Sin θ
BC = path difference, AB = Width of slit = dx
Path difference = dxn Sin θ
And ∑𝛼 𝑛=1 𝑑𝑥𝑛 = a
⸫ Path difference (BC) = a Sin θ
⸫ From above equation, path difference between the rays diffracted from the
top and bottom of edges of the slit width ‘a’ is,
Total p. d. = a Sin θ
a) Condition for central or principal maxima: -
⸪ p. d. = a Sin θ
The secondary wavelets entering from slit AB, travelling parallel to OP come to
focus at P. The waves from points equidistance from ‘O’ and situated in the upper and lower
halves OA and OB start in phase. The optical path difference is therefore zero and the waves
will be in phase at P1 and produce an intensity maximum at P0.
⸫ a Sin θ = 0
⸫ Either a = 0 or Sin θ = 0
But ‘a’ slit width cannot be zero,
⸫ θ = 0°
⸫ Principle or central maxima is produced at P0, which is having angle of diffraction θ = 0°

b) Condition for minima intensity point: -

Dividing AB into two half, AO and OB
Let incident light having wavelength λ = a
𝑎 𝑎
⸫ AO = , & OB =
2 2
Path difference along AON,
𝑎
⸫ p.d = Sin θ --------------(1)
2
For destructive interference, path difference requires
𝑛𝜆
⸫ p.d = ± ------------------(2)
2
⸫ From equation (1) and (2)
𝑎 𝑛𝜆
Sin θ =
2 2
Or
a Sin θ = nλ
where n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ……
n = 0 is not possible because for the 0, we get principal maxima intensity point.

6. Plane diffraction grating (N-Number of slits): -

a. An arrangement consisting of a large number of parallel slits of equal width and
separated by equal opaque space is called as grating.
b. It is a glass plate with thousands of lines grooved on it ≈ 15000 lines per inch.
c. The lines are grooved with the help of a diamond point.
d. The marked lines act as an opaque (non-transparent) space. The incident light cannot
pass through it. The width of the space is ‘a’.
e. The space between any two lines acts as a slit. This slit is transparent to light. If width
of slit is ‘b’.
f. Thus, the spacing (a + b) between adjacent slits is known as grating element (d)

1
If N is number of lines per unit length, N =
(𝑎+𝑏)
1
Or the grating element of the grating is, (a + b) = cm.
𝑁
a) Condition for Principal maxima and minima: -
The path difference between the diffracted rays due to grating is given by
Path difference = (a + b) Sin θ
a. Condition for principal maxima: -
(a + b) Sin θ = ± m λ
Where (a + b) → grating element, θ → Angle of diffraction, m → order of
diffraction,
m = 0, we get 0th order principal maxima
m = 1, Ist order spectrum
m = 2, IInd order spectrum.

b. Condition for minima intensity point: -

𝑚
(a + b) Sin θ = ± λ
𝑁
Where m should have value other than 0, N, 2N …… because for these values we get
principal maxima intensity point.
So, m = 1, 2 ………(N-1)
 c. Maximum order of spectrum: -
(a + b) Sin θ = m λ
For m = mmax, Angle of diffraction “θ” should be equal to 90º
⸫ Sin 90º = 1
⸫ (a + b) = mmax λ

(𝑎+𝑏)
mmax =
𝜆

7. Rayleigh’s criteria for resolution: -

a. Resolving Power: - The ability of an optical instrument to just resolve images of two
closely spaced objects is called as resolving power.
𝜆
Resolving power = R.P = =mN
𝑑𝜆
N → Number of lines
m → order of spectrum.

b. Rayleigh Criteria: -
According to Rayleigh’s criteria, two closely spaced point sources or wavelength are
said to be:
i. Just Resolved: - If the principal maxima in the diffraction pattern of one wavelength
coincides with first minima in the diffraction pattern of another wavelength.
ii. Unresolved: - If two-point sources have very small angular separation, then central
maxima in one diffraction pattern will overlap with other. Due to this, two objects /
sources cannot be distinguished i.e., the objects are unresolved.

iii. Completely Resolved: - If sources have very large angular separation, then central
maxima are widely separated. The resultant intensity shows two widely separated
peaks, which are called as well resolved / completely resolved images.
 LASER
1. Laser: - It is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on
the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.
a. “Laser” it the short form of “Light amplification of stimulated emission of
radiation.”
Comparison between Laser light and non-Laser light source: -
Laser light source Non-laser light source
1. It is due to the result of stimulated 1. It is due to the result of spontaneous
emission. emission.
2. It is unidirectional in nature. Angular 2. It is divergent in nature. The light spread
spread is very small. in different direction.
3. Laser light is coherent in nature. 3. Light is non-coherent in nature.
4. Laser light is highly intense. 4. Intensity is comparatively less.
5. Laser light is highly monochromatic. The 5. The emitted photon may or may not be
emitted radiation has single wavelength monochromatic.
photon.

2. Properties or characteristics of Laser: -

a. Coherence: - Two waves are said to be coherent if the phase difference between them
remains constant. The wavelength of the laser light is in phase in space and time.
Therefore, light generated by laser is highly coherent.
b. Directionality: - In laser, all emitted photons travel in same direction. Therefore, laser
emits light only in one direction which is called directionality of laser light (or
unidirectionality).
c. Highly monochromatic: - If light coming from a source has only one frequency
(single wavelength) of oscillation, the light is said to be monochromatic and the source,
a monochromatic source. In laser, all the emitted photons have same energy, frequency
or wavelength. Hence laser light covers a very narrow range of frequencies or
wavelength and monochromatic in nature.
d. High intensity: - Laser emits light in the form of narrow beam with its energy
concentrated in a small region of space. Therefore, the beam intensity would be
tremendously large and stays constant with distant.
3. Mechanism of Laser: -
a. Spontaneous Emission: -
i. Emission of a photon by an atom without any external impetus is called spontaneous
emission.
ii. Let us consider an atomic system having two energy levels E1 & E2. If the atom is
in the excited state E2 & there is no radiation nearby, then after the lifetime of energy
level E2 the atom falls on its own accord spontaneously from E2 to E1 & during the
(𝐸2 − 𝐸1 )
transition radiation gets emitted has the frequency 𝜈 = ℎ
. This process is
 called as spontaneous emission. The emitted radiation is random in character &
produces incoherent beam of light.

b. Stimulated Emission: -
i. The phenomena of forced photon emission by an excited atom due to the action of
an external agency is called stimulated emission.
ii. The atom is in the excited state E2. Now if a photon is made incident on it with a
(𝐸2 − 𝐸1 )
frequency 𝜈 = before the lifetime of energy level E2 then it can force the
ℎ
atom in E2 level to fall to the lower level E1 & emit a photon of same frequency along
with the incident photon. Both the photons travel in the same direction & are in phase
i.e., coherent beam of light gets produced during the stimulated emission.

c. Stimulated Absorption: -
i. The process of raising the atom to its excited state by a photon is known as stimulated
absorption.
ii. At 0º K, always lower energy levels are populated more than higher energy levels.
Hence E1 is more populated than E2. Now if a photon is made incident on an atomic
system, then atom in E1 level absorbs the incident photon & goes to a higher energy
level E2. This process is called stimulated absorption.

Comparison between Spontaneous emission and stimulated emission: -

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
1. Spontaneous emission is a random
1. Not a random process.
and probabilistic process.
2. Photons are emitted uniformly in all
2. The photons emitted in the process
directions from an assembly of atoms.
travel in the same direction as that of
As a result, the light is non-directional.

3. Photons of slightly different
frequencies are generated. As a result,
the light is not monochromatic.
4. Photons do not have any correlation
in their phases, which fluctuate
randomly. Therefore, the light produced
by this process is incoherent.
5. In this process multiplication of
photons does not take place. Hence
there is no amplification of light due to
the process.
6. The planes of polarization of the
photons are oriented randomly. Hence,
light from the source is unpolarized.
stimulating photon. The light produced
by the process is essentially
directional.
3. The spread of photon frequencies is
relatively very narrow. As such the light
is nearly monochromatic.
4. The photons emitted by this process
are all in phase and therefore, the light is
coherent.
5. One stimulating photon causes
emission of two more photons. These
two produce four photons, which in turn
generate eight photons and so on. Thus,
if there are N excited atoms, 2N photons
will be produced. Light amplification
occurs due to such multiplication of
photons.
6. The planes of polarization are
identical for all photons. Consequently,
light is polarized.

d. Metastable state: -
i. Meta-stable states are atomic energy states having the lifetime greater than the
normal i.e., greater than 10-8 sec. Lifetime of meta-stable state is in milliseconds
(approximately 10-3 sec). These energy states are neither as stable as ground state
nor as unstable as the other excited state, they are known as metastable states.
ii. To produce the laser beam, stimulated emission process must be dominant one &
for it is necessary to achieve steady state population inversion condition so that
large number of atoms must be present in higher energy state for a longer time than
the lower one. Hence to create this condition one of the higher energy states must
be a meta-stable state.
e. Pumping: -
i. The process of raising the atoms from a lower energy state to higher, to create
population inversion, is called pumping
ii. Tyes of pumping: -
1. Optical pumping: - Light energy from gas discharge is used to raise atoms to
higher energy states is called optical pumping.
2. Electrical pumping: - It is suitable for gases; the gas is ionized by applying a
suitable potential difference across it. The atoms in the ionized gas collides
with free electrons causing transfer of energy.
3. Chemical Pumping: - Use of exothermic chemical reaction to pump the atoms
to higher energy levels.
f. Populations inversion: -
i. The state, in which there is a larger number of atoms in the higher energy state than
the lower energy state is called population inversion. i.e., E2 > E1 and N2 > N1
ii. Let N1 – Number of atoms in lower energy state & N2 – Number of atoms in higher
state. At thermal equilibrium always at 0º K or at thermal equilibrium the number
of non-excited particles or atoms in the lower energy level are very large compared
to atoms in the excited state N1 > N2. But to have more & more stimulated emission
it is required to make N2 > N1 by some artificial method.

iii. To produce laser beam from some active material more & more stimulated emission
process are required to take place so as to get the incoming light amplified
coherently. In order to produce more & more stimulated emission process large
number of atoms must be in excited state & hence it is very much essential to
produce population inversion condition.
iv. The process by which it is made is called as pumping. In optical pumping external
light is made incident on the material to produce high population in some particular
excited energy level by stimulated absorption process. To achieve this one of the
excited energy levels must be the metastable state. It is suitable for any medium,
which is transparent to light. Optical pumping is done in Ruby Laser.
g. Resonant cavity: -
i. A pair of optically parallel mirrors, enclosing laser medium in between them is
known as resonant cavity.
ii. One of these mirrors is partially reflecting and the other is made fully reflecting.
iii. Use for
1. For enhancing the light amplification.
2. To get laser beam in one direction.
iv. Role of the Resonant Cavity: -
• The primary function of the optical resonator is to provide positive feedback
of photons into the medium so that stimulated emission is sustained and the
laser acts as a generator of light.
• Spontaneous photons from excited atoms start laser oscillation. These photons
trigger stimulated transitions, creating more photons. The optical resonator
directs light along its axis, making the laser beam directional.
 • In order to make the stimulated emission dominate spontaneous emission, a
high radiation density r(n) is required to be present in the active medium. The
optical cavity builds up the photon density to a very high value through
repeated reflections of photons and confines them within the medium.
• Optical cavity selects and amplifies only certain frequencies causing the laser
output to be highly monochromatic.
4. Various levels system of Laser: - There are three types of laser level system in which
population inversion take place, those are: -
a. Two level system: -
i. This scheme contains only two energy level i.e., ground state and excited state.
ii. The atoms absorbe the photon energy and jump to excited state from ground state.
In this case it is difficult to achieve stimulated emission.
iii. Only spontaneous emission takes place in two level system.
iv. Example of two-level laser system is semiconductor laser.
b. Three level system: -
i. In three level lasers, the three level in an atom such that E3 > E2 > E1, incident
radiation of frequency v is used to raise atoms from the level 1 (Ground state) to
level 3 (excited state)
ii. Atoms at level 3 decays rapidly to level 2 (metastable state) through a non-radiative
transition, hence population inversion is obtained between level 2 and level 1.
iii. A chance spontaneous emission will result in stimulated emission and laser action
is achieved between level 2 and level 1.
iv. Examples of three level laser system is Ruby laser.

c. Four level system: -

i. It is difficult to produce a continuous beam of laser in 3 level system as at a time
either pumping or laser action exists.
ii. But in four-level laser system. Population inversion is achieved between two
excited levels, all the atoms in the ground state (level 1) and none in the excited
state 2, 3 and 4.
iii. Atoms are pumped from level 1 to level 4 (excited state) from there they fast decay
to level 3 (metastable state) through a non-radiative transition and population
inversion is achieved between level 3 and level 2.
iv. A chance spontaneous emission will result in stimulated emission and laser action
is achieved between level 3 and level 2.
 v. Level 2 is chosen so that it has a fast decay to the ground state. He-Ne gas laser, N2-
Co2 gas laser, and Nd-Yag laser are examples of four level system.

5. Applications of Laser: -
i. Industrial Applications of Laser: -
1. Welding: - The laser beam heats the edges of the two plates to their melting points
and causes them to fuse together where they are in contact. CO2 lasers are used in
welding thin sheets and foils.
2. Drilling: - The principle underlying drilling is the vaporization of the material at the
focus of the beam. Pulsed ruby and neodymium lasers are commonly used for drilling
holes.
3. Cutting: - Cutting of metal sheet is achieved using high power laser NdYAG or CO2
laser.
4. Hardening: - Heat treatment is the process, which is done for some time to harden
metals and certain other materials. CO2 lasers of about 1 kW output power operating
in cw mode are used for heat treatment.
5. Electronic Industries: - Lasers have been used to perforate and divide silicon slices
having several hundred circuits.
ii. Scientific applications of Laser: -
1. Interferometer techniques
2. Raman spectroscopy
3. Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy
4. Atmospheric remote sensing
5. Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena
6. Holography
7. Laser based LIDAR (Light RADAR)
8. Astronomy and satellite communication.
 Optical Fibre
1. Optica Fibre: - An optical fibre is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent dielectric,
(glass or clear plastic), which guides light wave along its length by total internal reflection.
• Refractive index of core is greater than the refractive index of cladding.
• Diameter of the order of 10 – 4 cm.
• Work on the basis of total internal reflection.
2. Construction of Optical fibre: -
1. It is a very thin and flexible medium of cylindrical shape. It is made up of glass or plastic
[core of polystyrene and cladding of poly-methyl methacrylate PMMA]. It consists of
three parts.
1) Core, 2) Cladding, 3) Jacket
2. Outer diameter of fibre is from 0.1 mm to 0.15 mm. Motion of light in zig-zag path and
maximum light receive to another end. Intensity if light almost remain same while
transmitting.
3. Core: - Inner most layer with diameter of 5 μm to 600 μm. Light is transmitted through
core. It is made up of glass or plastic.
4. Cladding: - Core is surrounded by cladding with diameter 125 μm to 750 μm. Refractive
index of cladding is kept less than refractive index of core. It is also made up of glass or
plastic but having optical property differ from core.
Functions of cladding: -
a. Reduces loss of light from core into surrounding.
b. Reduce scattering loss at the surface of core.
c. Add mechanical strength to core.
5. Jacket / Coating / Buffer: - Jacket protect fibre from external climate conditions like rain,
moisture & dust. It gives strength of fibre and able.

3. Working of Optical fibre or Principle of light propagation through Optical fibre:

a. Total Internal Reflection: - The phenomenon in which light is confined only on the
denser medium while travelling from denser medium to rarer, when the angle of incidence
is greater than the critical angle is known as total internal reflection.
 b. In the fibre light propagates by using the principle of total internal reflection of light.
When light goes from denser medium to the rarer medium, if the angle made by the light
𝜇𝑜
at the interface is greater than critical angle (Critical angle θc = Sin-1 ( ) )
𝜇1
Then all the light is reflected in the same medium, which is called total internal reflection
of light.
c. Fibre optic is made up of highly pure glass, in which cire having refractive index higher
than the cladding. Cladding help to keep the light travelling through the core using
principle of total internal reflection of light and give strength to cable.

d. Let the ray of light be incident on the aperture of fibre make angle i with the axis of core
and θ is the angle of refraction. Let μ2 > μ1.
μ2 → Refractive index of core and μ1 → Refractive index of cladding.
e. Now if the light incident on the core cladding upper surface by making angle greater than
the critical angle then it will get totally internally reflected from upper surface and strike
lower,
f. At lower surface again angle of incident is greater than critical angle and it will get totally
internally reflected to upper surface and it will continue till the light reaches to another
end.

4. Fibre Optics Communication system: -

 1. Optical link with fibre media consists of a transmitter, optical fibre & the receiver. In a
transmitter, the transducer converts non – electrical signal into electrical signal.
2. Electrical signal is amplified, modulated and then fed to laser diode to convert electrical
signal into light signal.
3. Thus, transmitter transmits a light signal. Light signal is transmitted through optic fibre.
4. In receiver, light signal is detected by photo detector and converts into corresponding
electrical signal. Electrical signal is then amplified and demodulated.
5. Demodulated signal in telecommunication system is fed to a speaker, to convert it into
sound signal.
6. In data transfer system, which transfer digital data from one computer to another,
transducer is not used in transmitter.
7. Input signal to transmitter and output signal from receiver, both are electrical signal.

a. Advantages of Fibre optic communication:

i. The transmission of signal is due to internal reflection of light through the
core which is covered by cladding & hence low loss in signal during
transmission.
ii. Due to low loss, can transmit the signal over long distances.
iii. The fibres are light weight & occupy less space.
iv. Large information carrying capacity i.e., large signal width.
Since the frequency of light used as a carrier is of the order of 1015 Hz;
extremely large as compared to conventional radio waves (106 Hz) &
microwaves (1010 Hz), a light beam acting as a carrier wave is capable of
carrying far more information in comparison to radio waves &
microwaves.
v. It provides secure communication.
vi. Immune to radio wave frequency interference, electromagnetic
interference & noise.
vii. Reduced power requirement.
viii. Few joining points in linking compare to copper cable.